PHYSICAL SCIENCE

BLESSIE A. DEQUIÑA
I. Big Bang Nucleosynthesis (Formation of elements)
Cosmology is the study of how the universe began, how it continues to exist, and how it will end.
Stages of Big Bang:
1. Singularity –“ nothingness”, nowhere, no when, no what
2. Inflation – The rapid expansion of the universe
3. Nucleosynthesis – formation of nuclei from proton and neutron
4. Recombination – “ dark ages” electrons started to bind to ionized protons and nuclei forming neutral atoms.
5. formation of stars and galaxies –
Gravity caused these atoms to collapse onto one another to form stars and galaxies and eventually, other matter.

 Evidence that support the big bang theory:

 1. Redshift – light is moving away
 (Blueshift – light is moving towards)
 In 1929, Edwin Hubble used the redshift of light from galaxies to calculate the velocities and distances of these
galaxies from the Earth.
 2. cosmic microwave background radiation,
 3. abundance of light elements.
 Big bang nucleosynthesis is the process of light element formation.
 The light elements that formed after the big bang were helium, deuterium, and trace amounts of lithium and
beryllium.
 Deuterium, helium-3, helium-4, and lithium-7 were stable. On the other hand, beryllium-7 was unstable and
decayed spontaneously to lithium-7

NUCLEOSYNTHESIS: THE BEGINNING OF ELEMENTS

Stellar nucleosynthesis is the process by which elements are formed within stars.

Elements heavier than beryllium are formed through stellar nucleosynthesis. Stellar nucleosynthesis is the process by
which elements are formed within stars. The abundances of these elements change as the stars evolve.
Evolution of Stars
The star formation theory proposes that stars form due to the collapse of the dense regions of a molecular cloud. As the
cloud collapses, the fragments contract to form a stellar core called protostar. Due to strong gravitational force, the
protostar contracts and its temperature increases. When the core temperature reaches about 10 million K, nuclear reactions
begin. The reactions release positrons and neutrinos which increase pressure and stop the contraction. When the
contraction stops, the gravitational equilibrium is reached, and the protostar has become a main sequence star.
In the core of a main sequence star, hydrogen is fused into helium via the proton-proton chain. When most of the
hydrogen in the core is fused into helium, fusion stops, and the pressure in the core decreases. Gravity squeezes the star to
a point that helium and hydrogen burning occur. Helium is converted to carbon in the core while hydrogen is converted
to helium in the shell surrounding the core. The star has become a red giant.

 The star formation theory proposes that stars form due to the collapse of the dense regions of a molecular cloud.
 A protostar is a stellar core formed when the fragments of a collapsed molecular cloud contract.
 A main sequence star is formed when gravitational equilibrium is reached during the hydrogen fusion in a
protostar.
 A red giant is a star that has used up its hydrogen supply in the core and switched into the thermonuclear fusion
of hydrogen in the shell surrounding the core.
 A massive star becomes a multiple-shell red giant when the elements oxygen, neon, magnesium, silicon, and iron
are formed in its core together with carbon, helium, and hydrogen.
 A supernova is a star that blows apart and releases a large amount of energy.
 Evidence of star formation comes from studying IR emissions from the different stages of star evolution.

A massive star becomes a multiple-shell red giant when the elements oxygen, neon, magnesium, silicon, and
iron are formed in its core together with carbon, helium, and hydrogen.
A supernova is a star that blows apart and releases a large amount of energy.
Evidence of star formation comes from studying IR emissions from the different stages of star evolution

In a low-mass star (with mass less than twice the Sun’s mass), there is not enough mass for a carbon fusion to occur.
The star’s fuel is depleted, and over time, the outer material of the star is blown off into space. The only thing that
remains is the hot and inert carbon core. The star becomes a white dwarf.

Nuclear fusion is a type of reaction that fuses lighter elements to form heavier ones.
  Hydrogen burning is the stellar process that produces energy in the stars. There are two dominant hydrogen
burning processes, the proton-proton chain and carbon-nitrogen-oxygen (CNO) cycle.

Carbon-Nitrogen-Oxygen (CNO) Cycle

For more massive and hotter stars, the carbon-nitrogen-oxygen cycle is the more favorable route in converting
hydrogen to helium.
The cycle proceeds as follows:
Carbon-12 captures a proton and gives off a gamma ray, producing an unstable nitrogen-13.
Nitrogen-13 undergoes beta decay to form carbon-13.
Carbon-13 captures a proton and releases a gamma ray to become nitrogen-14.
Nitrogen-14 then captures another proton and releases a gamma ray to produce oxygen-15.
Oxygen-15 undergoes beta decay and becomes nitrogen-15.
Finally, nitrogen-15 captures a proton and gives off helium (alpha particle) ending the cycle and returning to
carbon-12.
Unlike the proton-proton chain, the CNO cycle is a catalytic process. Carbon-12 acts a catalyst for the cycle. It is used
in the initial reaction and is regenerated in the final one.
Proton-proton chain is a sequence of thermonuclear reactions in the stars. It is the main source of energy radiated by the
sun and other stars.

Formation of elements heavier than Iron.

The fusion reactions cannot produce nuclei higher than iron-56 because fusion reaction becomes unfavorable. This is
because the nuclear binding energy per nucleon, the energy that holds the nucleus intact, decreases after iron-56.
Therefore, different pathways are needed for the synthesis of heavier nuclei.
Synthesis of heavier nuclei happens via neutron or proton capture processes.

Neutron Capture
In neutron capture, a neutron is added to a seed nucleus. The addition of neutron produces a heavier isotope
of the element.
For example, iron-56 captures three neutrons to produce iron-59.
56
Fe+310n→
26

The generated isotope, when unstable, undergoes beta (0−1β−10β) decay. This decay results in an increase in the
number of protons of the nucleus by 1. Hence, a heavier nucleus is formed.
Beta decay results in the formation of a new element. For example, the unstable iron-59 undergoes beta decay to
produce cobalt-59.

Neutron capture can either be slow or rapid.

Slow neutron capture or s-process happens when there is a small number of neutrons. It is termed slow because
the rate of neutron capture is slow compared to the rate of 0−1β−10β decay. Therefore, if a 0−1β−10β decay
occurs, it almost always occurs before another neutron can be captured.
Rapid neutron capture or r-process, on the other hand, happens when there is a large number of neutrons. It is
termed rapid because the rate of neutron capture is fast that an unstable nucleus may still be combined with
another neutron just before it undergoes 0−1β−10β decay. The r- process is associated with a supernova. The
temperature after a supernova is tremendously high that the neutrons are moving very fast. Because of their
speed, they can immediately combine with the already heavy isotopes. This kind of nucleosynthesis is also
called supernova nucleosynthesis.

Proton capture (p-process) is the addition of a proton in the nucleus. It happens after a supernova, when there is a
tremendous amount of energy available.
Summary:
Fusion reactions cannot account for the synthesis of nuclei heavier than 5626Fe2656Fe.
Neutron and proton capture processes are responsible for the synthesis of nuclei heavier than 5626Fe
Seed nucleus is the starting material for the formation of heavier isotopes or new nuclei.
Neutron capture process can be either slow (s-process) or rapid (r-process).
Neutron capture process is often accompanied by subsequent 0−1β−10β decay.
The r-process and proton capture are processes that happen in a supernova because a tremendous amount
of energy is needed for them to occur.

II.ATOMIC STRUCTURE AND THE CHEMICAL ELEMENTS

Democritus of Abdera (460 - 370 B.C.) and his teacher Leucippus of Miletus (c.500 B.C.) were Greek scholars who
believed that matter could be divided into tiny particles until such point where it can no longer be divided anymore.

Their early ideas on atoms are summarized below.

1. All matter is made up of tiny, indivisible particles called atoms, which come from the Greek
word atomos meaning uncuttable. The atoms are indestructible, impenetrable, and unchangeable.
2. The atoms make up the universe as they are continuously moving in a “void” that surrounds them, repelling each
other when they collide, or combining into clusters.

3. Atoms are completely solid which means that there is no void or empty space inside that will make them prone to
disintegration or destruction.
4. Atoms are homogeneous in nature. They have no internal structures.
 5. Atoms come in different shapes and size
Understanding the Structure of Atom: Contributions of scientists about atom.
Democritus’ idea on the existence of atoms was accepted, and Aristotle’s argument was proven incorrect
Greek philosophers Democritus and Leucippus developed the idea that all matter is composed of tiny,
indivisible particles called atomos.
John Dalton described the atom as spherical.
Joseph John Thomson discovered the electron and proposed plum pudding model.
Ernest Rutherford proposed that the electrons orbit around the nucleus (planetary model). He discovered the
nucleus.
Niels Bohr proposed that electrons orbit around the nucleus in fixed energy levels or orbits.
James Chadwick discovered the neutron.
Henry Moseley used X-ray in studying the structure of the atom.
In the quantum mechanical model, the nucleus is surrounded by a cloud of electrons called orbitals

History of Periodic table

1. Johann Wolfgang Dobereiner – (1829) arranged the elements into sets of three (triads) with similar
properties.
2. John Newlands – arranged the elements into sets of eight, calling them octaves with similar properties.
And according to increasing atomic masses.
3. D’mitri Mendeleev – arranged the elements into sets of eight based on physical and chemical properties
And increasing atomic mass. Founded the first periodic table with 63 elements (Old Periodictable)
4. Henry Moseley – arranged the elements with similar chemical properties based on increasing atomic
Number. He further emphasized that atomic number identifies the element.
The Nuclear Model of the Atom

Rutherford proposed that the positive charge, and the mass of the atom were concentrated in a small part of the total
volume of the atom called the nucleus.
 The nuclear model states that the nucleus is small, dense, and located at the center of the atom.
 It contains protons and neutrons.
 The nucleus is positively charged. It contains nearly all the mass of the atom. The electrons orbit around it.
 The nuclear model has been deduced from the experiment done by Rutherford.

The Ideas of the Ancient Greeks on the Elements:

Some Greek philosophers believed that there was only one element that made up all materials.
 Anaximenes thought that it was air;
 Heraclitus supposed it was fire;
 Thales believed that it was water; and
 Xenophanus assumed it was earth.
 Empedocles proposed that all four – air, fire, water, and earth, were the primordial substances.
 Plato first used the term element. He treated the four elements geometrically and named them Platonic solids.
 Aristotle described each element using the qualities hot, cold, wet, or dry. He also added a fifth element, aether.

The Atomic Number and the Synthesis of New Elements

THE ATOMIC STRUCTURE AND THE CHEMICAL ELEMENTS
Key Points
 Atomic number is the number of protons (positively charged particles) in an atom.
 Henry Gwyn-Jefferys Moseley was an English physicist who demonstrated that the atomic number, the number
of protons in an atom, determines most of the properties of an element.
Methods of synthesizing new elements:
1. Nuclear Transmutation- an element is transformed into another element.
In 1919, Ernest Rutherford successfully carried out a nuclear transmutation reaction — a reaction involving the
transformation of one element or isotope into another element.
Particle accelerator - a device that is used to speed up the protons to overcome the repulsion between the protons
and the target atomic nuclei by using magnetic and electrical fields. It is used to synthesize new elements.

Discovery of missing elements:

1. Element 43 - Technetium (Ernest Lawrence) – first man -made element
2. Element 61 – Promethium
3. Element 85 – Astatine (Corson, McKemzie, Segre
4. Element 87 – Francium

Transuranium elements: (Elements heavier than Uranium)

Element 93- Neptunium (Np) – McMillan
Element 94 – Plutonium (Pt) – Seaborg, McMillan, Kennedy and Wahl

2. Nuclear decay reaction is a reaction in which the nucleus of an element emits radiation and transforms into
another nucleus. Nuclear decay reaction: are alpha decay, beta decay, and spontaneous fission.
a. Alpha decay produces daughter nucleus with an atomic number reduced by two and a mass
number reduced by four compared with the parent nucleus.
 b. In beta decay, the atomic number of the nucleus increases by one while its mass number remains the
same.
c. In spontaneous fission, several fission products are produced from the parent nucleus. The sum of their
mass numbers is equal to the mass number of the parent nucleus. Similarly, the sum of their atomic
numbers is equal to the atomic number of the parent nucleus.

Fundamental Chemical Laws

I. Law of Conservation of mass: (Antoine Lavoisier)
Mass cannot be created nor destroyed.
II. Law of Definite Proportion: (Joseph Proust)
A given compound always contains exactly the same proportion of elements by mass. By Joseph Proust.
III. Law of multiple proportions: (John Dalton)
When two elements (A & B) form a series of compounds (AB1, AB2, AB3...), the ratios of the masses of the

as (𝐵1 𝐵2 , 𝐵1 𝐵3 , 𝐵2 𝐵3 , ⋯ ) Dalton used this law to explain possible combinations of atoms.

second element (B) that combine with a fixed mass of the first element (A) can always be reduced to small whole
numbers

III. Polarity of Substances

Polarity means having dipoles, a positive and a negative end. Based on polarity, molecules can be polar or
nonpolar.
1. Polar molecules have dipoles. Their dipole moments do not add up to zero (or do not cancel out).
Water and carbon monoxide are examples of polar molecules. H2O, CO2
2. Nonpolar molecules do not have positive or negative ends. Their dipole moments add up to zero
(they cancel out). Carbon tetrachloride and methane are examples of nonpolar molecules.
Generally, you can tell if a molecule is polar or nonpolar based on:
 its structure or shape
 the polarity of the individual bonds present in the molecule
 Electronegativity difference.
Steps in Determining the Polarity of a Molecule
1. Draw the correct Lewis structure and molecular geometry of the molecule.
2. Identify the polarity of each bond present in the molecule. A bond is polar when the atoms in the bond have
different electronegativities.
Recall that electronegativity is the measure of the tendency of an atom to attract a bonding pair of electrons.
Draw the dipole moment vectors for polar bonds. The dipole moment vector points to the more electronegative
atom.

3. Determine the sum of the dipole moment vectors. If the dipole moments cancel out each other, the molecule is
nonpolar; otherwise, it is polar.

General Rule: Polar solutes are soluble/miscible in polar solvent. Water is a polar solvent. All solutes that
dissolve in water are polar.
Nonpolar solutes are soluble/ miscible in nonpolar solvent. Oil is a nonpolar solvent. Solutes
that
Dissolve in oil are nonpolar.
Summary:

Molecule Electronegativity Difference (END) Molecular shape

Polar molecules 0.5 – 1.7 (Asymmetrical)
Linear, bent, pyramidal
Nonpolar molecules 0 – 0.4 (Symmetrical)
Linear, tetrahedral, square planar,
triangular planar

Ex. Carbon dioxide CO) is the gas that you exhale.

1. Correct Lewis structure and geometry:
1. Oxygen is more electronegative than carbon. Therefore, the C—O bonds are polar.
2. Since CO has a linear symmetrical structure, the dipole moments of the C—O bonds cancel
out. CO is a nonpolar molecule.

Polarity and Properties of Substances:

Solubility -

IV. Intermolecular Forces (IMF)

Intermolecular Forces are the attractive forces that occur between molecules.
Types of IMF:
1. London dispersion forces
 present in all molecules but more evident in nonpolar molecules.
 caused by fluctuations in the electron distribution within atoms or molecules
 weak type of IMFA
 Examples. H2, O2, I2, Br2, Cl2 , CH4, CCl4, CO2
In assessing the relative strengths of London dispersion forces between two different substances, compare their molecular
weight and size. Larger and more massive molecules are more polarizable (i.e. they have a greater tendency to have
distorted electron clouds) and have stronger IMFA.
2. Dipole-dipole forces
 attractive forces between polar molecules
 result of the electrical interactions among dipoles on neighboring molecules
 moderately strong type of IMFA
Examples. HBr, HCl, H2S, SO2, HI,
3. Hydrogen bonding – present in molecules with a hydrogen bonded to an electronegative atom (F,O, N,)
It is a special type of dipole-dipole
Examples: HF, NH3, H2O

IMF and observable Properties of Matter

1. Solubility refers to the ability of a substance to dissolve in a given amount of solvent at a specified temperature. Recall
the rule “like dissolves like.
2. Melting point: Substances with stronger IMFA have higher melting points compared to those with weaker IMFA.
3. Boiling point is the temperature at which the substance changes from liquid to gas. Substances with stronger IMFA
have higher boiling points compared to those with weaker IMFA.
4. Surface Tension is the tendency of a fluid to acquire the least possible surface area. Molecules with stronger
intermolecular forces will exert greater cohesive forces and acquire less surface area (higher surface tension) than those
with weaker IMFA.
5. Viscosity is the measure of a fluid’s resistance to flow. Molecules with stronger intermolecular forces have greater
resistance to flow, and thus, higher viscosity compared to those with weaker IMFA.
6. Vapor Pressure is the pressure exerted by a vapor in equilibrium with its liquid phase in a closed system. Molecules
with stronger intermolecular forces have less tendency to escape as gas, and thus lower vapor pressure compared to those
with weaker IMF.
To find strength of IMF:
1. Check which molecule exhibits hydrogen bonding. This molecule will have stronger intermolecular forces.
2. Check which molecule is polar. Polar molecules have stronger intermolecular forces.
3. Compare London dispersion forces. More massive molecules have stronger intermolecular forces.
Example 1: Which has higher boiling point, H 2O or H 2S ?
Example 2: Which is most likely solid, F2 or I2?