MERU UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

INSTITUTE OF CEMENT & CONCRETE

SCT 7110: CEMENT SCIENCE
Introduction to Cement Technology
1. Discuss the differences between hydraulic and non-hydraulic cements. How do
their properties and applications differ? Provide examples of each type of cement
and its common uses (10 marks)
2. Explain the distinction between Portland cement and pozzolanic cement. How do
their compositions and properties affect their suitability for different construction
applications? Provide examples of projects where each type of cement is
commonly used (10 marks)
3. Compare and contrast high-early-strength cement (HESC) with low-heat-cement
(LHC). How do their unique properties make them suitable for specific
construction scenarios? Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of each type of
cement in terms of workability, durability, and cost
(10 marks)
4. Describe the characteristics and applications of sulfate-resistant cement (SRC).
How does its unique composition and structure make it more resistant to sulfate
attack than regular Portland cement? Provide examples of construction projects
where SRC is commonly used (10 marks)
5. Explain the concept of low-calcium or "non-Portland" cements. How do their
chemical compositions differ from traditional Portland cement, and what
advantages do they offer in terms of environmental sustainability and durability?
Discuss the potential challenges associated with using low-calcium cements in
construction projects (15 marks)
6. Compare the properties and applications of calcium aluminate cement (CAC) with
those of calcium sulfoaluminate cement (CSA). How do their unique chemical
compositions affect their reactivity, strength, and resistance to chemical attacks?
Provide examples of construction projects where each type of cement is commonly
used (10 marks)
7. Discuss the role of supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) in modern
cement formulations. How do SCMs such as fly ash, silica fume, and slag affect

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 the properties of concrete? What are the benefits and drawbacks of incorporating
SCMs in concrete mix designs? (10 marks)

8. Explain the concept of blended cements, including composite cements and

blended hydraulic cements. How do these cements combine the benefits of
different types of cement to create a product with improved properties? Provide
examples of blended cements that are commonly used in construction projects
(15 marks)

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Fundamentals of Cement Science
1. Discuss the raw materials required for cement manufacture and their proportions.
Describe the role of each raw material in the cement manufacturing process
(15 marks)
2. Describe the process of limestone quarrying and its impact on the environment. How
does the quality of limestone affect the quality of cement? (10 marks)
3. Explain the different types of crushers used in cement manufacturing and their
functions. How do they contribute to the overall efficiency of the process? (10 marks)
4. Describe the process of clinker production and its importance in cement manufacture.
What are the advantages and disadvantages of using clinker in cement production?
(10 marks)
5. Discuss the role of grinding and milling in cement manufacture. How do different types
of grinding mills, such as ball mills and vertical roller mills, affect the quality of
cement? (12 marks)
6. Describe the process of cement coolers and their significance in cement manufacture.
What are the benefits and limitations of using different types of coolers, such as rotary
coolers and grate coolers? (10 marks)
7. Explain the importance of additives in cement manufacturing. Describe the functions
of different additives, such as fly ash, slag, and limestone filler, and their effects on
cement properties (12 marks)
8. Compare and contrast different types of cement manufacturing processes, such as wet
process and dry process. What are the advantages and disadvantages of each process?
(10 marks)
9. Describe the environmental impact of cement manufacturing, including greenhouse gas
emissions and dust pollution. What measures can be taken to reduce these impacts?
(10 marks)
10. Imagine you are a quality control engineer in a cement plant. Describe how you would
monitor and control the quality of cement produced, including testing methods and
sampling procedures (15 marks)
11. Explain the notation system used to represent the chemical composition of cement.
Provide examples of how this notation is used to describe the composition of different
types of cement (10 marks)
12. Discuss the role of calcium silicates, aluminates, and ferrites in the cement hydration
reaction. How do these compounds interact with each other and with water to form
the primary hydration products? (15 marks)

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13. Describe the concept of "CaO-Al2O3-SiO2" (C3S, C2S, C3A, and C4AF) notation and its
importance in understanding cement chemistry. How does this notation relate to the
chemical composition of cement? (10 marks)
14. Describe the formation and characteristics of the main hydration products of cement,
including calcium silicate hydrate (CSH), calcium aluminate hydrate (CAH), and
ettringite. How do these products affect the properties of concrete? (15 marks)
15. Explain how the microstructure of concrete is influenced by the chemical composition
of the cement, including the ratio of C3S to C2S, and the presence of other minerals such
as calcite and quartz. How do these factors impact the strength and durability of
concrete? (15 marks)
16. Describe the hydration reaction between cement and water, including the roles of
calcium ions, hydroxide ions, and silicate ions. How does this reaction affect the pH of
the pore solution? (10 marks)
17. Discuss the effects of admixtures on cement chemistry, including how they interact
with the hydration products and affect the properties of concrete. Provide examples of
common admixtures and their typical uses (10 marks)
18. Explain how cement chemistry is affected by variations in temperature, humidity, and
curing conditions. How do these factors impact the rate and extent of hydration?
(15 marks)
19. Discuss the main components of cement and their proportions in a typical Portland
cement. How do these components affect the properties of the final product?
(10 marks)
20. Describe the process of hydration and its importance in the setting and hardening of
cement. What are the key factors that influence the rate of hydration?
(10 marks)
21. What are the main types of cement? Compare and contrast Portland cement, blended
cement, and high-early-strength cement in terms of their composition, properties, and
applications. (15 marks)
22. Describe the main chemical reactions involved in the hydration of cement. How do
these reactions contribute to the formation of calcium silicate hydrates, calcium
aluminate hydrates, and calcium hydroxide? (15 marks)
23. Explain how limestone, clay, and other raw materials are used to produce clinker.
What is the role of each material in the cement-making process? (10 marks)
24. Discuss the role of sulfate ions in cement chemistry. How do they affect the setting and
hardening of cement, and what are the implications for concrete durability?
(15 marks)
25. Discuss the effects of supplementary cementitious materials (SCM) on cement
properties, such as fly ash, silica fume, and calcined clays. How do these SCM influence
workability, strength, and durability? (15 marks)
26. Describe the concept of pH buffering in concrete. How does it relate to the long-term
durability of concrete structures? What are the implications for concrete design and
maintenance? (15 marks)

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27. Explain how advances in cement chemistry have led to the development of new types
of cements, such as ultra-high-performance concretes (UHPCs) and self-healing
concretes. What benefits do these new cements offer, and what challenges remain to
be addressed? (15 marks)

Clinkerization process

1. Describe the clinkerization process, including the raw materials, thermal requirements,
and chemical reactions involved. How does the clinkerization process affect the
properties of the final cement product? (15 marks)
2. Compare and contrast the different types of kilns used in the clinkerization process,
including rotary kilns, vertical shaft kilns, and shaft kilns. What are the advantages
and disadvantages of each type? (10 marks)
3. Discuss the importance of clinker quality in cement production. How do factors such
as clinker fineness, surface area, and composition affect the final cement product?
(15 marks)
4. Describe the role of additives in the clinkerization process. How do additives such as
limestone, fly ash, and silica fume affect the properties of the final cement product?
(15 marks)
5. Discuss the impact of the clinkerization process on the environment. What are some of
the potential environmental concerns associated with this process, and how can they
be mitigated? (10 marks)
6. Compare and contrast different cement types, such as Portland cement, blended
cement, and special cements. How do these different types of cement differ in terms of
their composition, properties, and uses? (10 marks)
7. Describe a case study of a successful clinkerization plant. What were some of the key
factors that contributed to its success, and what challenges did it face? (10 marks)
8. Discuss the future trends and developments in clinkerization technology. What are
some of the emerging trends and innovations in this field, and how will they impact
the cement industry in the future? (10 marks)
9. Analyze the role of energy efficiency in the clinkerization process. How can energy-
efficient technologies and practices be implemented to reduce energy consumption
and environmental impact? (15 marks)
10. Describe a current or potential challenge facing the clinkerization process, such as
changes in raw material availability or increasing environmental regulations. How
would you propose addressing this challenge? (10 marks)

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Raw milling and Blending
1. Describe the importance of raw milling in the cement manufacturing process. What are
the key stages involved in raw milling, and how do they impact the quality of the clinker
produced? (15 marks)

2. Explain the difference between wet and dry grinding processes in raw milling. Which
method is more commonly used, and why? Discuss the advantages and disadvantages
of each method (15 marks)

3. Describe the role of classifiers in raw milling. How do they help to separate the ground
raw meal into different size fractions, and what are the benefits of this process?
(10 marks)

4. Compare and contrast the different types of grinding mills used in raw milling, such
as ball mills, vertical mills, and roller mills. Which type is most commonly used, and
why? (15 marks)

5. Discuss the importance of blending raw materials in cement manufacturing. What are
the key considerations when blending different types of limestone, clay, and other
minerals? (15 marks)
6. Explain the concept of "ideal" blending ratios for raw materials in cement production.
How do variations in these ratios impact the final product's properties?
(10 marks)

7. Describe the role of sampling and analysis in ensuring accurate blending of raw
materials. How do you ensure that the blended mixture meets the required
specifications? (15 marks)

8. Compare and contrast different methods of blending raw materials, such as batch
blending, continuous blending, and drum blending. Which method is most commonly
used, and why? (15 marks)

9. Discuss how raw milling and blending are integrated with other process steps in
cement production, such as kiln firing and grinding. How do these processes interact
with each other to produce a final cement product? (10 marks)

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10. Explain how variations in raw material quality or blending can impact downstream
processes such as kiln firing and cement grinding. How can these variations be mitigated
or corrected? (15 marks)

11. Describe how energy efficiency considerations can be incorporated into raw milling
and blending operations to reduce energy consumption and environmental impact. What
strategies can be employed to achieve this goal? (15 marks)

12. Discuss recent advancements in raw milling technology, such as high-pressure

grinding rolls or vertical roller mills. How do these technologies improve efficiency,
reduce energy consumption, or enhance product quality? (15 marks)

13. Explain how data analytics and automation can be applied to optimize raw milling
and blending operations. What benefits do these technologies offer in terms of improved
efficiency, reduced costs, or enhanced product quality? (15 marks)

3. Describe potential future developments in raw milling and blending, such as the use
of alternative fuels or new materials processing technologies. How might these
developments impact the cement industry's sustainability goals? (15 marks)

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 Cement milling
1. Describe the purpose and function of cement milling in the cement production process.
How does it improve the quality and consistency of the final product? (10 marks)
2. Discuss the different types of cement mills used in the industry, including ball mills,
vertical roller mills, and high-pressure grinding rolls. Compare their advantages and
disadvantages, and explain when each would be suitable for use.
(10 marks)
3. What are the common challenges faced by cement mills in terms of wear and tear,
maintenance, and operation? Describe how these challenges can be overcome or
minimized through proper design, operation, and maintenance practices.
(10 marks)
4. Explain the importance of grinding aids in cement milling. How do they improve the
grinding process, and what benefits do they offer in terms of product quality and
production efficiency? (10 marks)
5. Discuss the role of cement milling in reducing energy consumption and environmental
impact in the cement industry. How do modern cement mills with high-efficiency
designs and alternative fuels contribute to sustainability goals?
(15 marks)
6. Compare and contrast the grinding circuit configurations used in different cement
plants, including open-circuit, closed-circuit, and semi-closed circuit configurations.
Which configuration is most commonly used, and why? (10 marks)
7.Describe the importance of particle size distribution in cement milling. How does it
affect the quality and performance of the final product? What measures can be taken
to optimize particle size distribution during grinding?
(10 marks)

8.Explain how cement milling technology has evolved over time. Discuss key
developments and innovations that have improved mill design, grinding efficiency,
and product quality. (10 marks)

9.Discuss the role of mill operation parameters such as temperature, pressure, and
moisture content on cement mill performance. How can these parameters be
optimized to achieve optimal grinding results? (10 marks)

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10. Compare the benefits and drawbacks of using recycled materials or alternative fuels
in cement milling. How do these materials impact mill performance, product quality,
and environmental sustainability? (40 marks)

Supplementary Cementitious Materials/Pozzolans

1. What are Pozzolans as per EN standards? (2 marks)

2. Discuss two common classifications of Pozzolans (4marks)
3. Discuss five common methods of testing reactivity of Pozzolans (10 marks)
4. Discuss the importance of pozzolans in the production of sustainable cement. How
do they contribute to reducing the environmental impact of cement
manufacturing? (15 marks)
5. Describe the different types of pozzolans commonly used in cement production.
Compare and contrast their chemical composition, reactivity, and applications.
How do these differences impact their suitability for use in different types of
concrete? (15 marks)
6. Explain the concept of Supplementary Cementitious Materials (SCMs) and their
role in reducing the environmental impact of cement production. How do
pozzolans fit into this category, and what are the implications for sustainable
construction practices? (15 marks)
7. What are the benefits of using calcined clay as a pozzolan in cement production?
Discuss its advantages in terms of improved workability, strength, and durability
of concrete. How does it compare to other types of pozzolans? (15 marks)
8. What are the future challenges of relying on using fly ash, blast furnace slag as a
pozzolan in cement production? (15 marks)
9. Discuss the potential challenges associated with using pozzolans in cement
production. How can these challenges be addressed through process
modifications or blending strategies? What are the implications for cement plant
design and operation? (15 marks)
10. Compare and contrast the use of natural pozzolans (e.g., volcanic ash, metakaolin)
versus industrial by-products (e.g., fly ash, silica fume) as pozzolans in cement
production. Which type is more sustainable, and why?
(15 marks)
11. Explain how pozzolans can improve the durability and sustainability of concrete
structures. Provide examples of specific applications where their use has led to
improved performance or reduced maintenance requirements.
(15 marks)

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12. Discuss the role of research and development in improving the use of pozzolans
in cement production. What are some potential areas for innovation, and how
could these advancements contribute to a more sustainable cement industry?
(15 marks)
13. Discuss the importance of reactivity in pozzolans for cement production. Describe
the methods used to assess the reactivity of pozzolans, including their advantages
and limitations. (10 marks)
14. Compare and contrast the reactivity of different types of pozzolans, such as silica
fume, fly ash, and natural pozzolan. How do their chemical and physical
properties affect their reactivity in cement production? (15 marks)
15. Describe the role of calcium hydroxide in the reaction between pozzolans and
calcium oxide in cement hydration. How does this reaction affect the strength and
durability of the resulting cement? (10 marks)
16. Explain the concept of "reactivity index" as a measure of a pozzolan's ability to
react with calcium oxide. How is this index calculated, and what are its limitations
in predicting the performance of a pozzolan in cement production?
(10 marks)
17. Discuss the effect of curing conditions on the reactivity of pozzolans in cement
production. How do factors such as temperature, humidity, and curing time
influence the hydration reaction between pozzolans and calcium oxide?
(15 marks)
18. Describe the differences between "early-age" and "long-term" reactivity tests used
to evaluate pozzolan performance. Which type of test is more relevant to industrial
practice, and why? (10 marks)
19. Discuss the potential benefits and drawbacks of using supplementary
cementitious materials (SCMs) containing reactive pozzolans in concrete
production. How do these materials affect the workability, strength, and
durability of concrete? (15 marks)
20. Compare and contrast different methods for optimizing the use of reactive
pozzolans in cement production, such as blending with other cementitious
materials or adjusting the composition of the cement blend. What are the
advantages and limitations of each approach? (15 marks)
21. Explain how laboratory testing can be used to predict the performance of reactive
pozzolans in field applications. What are some common pitfalls to avoid when
extrapolating laboratory results to real-world scenarios? (10 marks)
22. Discuss the impact of environmental factors on the reactivity of pozzolans in
cement production. How do factors such as temperature, moisture, and chemical
contaminants affect the hydration reaction between pozzolans and calcium oxide?
(15 marks)
23. Discuss the factors affecting the reactivity of pozzolans (15 marks)

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 General topics
1.Explain the mechanism by which Portland cement hydrates in a humid environment,
including the formation of a calcium silicate-rich layer on the surface of cement
particles. How does this process affect the rate of hydration?
(10 marks)
2.Explain the following terms (4marks)
i. Cement
ii. Clinkerization
iii. Calcination
iv. Free lime

2. Discuss four main factors affecting reactivity of common pozzolans ( 4 marks)

3. Distinguish between;
i. wet and dry process of cement manufacture (2 marks)
ii. Initial and final setting of cement (2 marks)
4. Describe the three levels on which composition and properties of Portland cements
can be used to assess the environmental aspects of cement over its life cycle analysis (3
marks)
5. Discuss five main factors which influence rate of cement hydration (5 marks)

6. Outline six key parameters for evaluating the performance of cement (3 marks)

7. Discuss the five main phases in cement hydration (10 marks)

8. State two types of mills commonly used in cement production (4 marks)
9. What is meant by the term ‘ lime saturation factor’ (2 mark)
10. Discuss the benefits of incorporating pozzolans in cement (9 marks)
11. Explain different configurations in which the classifier can be designed for cement
production (6 marks)
12. Explain five commonly methods used for testing the reactivity of supplementary
cementitious materials (5 marks)
13. Describe how gypsum prevents flash-setting during hydration of cement (9marks)

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14. Distinguish between hydraulic and non-hydraulic cements (2 marks)
15. Discuss key steps in establishing an integrated cement plant (10 marks)
16. Discuss five disadvantages of ancient Roman cement (5 marks)

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