JOMO KENYATTA UNIVERSITY

OF
AGRICULTURE & TECHNOLOGY

SCHOOL OF OPEN, DISTANCE &

eLEARNING
IN COLLABORATION WITH

DEPARTMENT OF ENTREPRENEURSHIP
AND PROCUREMENT

HEPL 3102 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

LAST REVISION ON June 3, 2015

L. M. KAINDI
([email protected])

P.O. Box 62000, 00200

Nairobi, Kenya
HEPL 3102: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Course description
History and development of research; Types of research; Types & models of eval-
uation; Conceptualizing or Identifying and exploring research problems pertaining
to management of projects. Research problem identification, hypotheses devel-
opment, theoretical and conceptual frameworks and models or research, Research
processes in Project Management: research design, types of research, populations,
target populations sampling techniques and samples, measurement, sampling de-
sign, primary and secondary data; Survey instrument design. Sampling: sampling
techniques, ethical consideration and legislative issues; Data collection procedures;
Development of instruments; Data analysis; descriptive statistics; correlation and
regression analyses; Statistical inferences, deductions or interpretations; Parame-
ter estimation using selected statistical tools; Research communication: research
report preparation in Project Management; Research in Project Management major
issues and trends; Reporting findings: types of reports, general rules and guidelines.
Referencing: various publication models; Referencing.

Prerequisite: Research Methods

Course aims
This module has been developed for the Masters students in Project management.
One of the requirements of earning a Masters degree in any field of study is to under-
take research. This may be in the form of writing a thesis or a research project. This
module is particularly useful in that it simplifies the research process and explains
the various concepts and technical terms in a language that is easily understood
and appreciated by the self-directed student, practitioner or consumer of research
results.

The organization of materials follows the format for the research development pro-
cess from problem formulation to research design, data collection, analytical tech-
niques and report writing.
It is hoped that the information contained in this module will help you to understand
and appreciate the research process and provide you with the basic competencies

ii
that you need to undertake quality and relevant research as well as to be able to
interpret and apply available research results in your professional practice.

Learning outcomes
Upon completion of this course you should be able to;

1. Conduct research in project related aspects in order to solve management

issues

2. Describe the process of conducting project research

3. Apply theoretical models to project research.

Instruction methodology
Lectures and tutorials, Case studies, Review of projects, theses and Journal articles

Course Text Books

1. Saunders, M. and Lewis, P. (2003). Research methods for business students,
3rd Edition, Harlow, England: Prentice Hall

2. Kothari, C. R. (2008). Research Methodology. New Age International (P)

Ltd. Publishers 2nd Ed.

Reference Textbooks
1. Mugenda, O. & Mugenda, A. (2003). Research Methods. Nairobi: African
Centre for Technology Studies (ACTS Press).

2. Cooper, Donald R. and Pamela S. Schindler (2003). Business Research Meth-

ods. (Boston, McGraw-Hill Irwin, 2003) 8th edition

3. Sekaran, U. (2003). Research methods for business: a skill-building ap-

proach, New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc

Course Journals
1. Journal of Research and Development

2. International Journal of Social Research Methodology ABI/INFORM

iii
Reference Journals
1. Journal of Business Research

2. International journal of market Research

3. IEEE Electronic Library

The module will be assessed as follows;

• 20% of marks from two (2) assignments

• 20% of marks from one written CAT to be administered at JKUAT main cam-
pus or one of the approved centres

• 60% of marks from written Examination to be administered at JKUAT main

campus or one of the approved centres

iv
Contents

v
HEPL 3102 Research Methodology

LESSON 1
Introduction to research

Learning outcomes
Upon completing this lesson, you should be able to:

• Describe the basic terminologies used in research methodological approaches.

• Differentiate between the various forms of approaches and research activities.

• Locate relevant articles on a given research topic.

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HEPL 3102 Research Methodology

1.1. Introduction
Research is the systematic and rigorous process of inquiry into a problem for pur-
poses of discovering relevant information and principles. It may be seen as a se-
quential process involving several clearly defined steps. Research begins with a
dilemma which leads to the definition and refining of the research questions. The
tools for undertaking the research activity are called research methods and depend-
ing on the nature of the problems, these methods have varying designs. The process
of conducting research in reality is multi-dimensional in that many stages are in-
volved from identifying the problem up to the writing of the report.

During the last two decades, there has been a dramatic change in the business envi-
ronment. Emerging from a historically economic role, the business organisation has
evolved in response to the social and political mandates of national public policy,
explosive technology growth and continuing innovations in global communications.
These changes have created new knowledge needs for the manager and new publics
to consider when evaluating any decision. Other knowledge demands have arisen
from problems with mergers, trade policies, protected markets, technology transfers
and macro-economic savings –investment issues.
The trend towards complexity has increased the risk associated with business deci-
sions, making it more important to have a sound information base. To do well in
such an environment, one will need to understand how to identify quality informa-
tion and recognize the solid, reliable research on which one’s high-risk decisions
as a manager be based. One also needs to know how to conduct research. Devel-
oping these skills requires understanding the scientific method as it applies to the
managerial decision-making environment.

Three factors stimulate an interest in a scientific approach to decision making:

• The managers increased need for more and better information

• The availability of improved techniques and tools to meet this need

• The resulting information overload if discipline is not employed in the pro-

cess.

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HEPL 3102 Research Methodology

1.2. Definition of Research

Different authors have defined research as follows:

• Research is carrying out a diligent inquiry or a critical examination of a given

phenomenon.

• Research involves a critical analysis of existing conclusions or theories with

regard to newly discovered facts i.e. it’s a continued search for new knowl-
edge and understanding of the world around us.

• Research is a process of arriving at effective solutions to problems through

systematic collection, analysis and interpretation of data.

1.3. The Scientific Approach to Research

The Scientific Method is a way (a method) of acquiring knowledge in both the
physical and social sciences. Science may be regarded as a:

• Body of knowledge which contains laws and facts that are already known,
and

• Method of inquiry, which claims that science, is a set of principles that tells
us how to obtain these facts. This is called the methodological approach, or
the Scientific Method

The scientific method encourages a rigorous, impersonal mode of procedure dic-

tated by the demands of logic and objective procedure. It is based on the following
basic postulates:

• It relies on empirical evidence

• It utilizes relevant concepts

• It is committed to only objective considerations

• It presupposes ethical neutrality i.e. it aims at nothing but making only ade-
quate and correct statements about population objects

• It results into probabilistic predictions

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HEPL 3102 Research Methodology

• Its methodology is made known to all concerned for critical scrutiny and for
use in testing the conclusions through replication.

• It aims at formulating most general axioms or what can be termed as scientific

theories.

1.4. The Importance of Research and Decision-Making

The importance of research may vary according to kind, especially whether basic or
applied. Basic research is designed to advance knowledge with no application to ex-
isting problems in view. The audience for basic research consists almost exclusively
of other scholars or researchers interested in learning more about a phenomenon.
Applied research is designed to help solve particular, existing problems so there
is a much larger audience eager to support research that is likely to be profitable
or solve problems of immediate concern. Quite a bit of applied research is survey
research or marketing research. This is the art and science of systematically asking
questions and observing behavior to obtain information from a population of inter-
est. Although we may envy natural scientists the simplicity of their study of objects
or properties, behavioral scientists can observe and ask questions. Survey research
hopes to gather evidence which will eventually allow behavior to be predicted and
controlled.

Project Managers make decisions every day. Ideally, such decisions would be made
on the basis of evidence thoughtfully and appropriately gathered. The more impor-
tant the decisions and their impact, the more important the research becomes. Some
decisions may have consequences resulting in considerable harm to a large number
of people. Some managers make their decisions using the following ways:
• Intuition [sometimes called gut decision-making]

• Randomly

• Mystical or supernatural guidance

• Hearsay

• Authority [do as we are told or appeal to authority]

• Evidence gathered by another

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HEPL 3102 Research Methodology

• Evidence gathered by self or colleagues

In most cases, managers want the evidence NOW and that creates a variety of prob-
lems. Decision-makers must always face the issue of deciding now or waiting until
more or better information is available. This is called the problem of sufficiency.
There may never be enough evidence to support a difficult decision.

The manager lives in three time dimensions:

• The past – accurate sense of what was accomplished and what was not

• The present – accurate sense of what is being accomplished

• The future – what should be accomplished

Research may be used to provide evidence on the first two, which supports decisions
that will have an impact in the future.

1.5. Why Do We Do Research?

1. The Job Requires It
In most positions, some sort of research is required to support normal decision-
making. We examine circulation records to determine if fund allocations
should be changed. We examine head counts to see when the library might
reduce hours. We examine attendance at the summer reading program to
see if it is cost-effective. Academic librarians may be required to conduct
research and publish as a condition of employment [publication is certainly
much more important than the research].
Often, research is limited by what data is relatively easily available. We need
to take advantage of data already available while encouraging managers to see
the value in collecting the right information. We need to gather evidence that
answers important questions about effectiveness and efficiency rather than
just what is easily counted or has always been counted.

2. We Want To Do It
Curiosity is a crucial part of the human condition. Many professionals, in-
cluding information ones, want to know more about something that interests

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HEPL 3102 Research Methodology

them. There is an excitement in the discovery of new information and know-

ing more about some topic than anyone else. There is joy in sharing newly
gathered and previously unavailable information. Finally, publishing or shar-
ing information via publication or public meetings provides visibility and
recognition.

3. In An Ideal World
In an ideal world, research methods would be an integral part of thoughtful
management of any information agency. Better reporting would result in bet-
ter data, which would result in better decisions and a much more effective,
visibly so, services to the community.

1.6. Purpose of Research

• To discover new knowledge

• To describe a phenomenon

• To enable prediction.

• To enable control i.e. the ability to regulate the phenomenon under study.

• To enable explanation of a phenomenon i.e. accurate observation and mea-

surement of a given phenomenon.

• To enable theory development and validation of existing theories. Theory

development involves formulating concepts, laws and generalizations about
a given phenomenon.

• Research provides one with the knowledge and skills needed for the fast-
paced decision-making environment.

1.7. Types of Research

Different authors have classified research into various categories.

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HEPL 3102 Research Methodology

1.7.1. Qualitative research

It includes designs, techniques and measures that do not produce discrete numer-
ical data. Qualitative data can be collected through direct observation, participant
observation or interview method.

1.7.2. Quantitative research

It includes designs, techniques and measures that produce discreet numerical or
quantifiable data.

• Advantages of using both qualitative and quantitative methods

• Since in many cases a researcher has several objectives, some of these objec-
tives are better assessed using quantitative methods.

• Both methods supplement each other i.e. qualitative methods provide the in-
depth explanations while quantitative methods provide the data needed to test
hypotheses.

• Since both methods have a bias, using both types of research helps to avoid
such bias in that each method can be used to check the other.

• Disadvantages of using both qualitative and quantitative methods

• It is expensive

• Researchers may not have sufficient training in both methods to be able to

use them effectively.

1.7.3. Classification by purpose

1. Basic / Pure / Fundamental Research
Basic researchers are interested in deriving scientific knowledge i.e. they
are motivated by intellectual curiosity and need to come up with a particular
solution. It focuses on generating new knowledge in order to refine or expand
existing theories. It does not consider the practical application of the findings
to actual problems or situations.

2. Applied research

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HEPL 3102 Research Methodology

It is conducted for the purpose of applying or testing theory and evaluating

its usefulness in solving problems. It provides data to support a theory, guide
theory revision or suggest the development of a new theory.

3. Action research
It is conducted with the primary intention of solving a specific, immediate
and concrete problem in a local setting e.g. investigating ways of overcoming
water shortage in a given area. It is not concerned with whether the results
can be generalized to any other setting.

4. Evaluation Research
It is the process of determining whether the intended results were realized.
Types of evaluation research

(a) Needs assessment

A need is a discrepancy between an existing set of conditions and a
desired set of conditions. The results of needs assessment study provide
the foundation for developing new programmes and for making changes
in existing ones.
(b) Formative evaluation
Helps to collect data about a programme while it is still being developed
e.g. an educational programme, a marketing strategy etc.
(c) Summative evaluation
It is done after the programme has been fully developed. It is conducted
to evaluate how worthwhile the final programme has been especially
compared to similar programmes.

Classification by methods of analysis

1. Descriptive research
It is the process of collecting data in order to test hypotheses or to answer
questions concerning the current status of the subjects in the study. It deter-
mines and reports the way things are. It attempts to describe such things as
possible behaviour, attitudes, values and characteristics.

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HEPL 3102 Research Methodology

2. Causal-comparative research
It is used to explore relationships between variables. It determines reasons or
causes for the current status of the phenomenon under study. The variables
of interest cannot be manipulated unlike in experimental research.

Advantages of causal-comparative study

• Allows a comparison of groups without having to manipulate the independent
variables

• It can be done solely to identify variables worthy of experimental investiga-

tion

• They are relatively cheap.

Disadvantages of causal-comparative study

• Interpretations are limited because the researcher does not know whether a
particular variable is a cause or result of a behaviour being studied.

• There may be a third variable which could be affecting the established rela-
tionship but which may not be established in the study.

1.7.4. Correlation research

It describes in quantitative terms the degree to which variables are related. It ex-
plores relationships between variables and also tries to predict a subject’s score on
one variable given his or her score on another variable.

• Advantages of the correlational method

• Permits one to analyze inter-relationships among a large number of variables
in a single study.

• Allows one to analyze how several variables either singly or in combination

might affect a particular phenomenon being studied.

• The method provides information concerning the degree of relationship be-

tween variables being studied.

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HEPL 3102 Research Methodology

• Disadvantages of the correlational method

• Correlation between two variables does not necessarily imply causation al-
though researchers often tend to interpret such a relationship to mean causa-
tion.

• Since the correlation coefficient is an index, any two variables will always
show a relationship even when commonsense dictates that such variables are
not related.

• The correlation coefficient is very sensitive to the size of the sample.

1.8. Classification by type of research

1.8.1. Survey Research
A survey is an attempt to collect data from members of a population in order to
determine the current status of that population with respect to one or more vari-
ables. Survey study is therefore a self-report study, which requires the collection of
quantifiable information from the sample. It is a descriptive research.

1.8.2. Purpose of survey research

1. It seeks to obtain information that describes existing phenomena by asking
individuals about their perceptions, attitudes, behaviour or values.

2. Can be used for explaining or exploring the existing status of two or more
variables, at a given point in time.

3. It is the most appropriate to measure characteristics of large populations.

1.8.3. Limitations of Survey research

1. They are dependent on the cooperation of respondents.

2. Information unknown to the respondents cannot be tapped in a survey e.g.

amount saved per year

3. Requesting information which is considered secret and personal, encourages

incorrect answers.

4. Surveys cannot be aimed at obtaining forecasts of things to come

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HEPL 3102 Research Methodology

1.8.4. Historical research

Involves the study of a problem that requires collecting information from the past.

1.8.5. Purpose of Historical Research

1. Aims at arriving at conclusions concerning causes, effects or trends of past
occurrences that may help explain present events and anticipate future events.

2. Attempts to interpret ideas or events that had previously seemed unrelated.

3. Synthesizes old data or merges old data with new historical facts that the
researcher or other researchers have discovered.

4. To reinterpret past events that have been studied.

1.9. Observational Research

The current status of a phenomenon is determined not by asking but by observing.
This helps to collect objective information.

1.9.1. Types of observational research

1. Non-participant observation

The observer is not directly involved in the situation to be observed.

2. Naturalistic Observation

Behaviour is studied and recorded as it normally occurs.

3. Simulation observation.

The researcher creates the situation to be observed and tells subjects to be observed
what activities they are to engage in. Disadvantage – the setting is not natural and
the behaviour exhibited by the subjects may not be the behaviour that would occur
in a natural setting.

4. Participant observation

The observer becomes part of or a participant in the situation. May not be ethical

5. Case studies

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HEPL 3102 Research Methodology

A case study is an in-depth investigation of an individual, group, institution or phe-

nomenon. It aims to determine factors and relationships among the factors that have
resulted in the behaviour under study.

6. Content analysis

It involves observation and detailed description of objects, items or things that com-
prise the sample. The purpose is to study existing documents such as books, maga-
zines in order to determine factors that explain a specific phenomenon.

Advantages
Researchers are able to economize in terms of time and money.

• Errors that arise during the study are easier to detect and correct.

• The method has no effect on what is being studied.

Disadvantages
• It is limited to recorded communication.

• It is difficult to ascertain the validity of the data.

1.10. Value of Acquiring Research Skills

Managers in today’s organisations require research skill in order to:-

• To gather more information before selecting a course of action

• To do a high-level research study

• To understand research design

• To evaluate and resolve a current management dilemma

• To establish a career as a research specialist

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HEPL 3102 Research Methodology

1.11. Basic Terms used in Research

1. Population: it refers to an entire group of individuals, events or objects having
a common observable characteristic.

2. Sample: It is a smaller group obtained from the accessible population i.e. it

is a sub-set of the population.

3. Sampling: It is the process of selecting a number of individuals for a study in

such a way that the individuals selected represent the population.

4. Variable: It is a measurable characteristic that assumes different values among

the subjects. They can be dependent, independent, intervening, confounding
or antecedent variables.

5. Data: refers to all information a researcher gathers for his or her study. Can
be secondary data or primary data.

6. Parameter: It is a characteristic that is measurable and can assume different

values in the population.

7. Statistics: it is the science of organizing, describing and analyzing data. De-

scriptive and inferential statistics.

8. Objective: it refers to the specific aspects of the phenomenon under study that
the researcher desires to bring out at the end of the research study.

9. Literature review: It involves locating, reading and evaluating reports of pre-

vious studies, observations and opinions related to the planned study.

10. Hypothesis: It is a researcher’s anticipated explanation or opinion regarding

the result of the study.

11. Theory: It is a set of concepts or constructs and the interrelations that are
assumed to exist among those concepts. It provides the basis for establishing
the hypothesis to be tested in the study.

12. A construct is an image or idea specifically invented for a given research

and/or theory-building purpose

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HEPL 3102 Research Methodology

13. A concept is a bundle of meanings or characteristics associated with certain

events, objects, conditions, situations, and behaviors. Concepts have been
developed over time through shared usage

1.12. Components of Research

Research originates in the decision process. A manager needs specific information
for setting objectives, defining tasks, finding the best strategy by which to carry out
the tasks, or judging how well strategy is being implemented. A dilemma-centered
emphasis – the problem’s origin, selection, statement, exploration and refinement –
dominates the sequence of the research process. A management dilemma can orig-
inate in any aspect of an organisation. A decision to do research can be inappropri-
ately driven by the availability of coveted tools and databases. To be researchable, a
problem must be subject to observation or other forms of empirical data collection.

Generally, the various components of research include:

1. Identification of the research area and topic.

2. Statement of the problem.

3. Literature review.

4. Methodology design

5. Sampling frame and sampling techniques.

6. Data collection tools, design and techniques.

7. Data analysis methods.

8. Report writing techniques.

1.13. Learning Activities

Review of MSc and PhD proposals and theses and scientific papers to identify the
components of research process, format of presentation.

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HEPL 3102 Research Methodology

Revision Questions

Example . 1. Differentiate between the following terminologies:

(a) Basic and Applied Research (b) Quantitative and Qualitative Research
Solution: Basic research focuses on generating new knowledge in order to refine
or expand existing theories. It does not consider the practical application of the
findings to actual problems or situations whereas Applied Research is conducted
for the purpose of applying or testing theory and evaluating its usefulness in solving
problems. It provides data to support a theory, guide theory revision or suggest the
development of a new theory.
Qualitative research includes designs, techniques and measures that do not pro-
duce discrete numerical data. Qualitative data can be collected through direct ob-
servation, participant observation or interview method while Quantitative research
includes designs, techniques and measures that produce discreet numerical or quan-
tifiable data.


E XERCISE 1.  Summarize the six purposes of research.

E XERCISE 2.  Summarize the six purposes of research.
E XERCISE 3.  4. Not all problems may be translated into research process. Dis-
cuss the reasons for this.

References and Additional Reading Materials

1. Adam, G and Schvaneveldt (1985). Understanding Research methods. Long-
mann Inc, New York.

2. Hult, C. (1996). Researching and writing in the social sciences. Allyn and
baron, Boston.

3. Newmann, W. L. (1994). Social Research methods. Allys and bacon, Boston:

U.S.A.

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HEPL 3102 Research Methodology

LESSON 2
Identification of research problem

Learning outcomes
By the end of this topic you should be able to;

• Identify a researcheable problem within their area of specialization.

• Explain the characteristics of a good problem statement.

• Explain the characteristics of a good objective.

• Explain the purpose of hypothesis in research

• Discuss the characteristics of a good hypothesis.

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HEPL 3102 Research Methodology

2.1. Introduction
Research originates in the decision process. A manager needs specific information
for setting objectives, defining tasks, finding the best strategy by which to carry out
the tasks or judging how well the strategy is being implemented.

Identification of Research Area

A management dilemma triggers the need for a decision. The management ques-
tion (its origin, selection, statement, exploration and refinement is very critical. A
manager needs specific information for setting objectives, defining tasks, finding
the best strategy by which to carry out the tasks or judging how well the strategy is
being implemented. Whether the researcher is involved in basic or applied research,
a thorough understanding of the management question is fundamental to success in
the research enterprise.

The management dilemma is usually a symptom of an actual problem such as ris-

ing costs, declining sales, increasing employee turnover in a restaurant, increased
number of complaints about post purchase service etc. Identifying management
dilemma’s is rarely difficult (unless the organisation fails to track its performance
factors like sales, profits, employee turnover, manufacturing output and defects,
on-time deliveries, customer satisfaction etc). However, choosing one dilemma on
which to focus may be difficult.
Choosing incorrectly will direct valuable resources (time, manpower, money and
equipment) on a path that may not provide critical decision-making information.
The manager must proceed from the management dilemma to the management
question to proceed with the research process. The management question restates
the dilemma in question form e.g.

• What should be done to reduce employee turnover?

• What should be done to reduce costs?

Management questions are numerous but they can be categorized to:

• Choice of purpose or objectives

• Generation and evaluation of solutions

• Troubleshooting or control situation

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HEPL 3102 Research Methodology

Choice of purpose or objectives:

• The general question is “What do we want to achieve?” e.g What goals should
XYZ Co try to achieve in its next round of procurement?

Generation and evaluation of solutions:

The general question is “How can we achieve the ends we seek?”
Examples:

• How can we achieve our five-year goal of efficient procurement, doubled

sales and net profits?

• What should be done to reduce post purchase service complaints?

Troubleshooting or control situation

The problem usually involves monitoring or diagnosing various ways in which an
organisation is failing to achieve its established goals.

• Examples: Why does our department incur the highest costs?

• How well is our program meeting its goals?

The research process starts by formulating a research problem that can be investi-
gated through research procedures

2.2. Identifying a research problem

The first step in selecting a research problem is to identify the broad area that one is
interested in. Such an area should be related to the professional interests and goals
of the researcher e.g. efficiency in procurement, productivity of workers, small-
scale businesses etc.

The second step is to identify a specific problem within it that will form the basis of
the research study. The research problem should be an important one i.e. it should
• Lead to findings that have widespread implications in a particular area.

• Challenge some commonly held truism

• Review the inadequacies of existing laws, views or policies

• Cover a reasonable scope e.g. not too narrow or too general.

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HEPL 3102 Research Methodology

2.2.1. Defining the research problem

A research problem refers to some difficulty which the researcher experiences in the
context of either a theoretical or practical situation and wants to obtain a solution
for the same. A research problem exists if the following conditions are met:-

• There must be an individual or a group which has some difficulty or the prob-
lem.

• There must be some objective(s) to be attained.

• There must be alternative means or courses of action for obtaining the objec-
tive(s) one wishes to attain.

• There must be some doubt in the mind of a researcher with regard to the
selection of alternatives.

• There must be some environment(s) to which the difficulty pertains.

2.2.2. Selecting the problem

The following points must be observed by a researcher in selecting a research prob-
lem or a subject of study:

• Subject which is overdone should not be normally chosen, for it will be a

difficult task to throw any new light in such a case.

• Controversial subject should not become the choice of an average researcher.

• Too narrow or too vague problems should be avoided.

• The subject selected for research should be familiar and feasible so that the
related research material or sources of research are within one’s reach.

• The importance of the subject, the qualifications and the training of a re-
searcher, the costs involved and the time factor must be considered.

• The selection of a study must be preceded by a preliminary study.

Defining the problem involves the task of laying down boundaries within which
a researcher shall study the problem with a predetermined objective in view. The
following steps can be followed:-

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HEPL 3102 Research Methodology

• Statement of the problem in a general way

• Understanding the nature of the problem: Understand the origin and nature
of the problem e.g. by discussing it with those who raised it in order to find
out how the

• problem originally came about. The researcher should keep in view the envi-
ronment within which the problem is to be studied and understood.

• Surveying the available literature: the researcher must be well conversant

with relevant theories in the field, reports and records as also all other relevant
literature.

• Developing ideas through discussions:

• Rephrasing the research problem: Its putting the research problem in as spe-
cific terms as possible so that it may become operationally viable and may
help in the

• development of working hypotheses.

The following should also be observed when defining a research problem:

• Technical terms and words or phrases with special meanings used in the state-
ment of the problem, should be clearly defined.

• Basic assumptions or postulates if any relating to the research problem should

be clearly stated.

• A straight forward statement of the value of the investigation should be pro-

vided.

• The suitability of the time-period and the sources of data available must also
be considered by the researcher in defining the problem.

• The scope of the investigation or the limits within which the problem is to be
studied must be mentioned explicitly in defining a research problem.

Factors that determine the scope of a research study include:

• The time available to carry it out

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HEPL 3102 Research Methodology

• The money available to carry it out

• The availability of equipment if needed to carry it out

• The availability of subjects or the units of study.

Ways of identifying a specific research problem from the broad area.

• Existing theories

• Existing literature

• Discussions with experts

• Previous research studies

• Replication

• The media

• Personal experiences.

Let us look at an example

Assuming that we want to carry out a study, we have to start by identifying the
broad area. Our broad area in our case can be Finance or management science.
. We can identify a specific problem that will form the basis of the study like
inventory management. Since we have many inventory control techniques, we can
either analyse all the techniques or just narrow down to one technique like the just in
time. The research topic can be formulated as “An analysis of the factors affecting
the application of Just-In-Time inventory control technique: A Case of the agro-
based manufacturing firms within Nairobi”.

2.3. Stating the Problem

A research study starts with a brief introductory section. The researcher introduces
briefly the general area of study, and then narrows down to the specific problem to
be studied.

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HEPL 3102 Research Methodology

Characteristics of a good problem statement

• It should be written clearly and in such a way that the reader’s interest is
captured immediately.

• The specific problem identified in the problem statement should be objec-

tively researchable.

• The scope of the specific research problem should be indicated .

• The importance of the study in adding new knowledge should be stated clearly.

• The problem statement must give the purpose of the research.

2.4. Stating the Purpose

The purpose of a study crystallizes the researcher’s inquiry into a particular area
of knowledge in a given field. If the purpose is accurately expressed, the research
process will be carried out with ease. The purpose of the study should meet the
following criteria:

• It must be indicated clearly, unambiguously and in a declarative manner.

• The purpose should indicate the concepts or variables in the study.

• Where possible, the relationships among the variables should be stated.

• The purpose should state the target population.

• The variables and target population given in the purpose should be consis-
tent with the variables and target population operationalised in the methods
section of the study.

Example
The purpose of this study is to investigate the various inventory control techniques
used in manufacturing firms and to analyze the extent of the use of JIT.

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HEPL 3102 Research Methodology

In stating the purpose of the study, the researcher should choose the right words
to convey the focus of the study effectively. Use of subjective or biased words or
sentences should be avoided.
Examples

2.5. Stating the Objectives

Research objectives are those specific issues within the scope of the stated purpose
that the researcher wants to focus upon and examine in the study.

• Characteristics of a good objective Specific:

• Measurable

• Achievable

• Reliable

• Time bound

Objectives guide the researcher in formulating testable hypotheses. In stating the

objectives of the study, the researcher should choose the right words to convey the
focus of the study effectively. Use of subjective or biased words or sentences should
be avoided.

Objectives
• To find out the inventory control techniques used in manufacturing firms in
Kenya.

• To assess the extent of the application of JIT inventory control techniques in

manufacturing firms in Kenya.

• To determine the factors characterizing manufacturing operations that poten-

tially inhibit the use of JIT.

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HEPL 3102 Research Methodology

• To suggest ways of improving the application of JIT inventory control tech-

niques in manufacturing firms in Kenya.

• Activity: For the problem identified above, state at least three objectives for
your study.

2.6. Research Questions

The way in which one structures the research questions sets the direction for the
project. A management problem or opportunity can be formulated as a hierarchical
sequence of questions. At the most general level is the management dilemma. This
is translated into a management question and then into a research question – the
major objective of the study. The research questions can further be expanded into
investigative questions.
Example:

1. Which inventory control techniques do manufacturing firms use?

2. Which factors inhibit the application of JIT within the manufacturing firms?

3. What are the requirements needed before the implementation of JIT?

4. How can the application of JIT inventory control techniques be improved in

manufacturing firms?

Activity: Formulate at least five research questions, which will enable you to meet
your objective.

2.7. Formulating Hypotheses

A hypothesis is a researcher’s prediction regarding the outcome of the study. It
states possible differences, relationships or causes between two variables or con-
cepts. Hypothesis are derived from or based on existing theories, previous research,
personal observations or experiences. The test of a hypothesis involves collection
and analysis of data that may either support or fail to support the hypothesis. If the
results fail to support a stated hypothesis, it does not mean that the study has failed
but it implies that the existing theories or principles need to be revised or retested
under various situations.

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HEPL 3102 Research Methodology

2.7.1. Purpose of hypothesis

According to Mugenda and Mugenda (2003), the purpose of hypothesis in research
are:

1. It provides direction by bridging the gap between the problem and the evi-
dence needed for its solution.

2. It ensures collection of the evidence necessary to answer the question posed

in the statement of the problem.

3. It enables the investigator to assess the information he or she has collected

from the standpoint of both relevance and organisation.

4. It sensitizes the investigator to certain aspects of the situation that are relevant
regarding the problem at hand.

5. It permits the researcher to understand the problem with greater clarity and
use the data to find solutions to problems.

6. It guides the collection of data and provides the structure for their meaningful
interpretation in relation to the problem under investigation.

7. It forms the framework for the ultimate conclusions as solutions.

2.7.2. Characteristics of a good hypothesis

A good hypothesis should have the following properties:

• Hypotheses should be constructed in such a way that they lend themselves to

the Scientific Method.

• They should be empirical statements; never normative or value statements

about what should or should not be.

• A hypothesis should describe a general phenomena not a particular occur-

rence.

• A good hypothesis should be plausible. There should be some logical reason

for thinking it possible.

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HEPL 3102 Research Methodology

• A good hypothesis is specific. The concepts used are clearly defined. An

example of a bad hypothesis is to say that there is a relationship between
personality and political attitudes. Which personality type? What attitudes?
A good hypothesis is more specific, e.g., People who feel alienated are not
likely to have a strong trust in government.

• A good hypothesis is testable. There must be evidence that is obtainable

which will indicate whether the hypothesis is correct or not.

Examples
• The type of product produced and sold determines the inventory control tech-
nique used by a firm.

• Instability of demand and Supplier unreliability inhibits the effective applica-

tion of Just in time technique.

2.7.3. Types of hypotheses

1. Null hypothesis (Ho): The null hypothesis is a statement about the value
of a population parameter. It should be stated as “ There is no significant
difference between . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ”. It should always contain an equal sign.

2. Alternate Hypothesis (HA): The alternate hypothesis is a statement that is

accepted if sample data provide enough evidence that the null hypothesis is
false.

Activity: Formulate at least two hypotheses for your study.

2.8. Assumptions and Limitations

An assumption is any fact that a researcher takes to be true without actually veri-
fying it. It puts some boundary around the study and provides the reader with vital
information, which influences the way results of the study are interpreted.

A limitation is an aspect of a research that may influence the results negatively but
over which the researcher has no control. A common limitation in social science
studies is the scope of the study, which sometimes may not allow generalizations.
Sample size may also be another limitation.
Activity: Enumerate the assumptions and limitations for your study if any.

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HEPL 3102 Research Methodology

Revision Questions

Example . Describe the research problem development process.

Solution: Starts from a broad area where there is a felt/perceived need; narrowed to
the specific issue to be addressed; explore the cause; effects and possible solution
(hypotheses) 

E XERCISE 4.  Not all problems may be translated into research process. Discuss
the reasons for this.
E XERCISE 5.  Discuss the characteristics of a good hypothesis.

Learning Activities
Activity1: Using an area familiar to you, identify and precisely define a Research-
able statement of the problem.

Assignments
References and Additional Reading Materials

1. Graduate school guidelines for research proposals and thesis presentations

2. Designing a research project by Piet Verschuren and Hans Doorewaard. Pub-

lisher LEMMA- Utrecht, 1999.

3. MSc and PhD research proposals and theses.

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HEPL 3102 Research Methodology

LESSON 3
Literature review

Learning outcomes
Upon completing this topic, you should be able to:

• Discuss the purpose of literature review in a research proposal.

• Identify the various sources of literature.

• Conduct a comprehensive literature review for research

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HEPL 3102 Research Methodology

3.1. Introduction
The review of literature involves the systematic identification, location and analysis
of documents containing information related to the research problem being investi-
gated. It should be extensive and thorough because it is aimed at obtaining detailed
knowledge of the topic being studied. Knowledge is cumulative: every piece of re-
search will contribute another piece to it. That is why it is important to commence
all research with a review of the related literature or research, and to determine
whether any data sources exist already that can be brought to bear on the problem
at hand.

The literature review should provide the reader with an explanation of the theoreti-
cal rationale of the problem being studied as well as what research has already been
done and how the findings relate to the problem at hand. The quality of the litera-
ture being reviewed must be carefully assessed. Not all published information is the
result of good research design, or can be substantiated. Indeed, a critical assessment
as to the appropriateness of the methodology employed can be part of the literature
review.
This type of secondary research is also extremely helpful in exploratory research. It
is an economical and often easily accessible source of background information that
can shed light on the real scope of the problem or help familiarize the researcher
with the situation and the concepts that require further study.

3.2. Purpose of literature review

According to Mugenda and Mugenda (2003), the purpose of literature review is to:

1. To determine what has already been done related to the research problem
being studied. This will help the researcher to:

(a) Avoid unnecessary and unintentional duplication.

(b) Form the framework within which the research findings are to be inter-
preted.
(c) Demonstrate his or her familiarity with the existing body of knowledge.

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HEPL 3102 Research Methodology

2. Helps reveal the strategies, procedures and measuring instruments that have
been found useful in investigating the problem in question. This will help the
researcher to:

(a) Avoid mistakes that have been made by other researchers

(b) Benefit from other researcher’s experiences
(c) Clarify how to use certain procedures, which one may only have learned
in theory.

3. Helps to suggest other procedures and approaches, which will help, improve
the research study.

4. Familiarizes the researcher with previous studies, which facilitates interpreta-

tion of the results of the study. If there is a contradiction, the literature review
might provide rationale for the discrepancy.

5. It helps the researcher to limit the research problem and to define it better.

6. Helps to determine new approaches and stimulates new ideas. The researcher
may be alerted to research possibilities, which have been overlooked in the
past.

7. Approaches that have been proved to be futile will be revealed through liter-
ature review.

8. Specific suggestions and recommendations for further research can be found

by reviewing literature.

9. It pulls together, integrates and summarizes what is known in an area. Thus

helping to reveal gaps in information and areas where major questions still
remain.

3.3. Steps in carrying out literature review

1. Familiarize yourself with the library before beginning the literature review.

2. Make a list of key words or phrases to guide your literature search.

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HEPL 3102 Research Methodology

3. With the key words and phrases related to the study, one should go to the
source of literature.

4. Summarize the references on cards for easy organisation of the literature.

5. Once collected, the literature should be analyzed, organized and reported in

an orderly manner.

6. Make an outline of the main topics or themes in order of presentation.

7. Analyze each reference in terms of the outline made and establish where it
will be most relevant.

8. The literature should be organized in such a way that the more general is cov-
ered first before the researcher narrows down to that which is more specific
to the research problem.

3.4. Sources of literature

1. Primary sources: are direct descriptions of any occurrence by an individual
who actually observed or witnessed the occurrence.

2. Secondary source: they include any publications written by an author who

was not a direct observer or participant in the events described.

Examples

• Scholarly journals

• Periodicals

• Theses and dissertations

• Government documents

• Reference section of the library

• Papers presented at conferences

• Grey literature

• Books

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HEPL 3102 Research Methodology

• Inter-library loan

• References quoted in books

• The internet

• Abstracts

3.5. Tips on good review of literature

• Do not conduct a hurried review for fear of overlooking important studies.

• Do not rely too heavily on secondary sources.

• Check daily newspapers as they contain very educative, current information.

• Copy the references correctly in the first place so as to avoid the frustration
of trying to retrace a reference later.

• Do not only concentrate on findings, check on methodology and measurement

of variables.

Activity: For the problem identified in the previous chapter, review some literature.

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HEPL 3102 Research Methodology

Revision Questions

Example . Discuss the purpose of literature review in a research proposal

Solution: To determine what has already been done related to the research prob-
lem being studied Helps reveal the strategies, procedures and measuring instru-
ments that have been found useful in investigating the problem in question Helps
to suggest other procedures and approaches, which will help, improve the research
study.Familiarizes the researcher with previous studies, which facilitates interpreta-
tion of the results of the study. If there is a contradiction, the literature review might
provide rationale for the discrepancy. It helps the researcher to limit the research
problem and to define it better. Helps to determine new approaches and stimulates
new ideas. The researcher may be alerted to research possibilities, which have been
overlooked in the past. Approaches that have been proved to be futile will be re-
vealed through literature review.


E XERCISE 6.  Identify the various sources of literature

E XERCISE 7.  Differentiate between primary and secondary sources of literature.
E XERCISE 8.  What factors does one need to take into consideration when re-
viewing literature.

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HEPL 3102 Research Methodology

Learning Activities
1. Develop a researchable problem statement in your area of interest

REFERENCES
1. Marshall, C and Rossman, G (1989). Designing Qualitative Research. New-
bury, Park CA Sage publications.

2. Mugenda, M. O and Mugenda, G.A (2003). Research Methods: Quantitative

and Qualitative approaches. Laba – Graphics services, Nairobi.

3. Babbie, E. (1989). The Practice of Social Research. Belmount, BC Wadsworth.

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HEPL 3102 Research Methodology

LESSON 4
Research design

Learning outcomes
Upon completing this lesson, you should be able to:

• Describe what is meant by Research Design

• Describe the basic types of research design

• Explain the criteria for a good research design

• Identify the sources of errors in a research project.

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HEPL 3102 Research Methodology

4.1. Research Design

Kerlinger, N.F (1986) defines research design as “The plan and structure of investi-
gation so conceived as to obtain answers to research questions. The plan is overall
scheme or program of the research. It includes an outline of what the investigator
will do from writing hypotheses and their operational implications to the final analy-
sis of data. . . .a research design expresses both the structure of the research problem
and the plan of investigation used to obtain empirical evidence on relations of the
problem”

Therefore a research design is the strategy for a study and the plan by which the
strategy is to be carried out. It specifies the methods and procedures for the collec-
tion, measurement, and analysis of data.
4.2. Essentials of Research Design
The design:

• Is an activity and time based plan

• Is always based on the research question

• Guides the selection of sources and types of information

• Is a framework for specifying the relationships among the study’s variables

• Outlines procedures for every research activity.

4.3. Classifications of Designs

Research can be classified using eight different descriptors as shown in the table
below:

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HEPL 3102 Research Methodology

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HEPL 3102 Research Methodology

4.3.1. Degree to which the research questions has been crystallized

A study may be viewed as exploratory study or formal study. The essential dis-
tinctions between these two options are the degree of structure and the immediate
objective of the study.

• Exploratory studies tend toward loose structures with the objective of discov-
ering future research tasks. Its immediate purpose is to develop hypotheses
or questions for further study.

• Formal study begins where the exploration leaves off- it begins with a hy-
pothesis or research question and involves precise procedures and data source
specifications. Its goal is to test the hypotheses or answer the research ques-
tions posed.

4.3.2. Method of data collection

• Monitoring: It includes studies in which the researcher inspects the activities
of a subject or the nature of some material without attempting to elicit re-
sponses from anyone e.g. an observation of the actions of a group of decision
makers.

• Interrogation / communication: the researcher questions the subjects and col-

lects their responses by personal or impersonal means. The collected data
may result from

1. Interview or telephone conversations

2. Self-administered or self-reported instruments sent through the mail, left in

convenient locations, or transmitted electronically or by other means

3. Instruments presented before and / or after a treatment or stimulus condition

in an experiment.

4.3.3. Researcher control of variables

• Experimental: the researcher attempts to control and / or manipulate the vari-
ables in the study. It is appropriate when one wishes to discover whether cer-
tain variables produce effects in other variables. Experimentation provides
the most powerful support for a hypothesis of causation.

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HEPL 3102 Research Methodology

• Ex post facto: Investigators have no control over the variables in the sense
of being able to manipulate them. They can only report what has happened
or what is happening. It is important that the researcher’s using this design
do not influence the variables since doing so will introduce bias. The re-
searcher is limited to holding factors constant by judicious selection of sub-
jects according to strict sampling procedures and by statistical manipulation
of findings.

4.3.4. Purpose of the study

• Descriptive study: it is a research that is concerned with finding out who,
what, where, when, or how much.

• Causal study: It is concerned with learning why i.e. how one variable pro-
duces changes in another. It tries to explain the relationships among variables.

4.3.5. The time dimension

• Cross-sectional studies: they are carried out once and represent a snapshot of
one point in time.

• Longitudinal studies: are repeated over an extended period. It tracks changes

over time.

4.3.6. The topical scope

• Statistical studies: they are designated for breadth rather than depth. They
attempt to capture a population’s characteristics by making inferences from
a sample’s characteristics. Hypotheses are tested quantitatively. General-
izations about findings are presented based on the representativeness of the
sample and the validity of the design.

• Case studies: they place more emphasis on a full contextual analysis of fewer
events or conditions and their interrelations. Although hypotheses are often
used, the reliance on qualitative data makes support or rejection more diffi-
cult. An emphasis on detail provides valuable insight for problem solving,
evaluation and strategy. This detail is secured from multiple sources of infor-
mation. It allows evidence to be verified and avoids missing data.

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HEPL 3102 Research Methodology

4.3.7. The research environment

• Field setting: it is where the research occurs under actual environmental con-
ditions

• Laboratory research: it is where the research occurs under staged or manipu-

lated conditions

• Simulation: To simulate is to replicate the essence of a system or process.

Simulations are increasingly used in operations research. The major charac-
teristics ofvarious conditions and relationships in actual situations are often
represented in mathematical models. Role-playing and other behavioural ac-
tivities may also be viewed as simulations.

4.3.8. Participants’ perceptions

The usefulness of a design may be reduced when people in a disguised study per-
ceive that research is being conducted. Participants’ perceptions influence the out-
comes of the research in subtle ways. There are three levels of perception:

• Participants perceive no deviations from everyday routines

• Participants perceive deviations, but as unrelated to the researcher.

• Participants perceive deviations as researcher-induced.

In all research environments and control situations, researchers need to be vigi-

lant to effects that may alter their conclusions. Participant’s perceptions serve as a
reminder to classify one’s study by type, to examine validation strengths and weak-
nesses and to be prepared to qualify results accordingly.

4.4. Major Types of Research Design

1. Exploratory studies

Exploration is particularly useful when researchers lack a clear idea of the problems
they will meet during the study. Through exploration researchers develop concepts
more clearly, establish priorities, develop operational definitions and improve the
final research design. Other factors that necessitate the use of exploration are:

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HEPL 3102 Research Methodology

• To save time and money

• If the area of investigation is new

• Important variables may not be known or thoroughly defined

• Hypothesis for the research may be needed

• A researcher can explore to be sure if it is practical to do a formal study in

the area.

Despite its obvious value, researchers and managers give exploration less attention
that it deserves. Exploration is sometimes linked to old biases about qualitative
research i.e. subjective ness, non-representativeness and non-systematic design.

When we consider the scope of qualitative research, several approaches are adapt-
able for exploratory investigations of management questions:
• In-depth interviewing – usually conversational rather than structured.

• Participant observation – to perceive first hand what participants in the setting

experience

• Films, photographs and videotapes – to capture the life of the group under
study.

• Case studies – for an in-depth contextual analysis of a few events or condi-

tions

• Document analysis – to evaluate historical or contemporary confidential or

public records, reports, government documents and opinions.

Where these approaches are combined, four exploratory techniques emerge with
wide applicability for the management researcher: -

• Secondary data analysis

• Experience surveys

• Focus groups

• Two-stage designs

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HEPL 3102 Research Methodology

An exploratory research is finished when the researchers have achieved the follow-
ing:
1. Established the major dimensions of the research task

2. Defined a set of subsidiary investigative questions that can be used as a guide

to a detailed research design.

3. Developed several hypotheses about possible causes of a management dilemma.

Learned that certain other hypotheses are such remote possibilities that they
can be safely ignored in any subsequent study.

4. Concluded additional research is not needed or is not feasible.

2. Descriptive Studies
It is the process of collecting data in order to test hypotheses or to answer ques-
tions concerning the current status of the subjects in the study. It determines and
reports the way things are. It attempts to describe such things as possible behaviour,
attitudes, values and characteristics.
3. Causal Research
It is used to explore relationships between variables. It determines reasons or causes
for the current status of the phenomenon under study. The variables of interest
cannot be manipulated unlike in experimental research.

Advantages of causal study

1. Allows a comparison of groups without having to manipulate the independent
variables.

2. It can be done solely to identify variables worthy of experimental investiga-

tion.

3. They are relatively cheap.

Disadvantages of causal study
1. Interpretations are limited because the researcher does not know whether a
particular variable is a cause or result of a behaviour being studied.

2. There may be a third variable which could be affecting the established rela-
tionship but which may not be established in the study.

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HEPL 3102 Research Methodology

4.5. Correlation Methods

It describes in quantitative terms the degree to which variables are related. It ex-
plores relationships between variables and also tries to predict a subject’s score on
one variable given his or her score on another variable.

4.5.1. Advantages of the correlational method

1. Permits one to analyze inter-relationships among a large number of variables
in a single study.

2. Allows one to analyze how several variables either singly or in combination

might affect a particular phenomenon being studied.

3. The method provides information concerning the degree of relationship be-

tween variables being studied.

4.5.2. Disadvantages of the correlational method

1. Correlation between two variables does not necessarily imply causation al-
though researchers often tend to interpret such a relationship to mean causa-
tion.

2. Since the correlation coefficient is an index, any two variables will always
show a relationship even when commonsense dictates that such variables are
not related.

3. The correlation coefficient is very sensitive to the size of the sample.

4.6. Rationale for research design

The following are the reasons for developing a research design:-

1. It facilitates the implementation of researchoperations making the research

process more efficient with minimum level of input (effort, time and money).

2. It has a bearing on the reliability of study result hence forms the foundations
of an efficient research.

3. It allows the researcher to form his ideas that is free of ambiguity and errors.

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HEPL 3102 Research Methodology

Learning Activities
1. Review MSc proposals and theses to identify the research design used.Justify
the use of the design.

2. Determine a research topic and then select an appropriate research design that
can be applied to investigate your problem, giving reasons for your choice.

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HEPL 3102 Research Methodology

Revision Questions

Example . Define the term research design Why is research design important to
the researcher?
Solution: .... 

E XERCISE 9.  Describe the basic steps of research design

E XERCISE 10.  Explain the relationships that exist between variables in research
design and the steps for evaluating those relationships
E XERCISE 11.  Discuss the major types of research design

References and Additional Reading Materials

1. Adam, G and Schvaneveldt (1985). Understanding Research methods. Long-
mann Inc, New York.

2. Newmann, W. L. (1994). Social Research methods. Allys and bacon, Boston:

U.S.A.

3. Mugenda, M. O and Mugenda, G.A (2003). Research Methods: Quantitative

and Qualitative approaches. Laba – Graphics services, Nairobi.

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HEPL 3102 Research Methodology

LESSON 5
Sampling design

Learning outcomes
Upon completing this lesson, you should be able to:

• Describe the concept and nature of sampling, why sample and characteristics
of a good sample.

• Describe and apply the various types of sample design.

• Determine sample sizes for given surveys.

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HEPL 3102 Research Methodology

5.1. Introduction
The method section of a research study describes the procedures that are to be
followed in conducting the study. The techniques of obtaining data are developed.
Key terms in sample design include:

• Population-is a complete set of individuals, cases or objects with some ob-

servable characteristics.

• Census-is a count/observation of all the elements in a population.

• Sample-is a subset of a particular population.

• Target population is that population to which a researcher wants to generalize

the results of the study. There must be a rationale for defining and identifying
the accessible population from the target population.

• Sampling is the process of selecting a sample from a population.

5.2. The Sample Design

This refers to the techniques of the procedure the researcher would adopt in select-
ing items for the sample.

Factors to consider in developing a sample design

1. Type of universe; finite or infinite

2. Sampling unit; geographic: state, district or village, construction unit: house,

flat. Social unit: family, club, school or individual.

3. Source list: sampling frame- contains all the names of all items of a universe.
The list should be comprehensive, correct, reliable and appropriate.

4. The size of the sample. Should be efficient, representative, reliable and flexi-
ble.

5. Parameters of interest

6. Budgetary constraint

7. Sampling procedure.

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HEPL 3102 Research Methodology

5.3. Criteria for selecting a sampling procedure

Two costs are involved in a sampling analysis i.e. the cost of collecting the data
and the cost of an incorrect inference resulting from the data. Two causes of in-
correct inferences are systematic bias and sampling error. A systematic bias results
from errors in the sampling procedures and it cannot be reduced or eliminated by
increasing the sample size. Systematic bias results from the following :

1. Inappropriate sampling frame

2. Defective measuring device

3. Non-respondents

4. Indeterminancy principle – individuals act differently when kept under obser-

vation.

5. Natural bias in reporting data e.g. government tax – downward bias, social
organizations – upward bias.

Sampling errors are the random variations in the sample estimates around a true
population parameter. It decreases with the increase in the size of the sample
and it happens to be of a smaller magnitude in case of a homogenous population.
While selecting a sampling procedure, the researcher must ensure that the proce-
dure causes a relatively small sampling error and helps to control the systematic
bias in a better way.

5.3.1. Steps in sampling design

Identification of the:
• Relevant population

• Type of universe i.e. finite or infinite

• Parameters of interest

• Sampling frame

• Type of sample i.e. probabilistic or non-probabilistic

• Size of the sample needed

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HEPL 3102 Research Methodology

5.3.2. Characteristics of a good sample design

• Must result in a truly representative sample

• Must result in a small sampling error

• Must be viable in the context of funds available for the research study

• Must ensure that systematic bias is controlled in a better way

• Must be such that the results of the sample study can be applied in general
for the universe with a reasonable level of confidence.

5.4. Reasons for sampling

• Cost

• Time: Greater speed of data collection

• Destructive nature of certain tests

• Greater accuracy of results

• Physical impossibility of checking all items in the population.

• Availability of population elements.

5.5. Characteristics of a good sample

Accuracy

It’s the degree to which bias is absent from the sample. An unbiased sample is the
one in which the underestimators and the overestimators are balanced among the
members of the sample.

Precision of estimate

Precision is measured by the standard error of estimate a type of standard deviation

measurement. The smaller error of estimate, the higher is the preciseness of the
sample.

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HEPL 3102 Research Methodology

5.6. Factors that influence the sample size

• Dispersion / variance: The greater the dispersion or variance within the pop-
ulation, the larger the sample must be to provide estimation precision.

• Precision of the estimate: the greater the desired precision of the estimate,
the larger the sample must be.

• Interval range: The narrower the interval range, the larger the sample must
be.

• Confidence level: The higher the confidence level in the estimate, the larger
the sample must be.

• Number of subgroups: The greater the number of subgroups of interest within

a sample, the greater the sample size must be, as each subgroup must meet
minimum sample size requirements.

• If the calculated sample size exceeds 5% of the population, sample size may
be reduced without sacrificing precision.

5.7. Determining the Sample Size:

If the target population is greater than 10,000 the following formula is used to de-
termine the sample size;
where
n = the desired sample size
z = the standard normal deviate at the required confidence level.
P = the proportion in the target population estimated to have characteristics being
measured.
Q=1–p
D = the level of statistical significance set.

If the target population is less than 10,000 the following formula is used to deter-
mine the sample size;

Where
nf = the desired sample size( when the population is less than 10,000)

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HEPL 3102 Research Methodology

n = the desired sample size( when the population is greater than 10,000)
N = the estimate of the population size.

5.8. Sampling procedures

There are two major ways of selecting samples, Probability sampling methods and
Non - Probability sampling methods.

5.8.1. Probability Sampling Methods

Samples are selected in such a way that each item or person in the population has a
known (Nonzero) likelihood of being included in the sample.

• Types of Probability sampling methods

1. Simple Random Sampling:

A sample is selected so that each item or person in the population has the same
chance of being included.

Advantages
• Easy to implement with automatic dialing and with computerized voice re-
sponse systems.

Disadvantages

• Requires a listing of population elements.

• Takes more time to implement

• Uses larger sample sizes

• Produces larger errors

• Expensive

2. Systematic Random Sampling:

The items or individuals of the population are arranged in some manner. A random
starting point is selected and then every kth member of the population is selected
for the sample.

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HEPL 3102 Research Methodology

Advantages
• Simple to design

• Easier to use than the simple random.

• Easy to determine sampling distribution of mean or proportion.

• Less expensive than simple random.

Disadvantages
• Periodicity within the population may skew the sample and results.

• If the population list has a monotonic trend, a biased estimate will result based
on the start point.

3. Stratified Random Sampling:

A population is divided into subgroups called strata and a sample is selected from
each stratum. After the population is divided into strata, either a proportional or a
non-proportional sample can be selected. In a proportional sample, the number of
items in each stratum is in the same proportion as in the population while in a non-
proportional sample, the number of items chosen in each stratum is disproportionate
to the respective numbers in the population.

Advantages
• Researcher controls sample size in strata

• Increased statistical efficiency

• Provides data to represent and analyze subgroups.

• Enables use of different methods in strata.

Disadvantages
• Increased error will result if subgroups are selected at different rates

• Expensive especially if strata on the population have to be created.

4. Cluster Sampling:

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HEPL 3102 Research Methodology

The population is divided into internally heterogeneous subgroups and some are
randomly selected for further study. It is used when it is not possible to obtain a
sampling frame because the population is either very large or scattered over a large
geographical area. A multi-stage cluster sampling method can also be used.

Advantages
• Provides an unbiased estimate of population parameters if properly done.

• Economically more efficient than simple random.

• Lowest cost per sample, especially with geographic clusters.

• Easy to do without a population list.

Disadvantages
• More error (Lower statistical efficiency) due to subgroups being homoge-
neous rather the heterogeneous.

5.8.2. Non - Probability Sampling Methods

It is used when a researcher is not interested in selecting a sample that is represen-
tative of the population.

1. Convenience or Accidental Sampling

Involves selecting cases or units of observation as they become available to the

researcher e.g. asking a question to the radio listeners, roommates or neighbours.

2. Purposive Sampling

Allows the researcher to use cases that have the required information with respect
to the objectives of his or her study e.g. educational level, age group, religious sect
etc.

3. Quota Sampling

The researcher purposively selects subjects to fit the quotas identified e.g.

• Gender: Male or Female.

• Class Level: Graduate or Undergraduate

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HEPL 3102 Research Methodology

• School: Humanities, Science or human resource development.

• Religion: Muslim, Protestant, catholic, Jewish.

• Fraternal affiliation: member or nonmember.

• Social economic class: Upper, middle or lower.

Advantage
• Widely used by pollsters, marketers and other researchers.

Disadvantages
• It gives no assurance that the sample is representative of the variables being
studied.

• The data used to provide controls may be outdated or inaccurate.

• There is a practical limit on the number of simultaneous controls that can be

applied to ensure precision.

• Since the choice of subjects is left to field workers, they may choose only
friendly looking people.

4. Snow ball sampling

It is used when the population that possesses the characteristics under study is not
well known and can be best located through referral networks. Initial subjects are
identified who in turn identify others. Commonly used in drug cultures, teenage
gang activities, Mungiki sect, insider trading, Mau Mau etc.

5.9. Sampling error

It’s the difference between a sample statistic and its corresponding population pa-
rameter. The sampling distribution of the sample means is a probability distribution
of possible sample means of a given sample size.

The central limit theorem

If samples of a particular size are selected from any population, the sampling dis-
tribution of the sample means is approximately a normal distribution. The approxi-
mation improves with larger samples.

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HEPL 3102 Research Methodology

Point estimates and confidence intervals

• Point estimate is the value computed from sample information that is used to
estimate the population parameter.

• Confidence interval is a range of values constructed from sample data so the

parameter occurs within that range at a specified probability (level of confi-
dence).

The standard error of the mean ( )

The standard error is a measure of the variability of the sampling distribution of the
sample mean. Its size is affected by

• Standard deviation: the larger the standard deviation, the larger the standard
error.

• Sample size: as the sample size increases, the standard error decreases.

Learning Activities
Review of MSc and PhD proposals and theses and scientific papers to identify the
components of research process, format of presentation.

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HEPL 3102 Research Methodology

Revision Questions

Example . Discuss the reasons why sampling is preferred over census in research
designs.
Solution: Cost sampling is cheaper; Time: Greater speed of data collection; De-
structive nature of certain tests hence only sampling is appropriate; Greater accu-
racy of results; Physical impossibility of checking all items in the population. issues
of availability of population elements. 

E XERCISE 12.  Explain the factors that affect the size of a sample
E XERCISE 13.  Explain the probabilistic and non-probabilistic sampling tech-
niques detailing their procedures
E XERCISE 14.  Explain the conditions under which non-probabilistic techniques
may be preferred to the probabilistic
sampling techniques.

References and Additional Reading Materials

1. Adam, G and Schvaneveldt (1985). Understanding Research methods. Long-
mann Inc, New York.

2. Hult, C. (1996). Researching and writing in the social sciences. Allyn and
baron, Boston.

3. Newmann, W. L. (1994). Social Research methods. Allys and bacon, Boston:

U.S.A.

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HEPL 3102 Research Methodology

LESSON 6
Measurement

Learning outcomes
Upon completing this lesson, you should be able to:

• Define the basic concepts of measurements

• Describe the common rating scales used in research

• Discuss the scales used for measuring attitudes

• Evaluate the validity and reliability of measurement scales

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6.1. Introduction
While people measure things casually in daily life, research measurement is more
precise and controlled. In measurement, one settles for measuring properties of the
objects rather than the objects themselves. An event is measured in terms of its
duration i.e. what happened during it, who was involved, where it occurred etc.
Measurement is the basis for all systematic inquiry because it provides us with the
tools for recording differences in the outcome of variable change.

6.2. Definition of Measurement

Measurement is the procedure by which we assign numerals, numbers, or other dis-
tinguishing values to variables according to rules. These rules help us determine
the kinds of values we will assign to certain observable phenomena or variables.
They also determine the quality of measurement. Precision and exactness in mea-
surement are vitally important. The measures are what are actually used to test the
hypotheses. A researcher needs good measures for both independent and dependent
variables.

Measurement consists of two basic processes called conceptualization and Opera-

tionalization, then an advanced process called determining the levels of measure-
ment, and then even more advanced methods of measuring reliability and validity.
Conceptualization

This is the process of taking a construct or concept and refining it by giving it a

conceptual or theoretical definition. Ordinary dictionary definitions will not do. In-
stead, the researcher takes keywords in their research question or hypothesis and
finds a clear and consistent definition that is agreed-upon by others in the scientific
community. More common is the process by which a researcher notes agreements
and disagreements over conceptualization in the literature review, and then comes
down in favor of someone else’s conceptual definition. It’s perfectly acceptable in
science to borrow the conceptualizations and operationalizations of others. Concep-
tualization is often guided by the theoretical framework, perspective, or approach
the researcher is committed to. For example, a researcher operating from within
a Marxist framework would have quite different conceptual definitions for a hy-
pothesis about social class and crime than a non-Marxist researcher. That’s because

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there are strong value positions in different theoretical perspectives about how some
things should be measured.

Operationalization

This is the process of taking a conceptual definition and making it more precise
by linking it to one or more specific, concrete indicators or operational definitions.
These are usually things with numbers in them that reflect empirical or observable
reality. For example, if the type of crime one has chosen to study is theft (as rep-
resentative of crime in general), creating an operational definition for it means at
least choosing between petty theft and grand theft (false taking of less or more than
$150). I don’t want to give the impression from this example that researchers should
rely upon statutory or legal definitions. Some researchers do, but most often, oper-
ational definitions are also borrowed or created anew. They’re what link the world
of ideas to the world of everyday reality. It’s more important that ordinary people
would agree on your indicators than other scientists or legislators, but again, avoid
dictionary definitions. If you were to use legalistic definitions, then it’s your duty to
provide what is called an auxiliary theory, which is a justification for the research
utility of legal hair-splitting (as in why less or more than $150 is of theoretical sig-
nificance). The most important thing to remember at this point, however, is your
unit of analysis. You want to make absolutely sure that everything you reduce down
is defined at the same unit of analysis: societal, regional, state, communal, individ-
ual, to name a few. You don’t want to end up with a research project that has to
collect political science data, sociological data, and psychological data. In most
cases, you should break it all down so that each variable is operationally defined
at the same level of thought, attitude, trait, or behavior, although some would call
this psychological reductionism and are more comfortable with group-level units or
psychological units only as a proxy measure for more abstract, harder-to-measure
terms.

6.3. Levels of Measurement

A level of measurement is a scale by which a variable is measured. For 50 years,
with few detractors, science has used the Stevens (1951) typology of measurement
levels (scales). There are three things to remember about this typology:

• Anything that can be measured falls into one of the four types.

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• The higher the level of measurement, the more precision in measurement.

• Every level up contains all the properties of the previous level.

The four levels of measurement, from lowest to highest, are:

• Nominal

• Ordinal

• Interval

• Ratio

The nominal level of measurement describes variables that are categorical in nature.
The characteristics of the data you’re collecting fall into distinct categories. If there
are a limited number of distinct categories (usually only two), then you’re dealing
with a dichotomous variable. If there are an unlimited or infinite number of dis-
tinct categories, then you’re dealing with a continuous variable. Nominal variables
include demographic characteristics like sex, race, and religion.

The ordinal level of measurement describes variables that can be ordered or ranked
in some order of importance. It describes most judgments about things, such as big
or little, strong or weak. Most opinion and attitude scales or indexes in the social
sciences are ordinal in nature.
The interval level of measurement describes variables that have more or less equal
intervals, or meaningful distances between their ranks. For example, temperature,
time,

The ratio level of measurement describes variables that have equal intervals and a
fixed zero (or reference) point. It is possible to have zero income, zero education,
and no involvement in crime, but rarely do we see ratio level variables in social
science since it’s almost impossible to have zero attitudes on things, although "not
at all", "often", and "twice as often" might qualify as ratio level measurement.
Advanced statistics require at least interval level measurement, so the researcher
always strives for this level, accepting ordinal level (which is the most common)
only when they have to. Variables should be conceptually and operationally defined
with levels of measurement in mind since it’s going to affect how well you can
analyze your data later on.

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6.4. Sources of measurement differences

The ideal study should be designed and controlled for precise and unambiguous
measurement of the variables. Since 100% control is unattainable, error occurs.
Much potential error is systematic (results from a bias) while the remainder is ran-
dom (occurs erratically). Some of the major sources of error are:

(a) The respondent:

Opinion differences that affect measurement come from relatively stable character-
istics of the respondent e.g. employee status, ethnic group and social class. Tem-
porary factors like fatigue, boredom, anxiety and other distractions also limit the
ability to respond accurately and fully. Hunger, impatience or general variations in
mood will also have an impact.

(b) The situational factors:

Any condition that places a strain on the interview or measurement session can have
serious effects on the interviewer – respondent rapport. If another person is present,
that person can distort responses by joining in, by distracting or by merely being
present. If the respondents believe anonymity is not ensured, they may be reluctant
to express certain feelings.

(c) The measurer:

The interviewer can distort responses by re-wording, paraphrasing, or re-ordering

questions. Stereotypes in appearance and action introduce bias. Inflections of voice
or unconscious prompting with smiles and nods may encourage or discourage cer-
tain replies. Incorrect coding, careless tabulation and faulty statistical calculation
may introduce further errors in data analysis.

(d) The data collection instrument:

A defective instrument can cause distortion in two major ways:

• It can be too confusing and ambiguous e.g. the use of complex words, leading
questions, ambiguous meanings, multiple questions.

• Leads to poor selection from the universe of content items. Seldom does the
instrument explore all the potentially important issues.

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6.5. Types of variables

A variable is a measurable characteristic that assumes different values among the
subjects. According to Mugenda and Mugenda (2003). Variables can be classified
into the following categories:

1. Independent variables / Predictor variables.

It is a variable that a researcher manipulates in order to determine its effect or in-

fluence on another variable. They predict the amount of variation that occurs in
another variables.

6.5.1. Types of independent variables

1. Experimental variables: They are variables which the researcher has manip-
ulative control over them. Are commonly used in biological and physical
sciences e.g. influence of amount of fertilizer on the yield of wheat, influence
of alcohol on reaction time.

2. Measurement types of independent variables: Are variables, which have al-

ready occurred. They have fixed manipulative and uninfluenceable proper-
ties. Most of the variables are either environmental or personalogical e.g.
age, gender, marital status, race, colour, geographical location, nationality,
soil type, altitude etc. (e.g. influence of nationality on choice of food).

6.5.2. Dependent variables / criterion variables.

They attempt to indicate the total influence arising from the effects of the indepen-
dent variable. It varies as a function of the independent variable e.g. influence of
hours studied on performance in a statistical test, influence of distance from the
supply center on cost of building materials.

6.5.3. Control variables / concomitant / covariate or blocking variables.

They are extraneous variables that are built into the study. Extraneous variables are
variables, which influence the results of a study when they are not controlled.

Reasons for introducing control variables

• It increases the validity of the data.

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• It leads to more convincing generalizations.

Since absolute control of extraneous variables is not possible in any study, results
are interpreted on the basis of degrees of confidence rather than certainty.Once the
major extraneous variables are identified, the researcher can control them by:-

1. Building the extraneous variable into the study: i.e. including it as an inde-
pendent variable. E.g. in determining the effect of alcohol on reaction time,
sex may influence reaction time. Therefore, sex can be introduced as an in-
dependent variable. Using regression, one can measure the effect of alcohol
on reaction time, controlling sex.

2. Include them in the study but only at one level e.g. time is the dependent
variable, alcohol level - the independent and sex the extraneous variable. Sex
can be controlled by sampling only females or males of a given age. The
disadvantage of this method is that generalizations are limited to a smaller
population.

3. By removing the effects of the extraneous variables by statistical procedures

i.e. by siphoning its effects on the dependent variable. This can be done by:

• Analysis of co-variance

• Partial correlation.

3. Extraneous variables

They are those variables that affect the outcome of a research study either because
the researcher is not aware of their existence or if the researcher is aware, she or he
has no control over them.

Types of extraneous variables

• Symmetrical extraneous variables

They are those variables which have a spurious relationship with both the indepen-
dent and dependent variables in the study i.e. a relationship between the dependent
and the independent variable is found not to exist when the symmetrical extraneous
variable is controlled for, but exists when the symmetrical extraneous variable is
not controlled. The relationship is accidental and not meaningful at all.

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• Asymmetrical extraneous variables

It’s where the effect on the dependent variable is due to both the independent vari-
able and an extraneous variable, which has not been accounted for. A true relation-
ship exists between the independent and the dependent variables and the extraneous
variable only magnifies such true effect. The difficult part is to establish how much
of the total effect on the dependent variable is due to the independent variable and
how much is due to the extraneous variable that has not been controlled for.

4. Intervening variables

They are a special case of extraneous variables. The difference between the inter-
vening and extraneous variables is in the assumed relationship among the variables.
With an extraneous variable, there is no causal link between the independent and
dependent variable, but they are independently associated with a third variable – the
extraneous variable. An intervening variable is recognized as being caused by the
independent variable and as being a determinant of the dependent variable.

The total effect of an independent variable on a dependent variable can be subdi-

vided into direct and indirect effects.
• Indirect effects are those effects of an intervening variable.

• Direct effects are not transmitted through another variable.

The choice of the right intervening variables helps one not only to determine accu-
rately the total effects of an independent variable on the dependent variable but also
partition the total effects into direct and indirect.

5. Antecedent variables

They do not interfere with the established relationship between an independent and
dependent variable but clarifies the influence that precedes such a relationship.

Conditions that must hold for a variable to be classified as a antecedent variable:-

• The variables including the antecedent variable must be related in some logi-
cal sequence.

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• When the antecedent variable is controlled for, the relationship between the
independent and the dependent variables should not disappear. Rather it
should be enhanced.

• When the independent variable is controlled for or its influence removed,

there should not be any relationship between the antecedent variable and the
dependent variable. e.g. political stability – attracts investors – increased job
opportunities – high standards of living – reduction of poverty.

6. Suppressor variables

It is an extraneous variable which when not controlled for, removes a relationship

between the two variables. When a suppressor variable is introduced in the study
as a control variable, a true relationship emerges e.g. effect of alcohol, on driver’s
reaction time, in case of an emergency.
Sex and age – males 25-30 yrs – no relationship. But when the subjects are asked
to press a button when a red flash of light appears, there is a difference. Therefore
the suppressor variable is the colour of the flash light.

7. Distorter variables

It is a variable that converts what was thought of as a positive relationship into

a negative relationship and vice-versa. Its effects lead a researcher into drawing
erroneous conclusions from the data. When the distorter variable is controlled, a
true relationship is obtained. Consideration of distorter variables in a study reduces
the chances of making a type I (rejecting a true null hypothesis) or type two error
(accepting a false null hypothesis).

8. Exogenous and endogenous variables

They are commonly used in testing hypothesized causal models. Path analysis ( a
procedure that tests causal links among several variables) is often used in testing
the validity of causal relationships in a theory or model.

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C and D are called endogenous variables. Each endogenous variable is caused or

explained by the variable that precedes it. E.g. D is caused by A, B and C. A and B
are called exogenous variables. They lack hypothesized causes in the model.
6.6. Validity and reliability in research
The quality of a research study depends to a large extent on the accuracy of the data
collection procedures. Reliability and validity measures the relevance and correct-
ness of the data.

6.6.1. Reliability
Reliability is the extent to which an experiment, test, or any measuring procedure
yields the same result on repeated trials. Without the agreement of independent
observers able to replicate research procedures, or the ability to use research tools
and procedures that yield consistent measurements, researchers would be unable
to satisfactorily draw conclusions, formulate theories, or make claims about the
generalizability of their research. In addition to its important role in research, relia-
bility is critical for many parts of our lives, including manufacturing, medicine and
sports. Reliability is such an important concept that it has been defined in terms of
its application to a wide range of activities.

Reliability is influenced by random error. Random error is the deviation from a

true measurement due to factors that have not effectively been addressed by the
researcher. As random error increases, reliability decreases.
Causes of random error

• Inaccurate coding

• Ambiguous instruction to the subjects

• Interviewer’s fatigue

• Interviewee’s fatigue

• Interviewer’s bias

Research instruments yield data that have two components; the true value or score
and an error component. The error component of the data reflects the limitations

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of the instrument. There are three types of errors that arise at the time of data
collection;-

• Error due to the inaccuracy of the instrument.

• Error due to the inaccuracy of scoring by the researcher .

• Unexplained error.

6.6.2. Ways of Assessing Reliability

• Test-Retest

• Equivalent form

• Internal consistency

• Interrater reliability

• The Test-Retest technique

It involves administering the same instruments twice to the same group of subjects,
but after some time. Stability reliability (sometimes called test, re-test reliability) is
the agreement of measuring instruments over time. To determine stability, a mea-
sure or test is repeated on the same subjects at a future date. Results are compared
and correlated with the initial test to give a measure of stability.
An example of stability reliability would be the method of maintaining weights
used by the Kenya Bureau of Standards. Platinum objects of fixed weight (one
kilogram, half kilogram, etc...) are kept locked away. Once a year they are taken
out and weighed, allowing scales to be reset so they are "weighing" accurately.
Keeping track of how much the scales are off from year to year establishes stability
reliability for these instruments. In this instance, the platinum weights themselves
are assumed to have a perfectly fixed stability reliability

Disadvantages
• Subjects may be sensitized by the first testing hence will do better in the
second test

• Difficulty in establishing a reasonable period between the two testing ses-

sions.

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• Equivalent form
Equivalent reliability is the extent to which two items measure identical concepts
at an identical level of difficulty. Equivalency reliability is determined by relat-
ing two sets of test scores to one another to highlight the degree of relationship or
association. In quantitative studies and particularly in experimental studies, a cor-
relation coefficient, statistically referred to as r, is used to show the strength of the
correlation between a dependent variable (the subject under study), and one or more
independent variable, which are manipulated to determine effects on the dependent
variable. An important consideration is that equivalency reliability is concerned
with correlational, not causal, relationships.
For example, a researcher studying university Bachelor of commerce students hap-
pened to notice that when some students were studying for finals, their holiday
shopping began. Intrigued by this, the researcher attempted to observe how often,
or to what degree, these two behaviors co-occurred throughout the academic year.
The researcher used the results of the observations to assess the correlation between
studying throughout the academic year and shopping for gifts. The researcher con-
cluded there was poor equivalency reliability between the two actions. In other
words, studying was not a reliable predictor of shopping for gifts.
Two instruments are used. Specific items in each form are different but they are
designed to measure the same concept. They are the same in number, structure and
level of difficulty e.g. TOEFL, GRE

Advantages
• Estimates the stability of the data as well as the equivalence of the items in
the two forms

Disadvantages
• Difficulty in constructing two tests, which measure the same concept (time
and resources).

• Internal consistency technique

Internal consistency is the extent to which tests or procedures assess the same char-
acteristic, skill or quality. It is a measure of the precision between the observers or
of the measuring instruments used in a study. This type of reliability often helps

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researchers interpret data and predict the value of scores and the limits of the rela-
tionship among variables.
For example, a researcher designs a questionnaire to find out about college students’
dissatisfaction with a particular textbook. Analyzing the internal consistency of the
survey items dealing with dissatisfaction will reveal the extent to which items on
the questionnaire focus on the notion of dissatisfaction.

• Interrater reliability
Interrater reliability is the extent to which two or more individuals (coders or raters)
agree. Interrater reliability addresses the consistency of the implementation of a
rating system.
A test of interrater reliability would be the following scenario: Two or more re-
searchers are observing a high school classroom. The class is discussing a movie
that they have just viewed as a group. The researchers have a sliding rating scale
(1 being most positive, 5 being most negative) with which they are rating the stu-
dent’s oral responses. Interrater reliability assesses the consistency of how the rat-
ing system is implemented. For example, if one researcher gives a "1" to a student
response, while another researcher gives a "5," obviously the interrater reliability
would be inconsistent. Interrater reliability is dependent upon the ability of two or
more individuals to be consistent. Training, education and monitoring skills can
enhance interrater reliability.

Ways of Improving Reliability

• Minimize external sources of variation

• Standardize conditions under which measurements occurs

• Improve investigator consistency by using only well trained, supervised and

motivated persons to conduct the research

• Broaden the sample of measurement questions by adding similar questions

to the data collection instrument or adding more observers or occasions to an
observation study.

• Improve internal consistency of an instrument by excluding data from analy-

sis drawn from measurement questions eliciting extreme responses.

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6.7. Validity
Validity refers to the degree to which a study accurately reflects or assesses the
specific concept that the researcher is attempting to measure. It is the degree to
which results obtained from the analysis of data actually represent the phenomenon
under study. It is the accuracy and meaningfulness of inferences, which are based on
the research results. It has to do with how accurately the data obtained in the study
represents the variables of the study. If such data is a true reflection of the variables,
then inferences based on such data will be accurate and meaningful. Validity is
largely determined by the presence or absence of systematic error in the data e.g.
using a faulty scale to measure.

6.7.1. Types of validity

Construct validity
Construct validity seeks agreement between a theoretical concept and a specific
measuring device or procedure. For example, a researcher inventing a new IQ test
might spend a great deal of time attempting to "define" intelligence in order to reach
an acceptable level of construct validity.

Construct validity can be broken down into two sub-categories: Convergent valid-
ity and discriminate validity. Convergent validity is the actual general agreement
among ratings, gathered independently of one another, where measures should be
theoretically related. Discriminate validity is the lack of a relationship among mea-
sures which theoretically should not be related.
To understand whether a piece of research has construct validity, three steps should
be followed. First, the theoretical relationships must be specified. Second, the
empirical relationships between the measures of the concepts must be examined.
Third, the empirical evidence must be interpreted in terms of how it clarifies the
construct validity of the particular measure being tested.
Content validity
Content Validity is based on the extent to which a measurement reflects the specific
intended domain of content.
Content validity can be illustrated using the following examples: Researchers aim
to study mathematical learning and create a survey to test for mathematical skill. If

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these researchers only tested for multiplication and then drew conclusions from that
survey, their study would not show content validity because it excludes other math-
ematical functions. Although the establishment of content validity for placement-
type exams seems relatively straight-forward, the process becomes more complex
as it moves into the more abstract domain of socio-cultural studies. For example,
a researcher needing to measure an attitude like self-esteem must decide what con-
stitutes a relevant domain of content for that attitude. For socio-cultural studies,
content validity forces the researchers to define the very domains they are attempt-
ing to study.
The usual procedure in assessing the content validity of a measure is to use profes-
sional or experts in the particular field. The instrument is given to two groups of
experts, one group is requested to assess what concept the instrument is trying to
measure. The other group is asked to determine whether the set of items or checklist
accurately represents the concept under study.

Criterion related validity

Criterion related validity, also referred to as instrumental validity, is used to demon-
strate the accuracy of a measure or procedure by comparing it with another mea-
sure or procedure which has been demonstrated to be valid. For example, imagine
a hands-on driving test has been shown to be an accurate test of driving skills. By
comparing the scores on the written driving test with the scores from the hands-on
driving test, the written test can be validated by using a criterion related strategy in
which the hands-on driving test is compared to the written test.
Types Criterion validity

• Predictive validity – refers to the degree to which obtained data predicts the
future behaviour of subjects e.g. B. Com graduates

• Concurrent validity- refers to the degree to which data are able to predict the
behaviour of subjects in the present and not in the future e.g. psychiatry

6.7.2. Internal and external validity

Researchers should be concerned with both external and internal validity. Exter-
nal validity refers to the extent to which the results of a study are generalizable or

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transferable. External validity is the degree to which research findings can be gen-
eralized to populations and environments outside the experimental setting. It has to
do with representativeness of the sample with regard to the target population.

Internal validity refers to the rigor with which the study was conducted (e.g., the
study’s design, the care taken to conduct measurements, and decisions concerning
what was and wasn’t measured) and the extent to which the designers of a study
have taken into account alternative explanations for any causal relationships they
explore. In studies that do not explore causal relationships, only the first of these
definitions should be considered when assessing internal validity. Internal validity
depends on the degree to which extraneous variables have been controlled for in the
study Internal and external validity are inversely related to each other.

Revision Questions

Example . Describe the various levels of measurement .

Solution: Four levels of measurement, from lowest to highest, are:Nominal; Ordi-
nal; Interval and Ratio
The nominal level of measurement describes variables that are categorical in nature.
The characteristics of the data you’re collecting fall into distinct categories. If there
are a limited number of distinct categories (usually only two), then you’re dealing
with a dichotomous variable. If there are an unlimited or infinite number of dis-
tinct categories, then you’re dealing with a continuous variable. Nominal variables
include demographic characteristics like sex, race, and religion.
The ordinal level of measurement describes variables that can be ordered or ranked
in some order of importance. It describes most judgments about things, such as big
or little, strong or weak. Most opinion and attitude scales or indexes in the social
sciences are ordinal in nature.
The interval level of measurement describes variables that have more or less equal
intervals, or meaningful distances between their ranks. For example, temperature,
time,
The ratio level of measurement describes variables that have equal intervals and a
fixed zero (or reference) point. It is possible to have zero income, zero education,
and no involvement in crime, but rarely do we see ratio level variables in social
science since it’s almost impossible to have zero attitudes on things, although "not

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at all", "often", and "twice as often" might qualify as ratio level measurement.


E XERCISE 15.  Define the term measurement process highlighting its main char-
acteristics using examples
E XERCISE 16.  List and discuss the sources of differences in measurement.
E XERCISE 17.  List and describe the criteria for evaluating a measurement tool.
E XERCISE 18.  Differentiate between validity and reliability

Assignments
Are there noticeable fundamental differences in components of research process
and the format of presentation between theses and journal papers?

1. State the similarities between theses and journal papers.

2. State the differences noticed.

3. Explain any noticed similarity and the differences

References and Additional Reading Materials

1. Graduate school guidelines for research proposals and thesis presentations

2. Designing a research project by Piet Verschuren and Hans Doorewaard. Pub-

lisher LEMMA- Utrecht, 1999.

3. MSc and PhD research proposals and theses.

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LESSON 7
Research instruments

Learning outcomes
Upon completing this lesson, you should be able to:

• Identify the various research instruments that can be used in research.

• Differentiate between the various data collection instruments appropriate for

the given data types

• Develop and use various research instruments

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7.1. Introduction
Broadly, there are two categories of data types: the primary data and secondary data,
collected from two source categories, the primary sources and secondary sources.
Primary data is that which is collected from original sources for a specified purpose:
while the latter is that which was originally collected for a different purpose at a
given time. This lesson examines tha nature and methods used to collect these two
categories of data types.
The research instruments that are widely used include:

• Questionnaires

• Interviews

• Observations

7.2. Questionnaires
Each item in the questionnaire is developed to address a specific objective, research
question or hypothesis of the study. The researcher must also know how information
obtained from each questionnaire item will be analysed.

7.2.1. Types of questions used in questionnaires

• Structured or closed-ended questions
They are questions, which are accompanied by a list of possible alternatives from
which respondents select the answer that best describes their situation.

Advantages of Structured or closed-ended questions

• They are easier to analyse since they are in an immediate usable form

• They are easier to administer

• They are economical to use in terms of time and money

Disadvantages of Structured or closed-ended questions

• They are more difficult to construct

• Responses are limited and the respondent is compelled to answer questions

according to the researcher’s choices

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• Unstructured or open – ended questions

They refer to questions, which give the respondent complete freedom of response.
The amount of space provided is always an indicator of whether a brief or lengthy
answer is desired.

Advantages of Unstructured or open – ended questions

• They permit a greater depth of response

• They are simple to formulate

• The respondent’s responses may give an insight into his feelings, background,
hidden motives, interest and decisions.

Disadvantages of Unstructured or open – ended questions

• There is a tendency of the respondents providing information, which does not
answer the stipulated research questions or objectives.

• The responses given may be difficult to categorize and hence difficult to ana-
lyze quantitatively

• Responding to open ended questions is time consuming, which may put some
respondent off.

• Contingency questions
In particular cases, certain questions are applicable to certain groups of respondents.
In such cases, follow-up questions are needed to get further information from the
relevant sub-group only. These subsequent questions, which are asked after the ini-
tial questions, are called „contingency questions or „ filter questions. The purpose
of these kinds of questions is to probe for more information. They also simplify the
respondent’s task, in that they will not be required to answer questions that are not
relevant to them.

• Matrix questions
These are questions, which share the same set of response categories. They are
used whenever scales like likert scale are being used.

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Advantages of matrix questions

• When questions or items are presented in matrix form, they are easier to
complete and hence the respondent is unlikely not to be put off.

• Space is used efficiently

• It is easy to compare responses given to different items.

Disadvantages of matrix questions

• Some respondents, especially the ones that may not be too keen to give right
responses, might form a pattern of agreeing or disagreeing with statements.

• Some researchers use them when in fact the kind of information being sought
could better be obtained in another format.

7.2.2. Rules for constructing questionnaires and questionnaire items

1. List the objectives that you want the questionnaire to accomplish before con-
structing the questionnaire.

2. Determine how information obtained from each questionnaire item will be

analyzed.

3. Ensure clarity and avoid ambiguity.

4. If a concept has several meanings and that concept must be used in a question,
the intended meaning must be defined.

5. Construct short questions.

6. Items should be stated positively as possible.

7. Double-barreled items should be avoided.

8. Leading and biased questions should be avoided.

9. Very personal and sensitive questions should be avoided.

10. Simple words that are easily understandable should be used.

11. Questions that assume facts with no evidence should be avoided.

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12. Avoid psychologically threatening questions.

13. Include enough information in each item so that it is meaningful to the re-
spondent

7.2.3. Ordering items in a questionnaire

1. Begin with non-threatening, interesting items.

2. It is not advisable to put important questions at the end of a long question-

naire.

3. Have some logical order when putting items together.

4. Arrange the questions according to themes being studied.

5. If the questionnaire is arranged into content sub-sections, each section should

be introduced with a short statement concerning its content and purpose.

6. Socio-economic questions should be asked at the end because respondents

may be put off by personal questions at the beginning of the questionnaire.

7.2.4. Pretesting the questionnaire

The questionnaire should be pretested to a selected sample, which is similar to the
actual sample, which the researcher plans to study. This is important because:-

• Questions that are vague will be revealed in the sense that the respondents
will interpret them differently.

• Comments and suggestions made by respondents during pretesting should be

seriously considered and incorporated.

• Pretesting will reveal deficiencies in the questionnaire.

• It helps to test whether the methods of analysis are appropriate.

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7.2.5. Administering Questionnaires

Questionnaires are mainly administered using three methods:

• Self administered questionnaires

Questionnaires are send to the respondents through mail or hand-delivery, and they
complete on their own.

• Researcher administered questionnaires

The researcher can decide to use the questionnaire to interview the respondents.
This is mostly done when the subjects may not have the ability to easily interpret
the questions probably because of their educational level.

• Use of the internet

The people sampled for the research receive and respond to the questionnaires
through their web sites or e-mail addresses.

7.3. Interviews
An interview is an oral (face to face) administration of a questionnaire or an in-
terview schedule. To obtain accurate information through interviews, a researcher
needs to obtain the maximum co-operation from respondents. Interviews are par-
ticularly useful for getting the story behind a participant’s experiences. The inter-
viewer can pursue in-depth information around a topic. Interviews may be useful as
follow-up to certain respondents to questionnaires, e.g., to further investigate their
responses. Usually open-ended questions are asked during interviews.

7.3.1. Guidelines for preparation for Interview

1. Choose a setting with little distraction. Avoid loud lights or noises, ensure
the interviewee is comfortable (you might ask them if they are), etc. Often,
they may feel more comfortable at their own places of work or homes.

2. Explain the purpose of the interview.

3. Address terms of confidentiality. Note any terms of confidentiality. (Be care-

ful here. Rarely can you absolutely promise anything. Courts may get access

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to information, in certain circumstances.) Explain who will get access to their

answers and how their answers will be analyzed. If their comments are to be
used as quotes, get their written permission to do so.

4. Explain the format of the interview. Explain the type of interview you are
conducting and its nature. If you want them to ask questions, specify if they’re
to do so as they have them or wait until the end of the interview.

5. Indicate how long the interview usually takes.

6. Tell them how to get in touch with you later if they want to.

7. Ask them if they have any questions before you both get started with the
interview.

8. Don’t count on your memory to recall their answers. Ask for permission to
record the interview or bring along someone to take notes.

7.3.2. Types of Interviews approaches

1. Informal, conversational interview - no predetermined questions are asked, in
order to remain as open and adaptable as possible to the interviewee’s nature
and priorities; during the interview, the interviewer "goes with the flow".

2. General interview guide approach - the guide approach is intended to ensure

that the same general areas of information are collected from each intervie-
wee; this provides more focus than the conversational approach, but still al-
lows a degree of freedom and adaptability in getting information from the
interviewee.

3. Standardized, open-ended interview - here, the same open-ended questions

are asked to all interviewees (an open-ended question is where respondents
are free to choose how to answer the question, i.e., they don’t select "yes" or
"no" or provide a numeric rating, etc.); this approach facilitates faster inter-
views that can be more easily analyzed and compared

4. Closed, fixed-response interview - where all interviewees are asked the same
questions and asked to choose answers from among the same set of alterna-
tives. This format is useful for those not practiced in interviewing.

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7.3.3. Sequence of interview items

1. Get the respondents involved in the interview as soon as possible.

2. Before asking about controversial matters (such as feelings and conclusions),

first ask about some facts. With this approach, respondents can more easily
engage in the interview before warming up to more personal matters.

3. Intersperse fact-based questions throughout the interview to avoid long lists

of fact-based questions, which tends to leave respondents disengaged.

4. Ask questions about the present before questions about the past or future. It’s
usually easier for them to talk about the present and then work into the past
or future.

5. The last questions might be to allow respondents to provide any other infor-
mation they prefer to add and their impressions of the interview.

7.3.4. Types of interviews

• Personal interviews
People selected to be part of the sample are interviewed in person by a trained inter-
viewer.Three broad conditions must be met in order to have a successful personal
interview:

• The participant must possess the information being targeted by the investiga-
tive questions

• The participant must understand his or her role in the interview as the provider
of accurate information

• The participant must perceive adequate motivation to cooperate

Increasing the participants receptiveness

The first goal in an interview is to establish a friendly relationship with the par-
ticipant.Three factors will help increase participant receptiveness. The participant
must:

• Believe that the experience will be pleasant and satisfying

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• Believe that answering the survey is an important and worthwhile use of his
or her time

• Dismiss any mental reservations that he or she might have about participation.

The technique of stimulating participants to answer more fully and relevantly is

termed probing. Since it presents a great potential for bias, a probe should be neu-
tral and appear as a natural part of the conversation. Appropriate probes should
be specified by the designer of the data collection instrument. There are several
probing styles e.g.

• A brief assertion of understanding and interest e.g. comments such as “I see”

“yes”.

• An expectant pause

• Repeating the question

• Repeating the participant’s reply

• A neutral question or comment

• Question clarification.

7.3.5. Problems likely to be encountered during personal interviews

In personal interviews, the researcher must deal with bias and cost. Biased results
is as a result of three types of errors:

• Sampling error

It’s the difference between a sample statistic and its corresponding population pa-
rameter. The sampling distribution of the sample means is a probability distribution
of possible sample means of a given sample size.

• Non-response error

This occurs when the responses of participants differ in some systematic way from
the responses of non-participants. It occurs when the researcher:

1. Cannot locate the person to be studied

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2. Is unsuccessful in encouraging that person to participate Solutions to reduce

errors of non-response are

3. Establishing and implementing callback procedures

4. Creating a non response sample and weighting results from this sample

5. Substituting another individual for the missing non-participant.

• Response error

Occurs when the data reported differ from the actual data. It can occur during the
interview or during preparation of data analysis.

• Participant-initiated error occurs when the participant fails to answer fully

and accurately either by choice or because of inaccurate or incomplete knowl-
edge. Can be solved by using trained interviewers who are knowledgeable
about such problems.

• Interviewer error can be caused by:-

-Failure to secure full participant cooperation

- Failure to consistently execute interview procedures

- Failure to establish appropriate interview environment

- Falsification of individual answers or whole interviews

- Inappropriate influencing behaviour

- Failure to record answers accurately and completely

- Physical presence bias.

- Failure to secure full participant cooperation

- Failure to consistently execute interview procedures

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- Failure to establish appropriate interview environment

- Falsification of individual answers or whole interviews

- Inappropriate influencing behaviour

Advantages of Personal interviews

• Good cooperation from the respondents

• Interviewer can answer questions about survey, probe for answers, use follow-
up questions and gather information by observation.

• Special visual aids and scoring devices can be used.

• Illiterate and functionally illiterate respondents can be reached

• Interviewer can prescreen respondent to ensure he / she fits the population

profile.

• Responses can be entered directly into a portable microcomputer to reduce

error and cost when using computer assisted personal interviewing.

Disadvantages of Personal interviews

• High costs

• Need for highly trained interviewers

• Longer period needed in the field collecting data

• May be wide geographic dispersion

• Follow-up is labour intensive

• Not all respondents are available or accessible

• Some respondents are unwilling to talk to strangers in their homes

• Some neighbourhoods are difficult to visit

• Questions may be altered or respondent coached by interviewers.

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7.3.6. Telephone interviews

People selected to be part of the sample are interviewed on the telephone by a
trained interviewer.

Advantages of Telephone interviews

• Lower costs than personal interviews

• Expanded geographic coverage without dramatic increase in costs

• Uses fewer, more highly skilled interviewers

• Reduced interview bias

• Better access to hard-to-reach respondents through repeated callbacks

• Can use computerized random digit dialing

• Responses can be entered directly into a computer file to reduce error and
cost when using computer assisted telephone interviewing.

Disadvantages of Telephone interviews

• Response rate is lower than for personal interview

• Higher costs if interviewing geographically dispersed sample

• Interview sample must be limited

• Many phone numbers are unlisted or not working, making directory listings
unreliable

• Some target groups are not available by phone

• Responses may be less complete

• Illustrations cannot be used.

• Respondents may not be honest with their responses since it is not a face to
face situation

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Note taking during interviews

It refers to the method of recording in which the interviewer records the respon-
dent’s responses during the interview.

Advantages
• It facilitates data analysis since the information is readily accessible and al-
ready classified into appropriate categories.

• If taken well, no information is left out.

Disadvantages of note taking

• It may interfere with the communication between the respondent and the in-
terviewer.

• It might upset the respondent if the answers are personal and sensitive.

• If it is delayed, important details may be forgotten.

• It makes the interview lengthy and boring.

7.3.7. Tape recording

The interviewer’s questions and the respondent’s answers are recorded either using
a tape
recorder or a video tape.

Advantages
• It reduces the tendency for the interviewer to make unconscious selection of
data in the course of the recording.

• The tape can be played back and studied more thoroughly.

• A person other than the interviewer can evaluate and categorize responses.

• It speeds up the interview.

• Communication is not interrupted.

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Disadvantages
• It changes the interview situation since respondents get nervous.

• Respondents may be reluctant to give sensitive information if they know they

are being taped.

• Transcribing the tapes before analysis is time consuming and tedious.

Advantages of interviews
• It provides in-depth data, which is not possible to get using a questionnaire.

• It makes it possible to obtain data required to meet specific objectives of the

study.

• Are more flexible than questionnaires because the interviewer can adapt to
the situation and get as much information as possible.

• Very sensitive and personal information can be extracted from the respondent.

• The interviewer can clarify and elaborate the purpose of the research and
effectively convince respondents about the importance of the research.

• They yield higher response rates

Disadvantages of interviews
• They are expensive – traveling costs

• It requires a higher level of skill

• Interviewers need to be trained to avoid bias

• Not appropriate for large samples

• Responses may be influenced by the respondent’s reaction to the interviewer.

7.4. Observation
Observation is one of the few options available for studying records, mechanical
processes, small children and complex interactive processes. Data can be gathered
as the event occurs. Observation includes a variety of monitoring situations that
cover non-behavioural and behavioural activities.

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The observer-participant relationship

Interrogation presents a clear opportunity for interviewer bias. The problem is less
pronounced with observation but is still real. The relationship between observer
and participant may be viewed from three perspectives:

• Whether the observation is direct or indirect

• Whether the observer’s presence is known or unknown to the participant

• What role the observer plays

Guidelines for the qualification and selection of observers

• Concentration: Ability to function in a setting full of distractions

• Detail-oriented: Ability to remember details of an experience

• Unobtrusive: Ability to blend with the setting and not be distinctive

• Experience level: Ability to extract the most from an observation study

Advantages of observation
Enables one to:
• Secure information about people or activities that cannot be derived from
experiment or surveys

• Reduces obtrusiveness

• Avoid participant filtering and forgetfulness

• Secure environmental context information

• Optimize the naturalness of the research setting

Limitations of observation
• Difficulty of waiting for long periods to capture the relevant phenomena

• The expense of observer costs and equipment

• Reliability of inferences from surface indicators

• The problem of quantification and disproportionately large records

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HEPL 3102 Research Methodology

• Observation forms, schedules or checklists

• The researcher must define the behaviours to be observed and then develop a
detailed list of behaviours. During data collection, the researcher checks off
each as it occurs. This permits the observer to spend time thinking about what
is occurring rather than on how to record it and this enhances the accuracy of
the study.

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Revision Questions

Example . Distinguish between structured and unstructured questionnaires.

Solution: Unstructured or open – ended questions refer to questions, which give
the respondent complete freedom of response. The amount of space provided is
always an indicator of whether a brief or lengthy answer is desired. Structured or
closed-ended questions are questions, which are accompanied by a list of possi-
ble alternatives from which respondents select the answer that best describes their
situation. 

E XERCISE 19.  Distinguish between

i. Direct and indirect questions
ii. Open-ended and closed ended questions
E XERCISE 20.  What special problems do open-ended questions have? How can
these be minimized? In what situations are open-ended questions most useful?
E XERCISE 21.  Distinguish among response error, interviewer error and non-
response error
E XERCISE 22.  How do environmental factors affect response rates in personal
interviews? How can we overcome these environmental problems?

Assignments
Are there noticeable fundamental differences in components of research process
and the format of presentation between theses and journal papers?
1. State the similarities between theses and journal papers.

2. State the differences noticed.

3. Explain any noticed similarity and the differences

References and Additional Reading Materials

1. Graduate school guidelines for research proposals and thesis presentations

2. Designing a research project by Piet Verschuren and Hans Doorewaard. Pub-

lisher LEMMA- Utrecht, 1999.

3. MSc and PhD research proposals and theses.

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HEPL 3102 Research Methodology

LESSON 8
Ethics in research

Learning outcomes
Upon completing this lesson, you should be able to:

• Define the term ethics.

• Discuss the ethical issues concerning the researcher ; The respondents ; The
sponsor and The team players

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HEPL 3102 Research Methodology

8.1. Introduction
Ethics are norms or standards of behaviour that guide moral choices about our be-
haviour and our relationship with others. Ethics differ from legal constraints, in
which generally accepted standards have defined penalties that are universally en-
forced. The goal of ethics in research is to ensure that no one is harmed or suffers
adverse consequences from research activities.

As the research is designed, several ethical considerations must be balanced e.g.

• Protect the rights of the participant or subject.

• Ensure the sponsor receives ethically conducted and reported research.

• Follow ethical standards when designing research

• Protect the safety of the researcher and team

• Ensure the research team follows the design

8.2. Ethical treatment of participants

In general, the research must be designed in such a manner that the respondent does
not suffer physical harm, discomfort, pain, embarrassment or loss to privacy. To
safeguard against these, the researcher should follow the following guidelines:

• Explain the study benefits

• Obtain informed consent

• Explain respondents rights and protection

• Benefits
Whenever direct contact is made with a respondent, the researcher should discuss
the study benefits, being careful to neither overstate nor understate the benefits.
An interviewer should begin an introduction with his or her name, the name of the
research organisation and a brief description of the purpose and benefits of the re-
search. This puts the respondent at ease, lets them know to whom they are speaking
and motivates them to answer questions truthfully. Inducements to participate, fi-
nancial or otherwise, should not be disproportionate to the task or presented in a
fashion that results in coercion.

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Deception occurs when the respondents are told only part of the truth or when
the truth is fully compromised. The benefits to be gained by deception should be
balanced against the risks to the respondents. When possible, an experiment or
interview should be designed to reduce reliance on deception. In addition, the re-
spondent’s rights and well-being must be adequately protected. In instances where
deception in an experiment could produce anxiety, a subject’s medical condition
should be checked to ensure that no adverse physical harm follows.

• Informed consent
Securing informed consent from respondents is a matter of fully disclosing the pro-
cedures of the proposed survey or other research design before requesting permis-
sion to proceed with the study. There are exemptions that argue for a signed consent
form. When dealing with children, it is wise to have a parent or other person with
legal standing sign a consent form. If the researchers offer only limited protection
of confidentiality, a signed form detailing the types of limits should be obtained.
For most business research, oral consent is sufficient.
In situations where respondents are intentionally or accidentally deceived, they
should be debriefed once the research is complete. Debriefing involves several
activities following the collection of data e.g.

• Explanation of any deception.

• Description of the hypothesis, goal or purpose of the study.

• Post study sharing of results.

• Post study follow-up medical or psychological attention.

According to Neuman and Wiegand (2000), a full blown consent statement would
contain the following: -

• A brief description of the purpose and procedure of the research, including

the expected duration.

• A statement of any risks, discomforts or inconveniences associated with par-

ticipation.

• A guarantee of anonymity or at least confidentiality, and an explanation of

both.

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HEPL 3102 Research Methodology

• The identification, affiliation and sponsorship of the research as well as con-

tact information.

• A statement that participation is completely voluntary and can be terminated

at any time without penalty.

• A statement of any procedures that may be used.

• A statement of any benefits to the class of subjects involved.

• An offer to provide a free copy of a summary of the findings.

• Rights to privacy
All individuals have a right to privacy and researchers must respect that right. The
privacy guarantee is important not only to retain validity of the research but also to
protect respondents. Once the guarantee of confidentiality is given, protecting that
confidentiality is essential. The researcher can protect respondent’s confidentiality
in several ways, which include: -

• Obtaining signed nondisclosure documents

• Restricting access to respondent identification.

• Revealing respondent information only with written consent.

• Restricting access to data instruments where the respondent is identified.

• Nondisclosure of data subsets.

Researchers should restrict access to information that reveals names, telephone

numbers, address or other identifying features. Only researchers who have signed
nondisclosure, confidentiality forms should be allowed access to the data. Links be-
tween the data or database and the identifying information file should be weakened.
Individual interview response sheets should be inaccessible to everyone except the
editors and data entry personnel.

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Occasionally, data collection instruments should be destroyed once the data are in
a data file. Data files that make it easy to reconstruct the profiles or identification of
individual respondents should be carefully controlled. For very small groups, data
should not be made available because it is often easy to pinpoint a person within
the group. Employee-satisfaction survey feedback in small units can be easily used
to identify an individual through descriptive statistics.
Privacy is more than confidentiality. A right to privacy means one has the right
to refuse to be interviewed or to refuse to answer any question in an interview.
Potential participants have a right to privacy in their own homes, including not
admitting researchers and not answering telephones. They have the right to engage
in private behaviour in private places without fear of observation. To address these
rights, ethical researchers can do the following:-
• Inform respondents of their right to refuse to answer any questions or partic-
ipate in the study.

• Obtain permission to interview respondents

• Schedule field and phone interviews.

• Limit the time required for participation.

• Restrict observation to public behaviour only.

8.3. Ethics and the sponsor

There are ethical considerations to keep in mind when dealing with the research
client or sponsor. Whether undertaking product, market, personnel, financial or
other research, a sponsor has the right to receive ethically conducted research.

(a) Confidentiality

Sponsors have a right to several types of confidentiality including sponsor nondis-

closure purpose nondisclosure and findings nondisclosure.

• Sponsor nondisclosure: Companies have a right to dissociate themselves

from the sponsorship of a research project. Due to the sensitive nature of
the management dilemma or the research question, sponsors may hire an out-
side consulting or research firm to complete research projects. this is often

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done when a company is testing a new product idea, to avoid potential con-
sumers from being influenced by the company’s current image or industry
standing. If a company is contemplating entering a new market, it may not
wish to reveal its plans to competitors. In such cases, it is the responsibility of
the researcher to respect this desire and device a plan to safeguard the identity
of the sponsor.

• Purpose nondisclosure: It involves protecting the purpose of the study or its

details. A research sponsor may be testing a new idea that is not yet patented
and may not want the competitor to know his plans. It may be investigating
employee complaints and may not want to spark union activity. The sponsor
might also be contemplating a new public stock offering, where advance dis-
closure would spark the interest of authorities or cost the firm thousands of
shillings.

• Findings nondisclosure: If a sponsor feels no need to hide its identity or

the study’s purpose, most sponsors want research data and findings to be
confidential, at least until the management decision is made.

(b) Right to quality research

An important ethical consideration for the researcher and the sponsor is the spon-
sor’s right to quality research. The right entails:

• Providing a research design appropriate for the research question.

• Maximizing the sponsor’s value for the resources expended

• Providing data handling and reporting techniques appropriate for the data
collected.

From the proposal through the design to data analysis and the final report, the re-
searcher guides the sponsor on the proper techniques and interpretations. Often
sponsors would have heard about sophisticated data handling technique and will
want it used even when it is inappropriate for the problem at hand. The researcher
should propose the design most suitable for the problem. The researcher should not
propose activities designed to maximize researcher revenue or minimize researcher
effort at the sponsor’s expense. The ethical researcher should report findings in

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ways that minimize the drawing of false conclusions. He should also use charts,
graphs and tables to show the data objectively, despite the sponsor’s preferred out-
comes.

(c) Sponsor’s Ethics

Occasionally, research specialists may be asked by sponsors to participate in unethi-

cal behaviour. Compliance by the researcher would be a breach of ethical standards.
Some examples to be avoided are:

• Violating respondent confidentiality

• Changing data or creating false data to meet a desired objective

• Changing data presentations or interpretations.

• Interpreting data from a biased perspective.

• Omitting sections of data analysis and conclusions.

• Making recommendations beyond the scope of the data collected.

The ethical course often requires confronting the sponsor’s demand and taking the
following actions: -

• Educating the sponsor on the purpose of research

• Explain the researcher’s role in fact finding versus the sponsor’s role in decision-
making.

• Explain how distorting the truth or breaking faith with respondents leads to
future problems

• Failing moral suasion, terminate the relationship with the sponsor.

8.4. Researchers and team members

Researchers have an ethical responsibility to their team’s safety as well as their own
and also protecting the anonymity of both the sponsor and the respondent.

(a) Safety

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It is the researcher’s responsibility to design a project so the safety of all inter-

viewers, surveyors, experimenters, or observers is protected. Several factors may
be important to consider in ensuring a researcher’s right to safety e.g. some urban
areas and undeveloped rural areas may be unsafe for research assistants, therefore
a team member can accompany the researcher. It is unethical to require staff mem-
bers to enter an environment where they feel physically threatened. Researchers
who are insensitive to these concerns face both research and legal risks.

(b) Ethical behaviour of assistants

Researchers should require ethical compliance from team members just as sponsors
expect ethical behaviour from the researcher. Assistants are expected to carry out
the sampling plan, to interview or observe respondents without bias and to accu-
rately record all necessary data. Unethical behaviour such as filling in an interview
sheet without having asked the respondent the questions cannot be tolerated. The
behaviour of the assistants is under the direct control of the responsible researcher
or field supervisor. If an assistant behaves improperly in an interview or shares a
respondents interview sheet with unauthorized person, it is the researcher’s respon-
sibility. All researchers’ assistants should be well trained and supervised.

(c) Protection of anonymity

Researchers and assistants protect the confidentiality of the sponsor’s information

and the anonymity of the respondents. Each researcher handling data should be
required to sign a confidentiality and nondisclosure statement.

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Revision Questions

Example . Define the term ethics.

Solution:
Ethics are norms or standards of behaviour that guide moral choices about our be-
haviour and our relationship with others. Ethics differ from legal constraints, in
which generally accepted standards have defined penalties that are universally en-
forced. The goal of ethics in research is to ensure that no one is harmed or suffers
adverse consequences from research activities.


E XERCISE 23.  Discuss the ethical issues concerning the researcher and
(a) The respondents
(b) The sponsor
(c) The team players

References and Additional Reading Materials

1. Adam, G and Schvaneveldt (1985). Understanding Research methods. Long-
mann Inc, New York.

2. Hult, C. (1996). Researching and writing in the social sciences. Allyn and
baron, Boston.

3. Newmann, W. L. (1994). Social Research methods. Allys and bacon, Boston:

U.S.A.

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LESSON 9
Data analysis

Learning outcomes
Upon completing this topic, you should be able to:

• Identify and explain research process components

• Gain deep understanding of research process and planning

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9.1. Data preparation and description

Once the data begins to flow in, attention turns to data analysis. If the project has
been done correctly, the analysis planning is already done.

Data preparation
This includes editing, coding and data entry. These activities ensure the accuracy
of the data and their conversion from raw form to reduced and classified forms that
are more appropriate for analysis.

Editing
Editing detects errors and omissions, corrects them when possible and certifies that
minimum data quality standards have been achieved. The editor’s purpose is to
guarantee that data are:

• Accurate

• Consistent with intent of the question and other information in the survey

• Uniformly entered

• Complete

• Arranged to simplify coding and tabulation

Field editing
In large projects, field editing review is a responsibility of the field supervisor. It
should be done soon after the data have been gathered. During the stress of data col-
lection, the researcher often uses ad hoc abbreviations and special symbols. Soon
after the interview, experiment or observation, the investigator should review the
reporting forms. It is difficult to complete what was abbreviated or written in short-
hand or noted illegibly if the entry is not caught that day. When entry gaps are
present from interviews, a call back should be made rather than guessing what the
respondent „probably would have said.Self-interviewing has no place in quality re-
search.

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Central editing
For a small study, the use of a single editor produces maximum consistency. In
large studies, the tasks may be broken down so that each editor can deal with one
entire section. This approach will not identify inconsistencies between answers in
different sections. However, this problem can be handled by identifying points of
possible inconsistency and having one editor check specifically for them.
Rules to guide editors in their work

• Be familiar with instructions given to interviewers and coders

• Do not destroy, erase or make illegible the original entry by the interviewer,
original entries should be crossed out with a single line to remain legible.

• Make all entries on an instrument in some distinctive colour and in a stan-

dardized form.

• Initial all answers changed or supplied.

• Place initials and date of editing on each instrument completed.

Coding
Coding involves assigning numbers or other symbols to answers so the responses
can be grouped into a limited number of classes or categories. The classifying of
data into limited categories sacrifices some data detail but is necessary for efficient
analysis. Coding helps the researcher to reduce several thousand replies to a few
categories containing the critical information needed for analysis. In coding, cate-
gories are the partitioning of a set and categorization is the process of using rules to
partition a body of data.

Coding rules
The categories should be:

• Appropriate to the research problem and purpose: Categories must provide

the best partitioning of data for testing hypotheses and showing relationships.

• Exhaustive

• Mutually exclusive

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• Derived from one classification principle

Coding closed questions

The responses to closed questions include scaled items and others for which an-
swers can be anticipated. When codes are established early in the research process,
it is possible to pre-code the questionnaire. Pre-coding is particularly helpful for
data entry because it makes the intermediate step of completing a coding sheet un-
necessary. The data are accessible directly from the questionnaire. A respondent,
interviewer, field supervisor or researcher is able to assign an appropriate numerical
response on the instrument by checking, circling or printing it in the proper coding
location.

Coding open-ended questions

Open-ended questions are always used where insufficient information or lack of
a hypothesis prohibits preparing response categories in advance, need to measure
sensitive or disapproved behaviour, discover salience or encouraging natural modes
of expressions. Content analysis is always used to analyse open-ended questions.
Converse and Presser (1986) define content analysis as a research technique for
the objective, systematic and quantitative description of the manifest content of a
communication.
Content analysis follows a systematic process i.e.

• Selection of a unitization scheme. The units may be syntactical, referential,

prepositional or thematic

• Selection of a sampling plan

• Development of recording and coding instructions

• Data reduction

• Inferences about the context

• Statistical analysis

Content analysis guards against selective perception of the content, provides for the
rigorous application of reliability and validity criteria and is amenable to comput-
erization.

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“Don’t know” replies

“Don’t know” replies are evaluated in light of the questions nature and the respon-
dent. While many don’t know are legitimate, some result from questions that are
ambiguous or from an interviewing situation that is not motivating. It is better to
report don’t knows as a separate category unless there are compelling reasons to
treat them otherwise.

Data entry
Data entry converts information gathered by secondary or primary methods to a
medium for viewing and manipulation. Data entry is accomplished by keyboard en-
try from pre-coded instruments, optical scanning, real time keyboarding, telephone
pad data entry, bar codes, voice recognition, optical mark recognition (OMR) and
data transfers from electronic notebooks and laptop computers. Database programs,
spreadsheets and editors in statistical software programs e.g. SPSS and SAS offer
flexibility for entering, manipulating and transferring data for analysis, warehous-
ing and mining.

Data description
The objective of descriptive statistical analysis is to develop sufficient knowledge
to describe a body of data. This is accomplished by understanding the data levels
for the measurements we choose, their distributions and characteristics of location,
spread and shape. The discovery of miscoded values, missing data and other prob-
lems in the data set is enhanced with descriptive statistics
There are three general areas that make up the field of statistics: descriptive statis-
tics, relational statistics, and inferential statistics:

9.2. Descriptive statistics

Descriptive statistics fall into one of two categories: measures of central tendency
(mean, median, and mode) or measures of dispersion (standard deviation and vari-
ance). Their purpose is to explore hunches that may have come up during the course
of the research process, but most people compute them to look at the normality of
their numbers. Examples include descriptive analysis of sex, age, race, social class,
and so forth.

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Measures of Central Tendency

The Mean
The most commonly used measure of central tendency is the mean. To compute
the mean, you add up all the numbers and divide by how many numbers there are.
It’s not the average nor a halfway point, but a kind of center that balances high
numbers with low numbers. For this reason, it’s most often reported along with
some simple measure of dispersion, such as the range, which is expressed as the
lowest and highest number. The mean is used for interval data only.

The Median
The median is the exact midpoint in a ranked distribution of numbers. It’s not the
average; it’s the halfway point. There are always 50% of all observations above the
median and 50% below the median. In cases where there is an even set of numbers,
you average the two middle numbers. The median is best suited for ranked values
of data that are ordinal and interval.

The Mode
The mode is the most frequently occurring value. It’s the closest thing to what
people mean when they say something is average or typical. The mode doesn’t even
have to be a number. It will be a category when the data are nominal or qualitative.
The mode can be applied to nominal, ordinal, or interval data. It is always the value
(either quantitative or qualitative) that occurs the most often. The mode is useful
when you have a highly skewed set of numbers, mostly low or mostly high. You can
also have two modes (bimodal distribution) when one group of scores are mostly
low and the other group is mostly high, with few in the middle.

Measures of Dispersion
In data analysis, the purpose of statistically computing a measure of dispersion is to
discover the extent to which scores differ, cluster, or spread from around a measure
of central tendency. The most commonly used measure of dispersion is the standard
deviation. You first compute the variance, which is calculated by subtracting the
mean from each number, squaring it, and dividing the grand total (Sum of Squares)
by how many numbers there are. The square root of the variance is the standard
deviation.

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The standard deviation is important for many reasons. One reason is that, once
you know the standard deviation, you can standardize by it. Standardization is the
process of converting raw scores into what are called standard scores, which allow
you to better compare groups of different sizes. Standardization isn’t required for
data analysis, but it becomes useful when you want to compare different subgroups
in your sample, or between groups in different studies. A standard score is called a
Z-score (not to be confused with a z-test), and is calculated by subtracting the mean
from each and every number and dividing by the standard deviation. Once you
have converted your data into standard scores, you can then use probability tables
that exist for estimating the likelihood that a certain raw score will appear in the
population. This is an example of using a descriptive statistic (standard deviation)
for inferential purposes.

Visual Displays of Data

In addition to numerical summaries of location, spread and shape, visual displays
can be used to provide a complete and accurate impression of distribution and vari-
able relationships.

• Frequency table arrays data from highest to lowest values with counts and
percentages. They are most useful for inspecting the range of responses and
their repeated occurrence.

• Bar charts and pie charts are appropriate for relative comparisons of nominal
data.

• Histograms are optimally used with continuous variables where intervals group
the responses.

• Stem and leaf displays present actual data values using a histogram type de-
vice that allows inspection of spread and shape.

• Box plots use the five-number summary to convey a detailed picture of a

distribution’s main body, tails and outliers.

• Control charts displays sequential measurements of a process together with a

centre line and control limits. The selection of a control chart depends on the
level

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• of data one is measuring. It helps manager’s focus on special causes of varia-

tion by revealing whether a system is under control and substantiating results
from improvements.

• The Pareto diagram is a bar chart whose percentages sum to 100 percent. The
causes of the problem under investigation are sorted in decreasing importance
with

bar height descending from left to right. Its pictorial array reveals the highest con-
centration of quality improvement potential in the fewest number of remedies.

9.3. Relational statistics

Relational statistics fall into one of three categories: univariate, bivariate, and multi-
variate analysis. Univariate analysis is the study of one variable for a sub-population.
Bivariate analysis is the study of a relationship between two variables. Multivariate
analysis is the study of relationship between three or more variables.

(a) Correlation
The most commonly used relational statistic is the correlation coefficient, known as
Pearson’s R. It is used to a measure the strength and direction of the relationship be-
tween two variables. Interpretation of a correlation coefficient does not even allow
the slightest hint of causality. The most a researcher can say is that the variables
share something in common; that is, are related in some way. The more two things
have something in common, the more strongly they are related. There can also be
negative relations, but the important quality of correlation coefficients is not their
sign, but their absolute value. A correlation of -.58 is stronger than a correlation of
.43, even though with the former, the relationship is negative. The following table
lists the interpretations for various correlation coefficients:
Value Comment
0.8 to 1.0 Very strong
0.6 to 0.8 Strong
0.4 to 0.6 Moderate
0.2 to 0.4 Weak
0.0 to 0.2 Very weak

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The most frequently used correlation coefficient in data analysis is the Pearson
product moment correlation. It is symbolized by the small letter r, and is fairly
easy to compute from raw scores.
If you square the Pearson correlation coefficient, you get the coefficient of deter-
mination, written as r squared It is the amount of variance accounted for in one
variable by the other. Large R can also be computed by using the statistical tech-
nique of regression, but in that situation, it’s interpreted as the amount of variance
explained for one variable by another.

(b) Regression
Regression is the closest thing to estimating causality in data analysis, and that’s
because it predicts how much the numbers "fit" a projected straight line, known as
linearity or linear relationship. There are also advanced regression techniques for
curvilinear estimation. The most common form of regression, however, is linear
regression, and the least squares method to find an equation that best fits a line
representing what is called the regression of y on x. The procedure is similar to
computing a calculus minima. Instead of finding the perfect number, however, one
is interested in finding the perfect line, such that there is one and only one line
(represented by equation) that perfectly represents, or fits the data, regardless of
how scattered the data points. The slope of the line (equation) provides information
about predicted directionality, and the estimated coefficients (or beta weights) for
x and y (independent and dependent variables) indicate the power of the relation-
ship. Use of a regression formula (not shown here because it’s too large; only the
generic regression equation is shown) produces a number called R-squared, which
is a kind of conservative, yet powerful coefficient of determination. Interpretation
of R-squared is somewhat controversial, but generally uses the same strength table
as correlation coefficients, and at a minimum, researchers say it represents "variance
explained."

(c) Discriminant analysis

It is used to classify people or objects into groups based on several predictor vari-
ables. The groups are defined by a categorical variable with two or more values,
whereas the predictors are metric. The effectiveness of the discriminant equation
is based not only on its statistical significance but also on its success in correctly

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classifying cases to groups.

(d) Conjoint analysis

It is a technique that typically handles non-metric independent variables. It allows
the researcher to determine the importance of product or service attributes and the
levels or features that are most desirable. Respondents provide preference data by
ranking or rating cards that describe products. These data become utility weights
of product characteristics by means of optimal scaling and log linear algorithms.

(e) Factor analysis

It attempts to reduce the umber of variables and discover the underlying constructs
that explain the variance. A correlation matrix is used to derive a factor matrix from
which the best linear combination of variables may be extracted.

(f) Cluster analysis

It is a set of techniques for grouping similar objects or people. The cluster procedure
starts with an undifferentiated group of people, events or objects and attempts to
reorganize them into homogeneous sub-groups.

9.4. Inferential statistics

Inferential statistics, also called inductive statistics, fall into one of two categories:
tests for difference of means and tests for statistical significance, the latter which
are further subdivided into parametric or nonparametric, depending upon whether
you’re inferring to the larger population as a whole (parametric) or the people in
your sample (nonparametric). The purpose of difference of means tests is to test
hypotheses, and the most common techniques are called Z-tests. The most com-
mon parametric tests of significance are the F-test, t-test, ANOVA, and regression.
The most common nonparametric tests of significance are chi-square, the Mann-
Whitney U-test, and the Kruskal-Wallis test. Different parametric tests are used for
different types of data (e.g., nominal, ordinal, or interval) as well as for different
types of distributions (e.g. normal, t distribution, chi square, etc.).

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(a) Z-TESTS, F-TESTS, AND T-TESTS

These refer to a variety of tests for inferential purposes. Z-tests are not to be con-
fused with z-scores. Z-tests come in a variety of forms, the most popular being: (1)
to test the significance of correlation coefficients; (2) to test for equivalence of sam-
ple proportions to population proportions, as in whether the number of minorities
you’ve got in your sample is proportionate to the number in the population. Z-tests
essentially check for linearity and normality, allow some rudimentary hypothesis
testing, and allow the ruling out of Type I and Type II error.
F-tests are much more powerful, as they allow explanation of variance in one vari-
able accounted for by variance in another variable. In this sense, they are very
much like the coefficient of determination. One really needs a full-fledged statis-
tics course to gain an understanding of F-tests, so suffice it to say here that you
find them most commonly with regression and ANOVA techniques. F-tests require
interpretation by using a table of critical values.
T-tests are kind of like little F-tests, and similar to Z-tests. It’s appropriate for
smaller samples, and relatively easy to interpret since any calculated t over 2.0 is,
by rule of thumb, significant. T-tests can be used for one sample, two samples,
one tail, or two-tailed. You use a two-tailed test if there’s any possibility of bi-
directionality.

(b) Analysis of Variance

Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) is a data analytic technique based on the idea of
comparing explained variance with unexplained variance, kind of like a compari-
son of the coefficient of determination with the coefficient of alienation. It uses a
rather unique computational formula which involves squaring almost every column
of numbers. What is called the Between Sum of Squares (BSS) refers to variance
in one variable explained by variance in another variable, and what is called the
Within Sum of Squares (WSS) refers to variance that is not explained by variance
in another variable.

(c) CHI-SQUARE
A technique designed for less than interval level data is chi-square (pronounced kye-
square), and the most common forms of it are the chi-square test for contingency
and the chi-square test for independence. Other varieties exist, such as Cramer’s

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V, Proportional Reduction in Error (PRE) statistics, Yule’s Q, and Phi. Essentially,

all chi-square type tests involve arranging the frequency distribution of the data
in what is called a contingency table of rows and columns. Marginals, which are
estimates of error in predicting concordant pairs in the rows and columns (based on
the null hypothesis), are then computed, subtracted from one another, and expressed
in the form of a ratio, or contingency coefficient. Predicted scores based on the null
hypothesis are called expected frequencies, and these are subtracted from observed
frequencies (Observed minus Expected). Chi-square tests are frequently seen in the
literature, and can be easily done by hand, or are run by computers automatically
whenever a contingency table is asked for.
The chi-square test for contingency is interpreted as a strength of association mea-
sure, while the chi-square test for independence (which requires two samples) is a
nonparametric test of significance that essentially rules out as much sampling error
and chance as possible.

(d) MANN-WHITNEY AND KRUSKAL-WALLIS TESTS

The Mann-Whitney U test is similar to chi-square and the t-test, and used whenever
you have ranked ordinal level measurement. As a significance test, you need two
samples, and you rank (say, from 1 to 15) the scores in each group, looking at the
number of ties. A z-table is used to compare calculated and table values of U. The
interpretation is usually along the lines of some significant difference being due to
the variables you’ve selected.
The Kruskal-Wallis H test is similar to ANOVA and the F-test, and also uses ordinal,
multi-sample data. It’s most commonly seen when raters are used to judge research
subjects or research content. Rank calculations are compared to a chi-square table,
and interpretation is usually along the lines that there are some significant differ-
ences, and grounds for accepting research hypotheses.
It is assumed that the concepts of hypothesis testing were done in CMS 200: Busi-
ness Statistics, therefore, just as a reminder, here is a summary of the steps followed
in hypothesis, and the various test statistics used under various conditions.

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9.5. Hypothesis testing

Definitions
Hypothesis: It’s a statement about a population parameter developed for the purpose
of testing.
Hypothesis testing: It’s a procedure based on sample evidence and probability the-
ory to determine whether the hypothesis is a reasonable statement.
Procedure for testing a hypothesis

1. State the null and alternate hypothesis

2. Select a level of significance.

3. Identify the test statistic

4. Formulate a decision rule and identify the rejection region

5. Compute the value of the test statistic and make a conclusion.

State the null hypothesis (HO) and alternate hypothesis (HA)

• The null hypothesis is a statement about the value of a population param-
eter. It should be stated as “ There is no significant difference between
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ”. It should always contain an equal sign.

• The alternate hypothesis is a statement that is accepted if sample data provide

enough evidence that the null hypothesis is false.

Select a level of significance

A level of significance is the probability of rejecting the null hypothesis when it is
true. It is designated by σ and should be between 0 –1.

Types of errors that can be committed

1. Type I error: it is rejecting the null hypothesis, when it is true.

2. Type II error: It is not rejecting the null hypothesis, when it is false.

Identify the test statistic

A test statistic is the statistic that will be used to test the hypothesis e.g.
Z, T, Fandx2 2 (chi − square)

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Formulate a decision rule

A decision rule is a statement of the conditions under which the null hypothesis is
rejected and the conditions under which it is not rejected. The region or area of
rejection defines the location of all those values that are so large or so small that the
probability of their occurrence under a true null hypothesis is rather remote.

Compute the value of the test statistic and make a conclusion.

The value of the test statistic is determined from the sample information, and is
used to determine whether to reject the null hypothesis or not.

One-tailed and Two-tailed tests

• A test is one tailed when the alternate hypothesis states a direction e.g.HO :
The mean income of women is equal to the mean income of men HA : The
mean income of women is greater than the mean income of men

• A test is two tailed if no direction is specified in the alternate hypothesis

HO : There is no difference between the mean income of women and the mean
income of men
HA :: There is a difference between the mean income of women and the mean in-
come of men

Testing the Population Mean When the Population Variance Is Known

When the population variance is known and the population is normally distributed,
√
the test statistic for testing hypothesis aboutµ isZ=x−u/σ n

Estimating the population mean when the population variance is known

The confidence interval estimator of µwhen σ 2 is known is
χ ± Z a/2 √σn

Testing the Population Mean When the Population Variance Is Unknown

When the population variance is unknown and the population is normally dis-
tributed, the test statistic for testing hypothesis about µis t = x−u
s/ n which has a student
√

t distribution with n − 1degrees of freedom.

We now have two different test statistic for testing the population mean. The choice
of which one to use depends on whether or not the population variance is known.

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x−u
• If the population variance is known, the test statistic isZ = √
σ/ n

x−u
• If the population variance is unknown, the test statistic is t = √
s/ n d.f n − 1

Estimating the population mean when the population variance is unknown

The confidence interval estimator of µ when σ 2 is unknown is
√
x ± t α/2s/ n d. f. = n − 1

Inference about a Population Variance

Variance can be used to describe a number of different situations e.g.

• In Quality control, engineers must ensure that products coming out of a pro-
duction line meets specifications such as size, weight, volume etc.

• In finance, the variance of the returns on a portfolio of investments is a mea-

sure of the uncertainty and risk inherent in a portfolio.

The sample variance is an unbiased, consistent estimator of the population variance.

Chi-square sampling distribution

In repeated sampling from a normal population whose variance is σ 2 , the variable
(n−1)s2 (n−1)s2
σ 2 is chi-square distributed with (n-1) degrees of freedom. The variable σ2
2 2
is called the chi-square statistic and is denoted by x . The x variable can equal any
value between 0 and x.

Chi-square notation
The value of x2 such that the area to its right under the chi-square curve is equal to
is denoted by x2 α . The valuex2 1 − α is the point such that the area to its right is
1 − αHence, the area to its left is α .

Learning Activities
Review of MSc and PhD proposals and theses and scientific papers to identify the
components of research process, format of presentation.

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Revision Questions

Example . This is the first question for revision

Solution: this is the answer to the first question 
.
E XERCISE 24.  ....

Assignments
Are there noticeable fundamental differences in components of research process
and the format of presentation between theses and journal papers?

1. State the similarities between theses and journal papers.

2. State the differences noticed.

3. Explain any noticed similarity and the differences

References and Additional Reading Materials

1. Graduate school guidelines for research proposals and thesis presentations

2. Designing a research project by Piet Verschuren and Hans Doorewaard. Pub-

lisher LEMMA- Utrecht, 1999.

3. MSc and PhD research proposals and theses.

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LESSON 10
Report writing

Learning outcomes
Upon completing this lesson, you should be able to:

• Use the knowledge so far gained to write a research report

• Implement the report by collecting and analyzing data.

• Write a research report.

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10.1. Introduction
A quality presentation of research findings can have an inordinate effect on a reader’s
or a listener’s perceptions of a study’s quality. Recognition of this fact should
prompt a researcher to make a special effort to communicate skillfully and clearly.
Research reports contain findings, analysis, interpretations, conclusions and recom-
mendations. Research reports differ depending on their aims and their readership.
Reports should be clearly organized, physically inviting and easy to read. Writers
can achieve these goals if they are careful with mechanical details, writing style and
comprehensibility.

10.2. Writing a research proposal/report and research reports

A report/proposal is a document, which details an intended activity. The formats
for writing proposals differ from institution to institution or from department to
department. Generally, a research proposal should include the following prefatory
items; the title page, declaration, table of contents, list of figures and tables, list of
acronyms and abbreviations and an abstract. It will also have chapter one: Introduc-
tion, Chapter Two: Literature review and Chapter Three: Methodology. In addition
it will also have the references, time schedule, budget and any appendices.

The final research report will have what is contained in the proposal (apart from
the time schedule and budget) and in addition dedication, acknowledgement, chap-
ter four: Data analysis and findings and chapter five: Summary, conclusions and
recommendations.
10.2.1. Prefatory items
Prefatory items do not have a direct bearing on the research itself. They assist the
reader in using the research report. They can include: -

Title page:
The title page should include the title of the report, the date and for whom and by
whom it was prepared. The title should be brief but should include the variables in-
cluded in the study, the type of relationship among the variables and the population
to which the results may be applied.

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Declaration
This is whereby the researcher declares that the work s his/her original work.

Dedication
Some researchers would always wish to dedicate their work to a person or persons
they deem special in their lives.

Table of contents and list of figures and tables

Any report with several sections that total more than six to ten pages should have a
table of contents. If there are many tables, charts or other exhibits, they should also
be listed after the table of contents in a separate list of tables or list of figures.

List of abbreviations and acronyms

All abbreviations and acronyms used in report should be explained. An abbreviation
is a short form of a word while an acronym is a contraction formed by taking the
first letter of several words.

Acknowledgements
During the research process, the researcher may require help from other individuals
or organisations. It would be necessary if the researcher acknowledged received
from these individuals and organisations.

Abstract
A proposal abstract is a summary of what the researcher intends to do. It should be
brief, precise and to the point.

10.3. Introduction
The introduction prepares the reader for the report by describing the parts of the
report.

Background to the problem

In the background, the researcher should broadly introduce the topic under investi-
gation. The researcher introduces briefly the general area of study, and then narrows
down to the specific problem to be studied. The background enables the reader to
have an idea of what is happening regarding the area under investigation.

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The problem Statement

The researcher states the problem under investigation. The researcher should de-
scribe the factors that make the stated problem a critical issue to warrant the study.
Relevant literature can be referred to. It should be brief and precise.

The purpose of the study

It is a broad statement indicating what the researcher intends to do about the prob-
lem being investigated.

The objectives of the study

Research objectives are those specific issues within the scope of the stated purpose
that the researcher wants to focus upon and examine in the study. The objectives
should be specific, measurable, achievable, reliable and time bound. Objectives
guide the researcher in formulating testable hypotheses.

Research questions
These are the questions, which the researcher would like to be answered by under-
taking the study. They should be formulated from the objectives of the study.

Hypothesis
A hypothesis is a researchers prediction regarding the outcome of the study. It
states possible differences, relationships or causes between two variables or con-
cepts. Hypothesis are derived from or based on existing theories, previous research,
personal observations or experiences. The test of a hypothesis involves collection
and analysis of data that may either support or fail to support the hypothesis. If the
results fail to support a stated hypothesis, it does not mean that the study has failed
but it implies that the existing theories or principles need to be revised or retested
under various situations.

Significance / Justification of the study

The justification helps to answer the following questions. Why is this work impor-
tant? What are the implications of doing it? How does it link to other knowledge?
How does it stand to inform policy making? The significance must be strong enough
to warrant the use of time, energy and money in carrying out the research.

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10.4. Literature Review

The purpose of the literature review is to situate your research in the context of what
is already known about a topic. It need not be exhaustive, it needs to show how your
work will benefit the whole. It should provide the theoretical basis for your work,
show what has been done in the area by others, and set the stage for your work.

In a literature review you should give the reader enough ties to the literature that
they feel confident that you have found, read, and assimilated the literature in the
field. It should probably move from the more general to the more focused studies,
but need not be exhaustive, only relevant.
The literature review should clearly present the holes in the knowledge that need to
be plugged and by so doing, situate your work. It is the place where you establish
that your work will fit in and be significant to the discipline.

10.5. Methodology
This section should make clear to the reader the way that you intend to approach
the research question and the techniques and logic that you will use to address it.

10.5.1. Research design

The coverage of the design must be adapted to the purpose. In an experimental
study, the materials, tests, equipment, control conditions and other devices should
be described. In descriptive or ex post facto designs, it may be sufficient to cover the
rationale for using one design instead of competing alternatives. The strengths and
weaknesses of the design can be identified and the instrumentation and materials
discussed.

10.5.2. The population and sampling strategy

The researcher should explicitly define the target population being studied and the
sampling methods used. Explanations of the sampling methods, uniqueness of the
chosen parameters or other points that need explanation should be covered with
brevity.

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10.5.3. Data Types and Data Collection Techniques

This part of the report describes the specifics of gathering the data. Its contents
depend on the design. This might include the data that you anticipate collecting and
a description of the instruments you will use. Detailed copies of the data collection
tools e.g. questionnaires, interview schedule or observation schedule should be
attached as an appendix.

10.5.4. Data Analysis

This section summarizes the methods used to analyze the data. It describes data
handling, preliminary analysis, statistical tests, computer programs and other tech-
nical information. The rationale for the choice of analysis approaches should be
clear. A brief commentary on assumptions and appropriateness of use should be
presented.

10.6. Data analysis and Findings

The objective is to explain the data rather than draw interpretations or conclusions.
When quantitative data can be presented, it should be done as simply as possible
with charts, graphics and tables. The data need not include everything collected.
Only material important to the reader’s understanding of the problem and the find-
ings should be included. Both findings that support or do not support the hypothesis
should be included.

10.7. Summary and conclusions

The summary is a brief statement of the essential findings. Sectional summaries
may be used if there are many specific findings. These may be combined into
an overall summary. Conclusions represent inferences drawn from the findings.
Conclusions may be presented in a tabular form for easy reading and reference.
Summary findings may be subordinated under the related conclusion statement.

10.8. Recommendations
There are usually a few ideas about corrective actions. In academic research, the
recommendations are often further study suggestions that broaden or test under-
standing of the subject area. In applied research, the recommendations will usually

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be for managerial action rather than research action. The writer may offer several
alternatives with justifications.

10.9. References
The use of secondary data requires a reference or a bibliography. Proper citation,
style and formats are unique to the purpose of the report. The

10.10. Appendixes
The appendixes are the place for complex tables, statistical tests, supporting doc-
uments, copies of forms and questionnaires, detailed descriptions of the method-
ology, instructions to field workers and other evidence important for later support.
The reader who wishes to learn about technical aspects of the study and to look at
statistical breakdowns will want a complete appendix.

10.11. Time schedule

It is a listing of the major activities and the corresponding anticipated time period it
will take to accomplish that activity. The time is usually given in months. Activities
to be undertaken can always overlap.

10.12. Budget
A budget is a list of items that will be required to carry out the research and their
approximate cost. It should be detailed enough and precise on items needed, prices
per unit and total cost. Details of requirements in each budget will be governed by
the type of research.

10.13. Characteristics of a Good report/Proposal:

1. The need for the proposed activity is clearly established, preferably with data.

2. The most important ideas are highlighted and repeated in several places.

3. The objectives of the project are given in detail.

4. There is a detailed schedule of activities for the project, or at least sample

portions of such a complete project schedule.

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5. Collaboration with all interested groups in planning of the proposed project

is evident in the proposal.

6. The commitment of all involved parties is evident, e.g., letters of commitment

in the appendix and cost sharing stated in both the narrative of the proposal
and the budget.

7. The budget and the proposal narrative are consistent.

8. The uses of money are clearly indicated in the proposal narrative as well as
in the budget.

9. All of the major matters indicated in the proposal guidelines are clearly ad-
dressed in the proposal.

10. The agreement of all project staff and consultants to participate in the project
was acquired and is so indicated in the proposal.

11. All governmental procedures have been followed with regard to matters such
as civil rights compliance and protection of human subjects.

12. Appropriate detail is provided in all portions of the proposal.

13. All of the directions given in the proposal guidelines have been followed
carefully.

14. Appendices have been used appropriately for detailed and lengthy materials
which the reviewers may not want to read but are useful as evidence of careful
planning, previous experience, etc.

15. The length is consistent with the proposal guidelines and/or funding agency
expectations.

16. The budget explanations provide an adequate basis for the figures used in
building the budget.

17. If appropriate, there is a clear statement of commitment to continue the project

after external funding ends.

18. The qualifications of project personnel are clearly communicated.

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19. The writing style is clear and concise. It speaks to the reader, helping the
reader understand the problems and proposal. Summarizing statements and
headings are used to lead the reader.

10.14. Guidelines for writing a good research report

• Break large units of text into smaller units with headings to show organisation
of the topics

• Relieve difficult text with visual aids when possible

• Emphasize important material and de-emphasize secondary material through

sentence construction and judicious use of italising, underlining, capitalizing
and parentheses.

• Use ample space and wide margins to create a positive psychological effect
on the reader.

• Choose words carefully, opting for the known and short rather than the un-
known and long.

• Repeat and summarize critical and difficult ideas so readers can have time to
absorb them.

• Review the writing to ensure the tone is appropriate

• Proof read the final document to correct any errors.

• Use short paragraphs

• Indent parts of text that represent listings, long quotations or examples.

• Use headings and subheadings to divide the report and its major sections into
homogeneous topical parts.

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Revision Questions

Example . Discuss the characteristics of a good research proposal/report .

Solution:
The need for the proposed activity is clearly established, preferably with data; The
most important ideas are highlighted and repeated in several places; The objectives
of the project are given in detail; There is a detailed schedule of activities for the
project, or at least sample portions of such a complete project schedule; Collabora-
tion with all interested groups in planning of the proposed project is evident in the
proposal; The commitment of all involved parties is evident, e.g., letters of commit-
ment in the appendix and cost sharing stated in both the narrative of the proposal
and the budget; The budget and the proposal narrative are consistent; The uses of
money are clearly indicated in the proposal narrative as well as in the budget; All
of the major matters indicated in the proposal guidelines are clearly addressed in
the proposal; The agreement of all project staff and consultants to participate in the
project was acquired and is so indicated in the proposal; All governmental proce-
dures have been followed with regard to matters such as civil rights compliance and
protection of human subjects. 

E XERCISE 25.  Describe the various components of a research report .

E XERCISE 26.  Develop a draft working research proposal using the suggested
format.

References and Additional Reading Materials

1. Adam, G and Schvaneveldt (1985). Understanding Research methods. Long-
mann Inc, New York.

2. Hult, C. (1996). Researching and writing in the social sciences. Allyn and
baron, Boston.

3. Newmann, W. L. (1994). Social Research methods. Allys and bacon, Boston:

U.S.A.

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