MOTIVATION AND
THEORIES OF
MOTIVATION
Dr. Vaneeta Aggarwal
Motivation
Motivation is a psychological feature that induces an individual to act towards a
desired goal.
It is the processes that accounts for an
individual’s intensity, direction, and persistence
of effort towards attaining a goal.
Key Elements
1. Intensity: how hard a person tries
2. Direction: toward beneficial/avoidance goal
3. Persistence: how long a person tries
FEATURES OF MOTIVATION
Motivation is an internal feeling
Motivation produces goal directed behaviour
Motivation contains systems orientation
Motivation can either be positive or negative
Motivation is different from job satisfaction
IMPORTANCE OF MOTIVATION
oProductive use of resources
oIncreased efficiency and output
oAchievement of goals
oStability in workforce
• The theories of motivations are
THEORIES OF MOTIVATION divided into three
main categories:
1. Content Theories
2. Process theories
3. Reinforcement theory
CONTENT THEORIES
1. MASLOW’S NEED HIERARCHY THEORY
2. HERZBERG'S TWO-FACTOR THEORY
3. ALDERFER’S ERG MODEL
4. THEORY X AND THEORY Y
5. THEORY Z
6. ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION THEORY
MASLOW’S NEED HIERARCHY THEORY
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
• Maslow’s approach was radically different from earlier theories by Freud and Skinner.
• He studied finest human beings to prescribe his theory of motivation: Albert Einstein; Abraham
Lincoln, Eleanor Roosevelt etc. Maslow’s theory was bullish on the human race.
• Accordingly to Maslow’s Theory there are four types of need that must be satisfied before an
individual can act unselfishly.
• Maslow referred the lower needs as “deficiency needs” because their lack causes tension.
• We are driven to satisfy the lower needs but are drawn to meet the higher ones.
• A satisfied need ceases to motivate.
Physiological Needs
Physiological needs are those required to sustain life, such as:
• Air
• Water
• Food
• Sleep
Safety Needs
Once physiological needs are met, one's attention turns to safety and security in order to be
free from the threat of physical and emotional harm. Such needs might be fulfilled by:
• Living in a safe area
• Medical Facilities
• Job security
• Law and Order
Social Needs
Once a person has met the lower level physiological and safety needs, higher level needs
awaken. The first level of higher level needs are social needs.
Social needs are those related to interaction with others and may include:
• Friendship
• Belonging to a group
• Giving and receiving love
Esteem Needs
Esteem needs may be classified as internal or external.
Internal esteem needs are those related to self-esteem such as self respect and achievement
External esteem needs are those such as social status and recognition. Some esteem needs are:
• Self-respect
• Achievement
• Attention
• Recognition
• Reputation
Self-Actualization
Self-actualization is the summit of Maslow's hierarchy of needs. It is the quest of reaching one's
full potential as a person.
Self-actualized people tend to have needs such as:
• Peace
• Truth & Justice
• Knowledge
• Meaning of life
Limitations of Maslow’s Theory
• Research have established the motivational forces for physiological, safety, love and esteem
needs but have failed to discover a hierarchical arrangement. For example, even if safety need
is not satisfied, the social need may emerge.
• Self less component of human behaviour has been ignored by Maslow.
• The need priority model may not apply at all times in all places.
• The level of motivation may be permanently lower for some people. For example, a person
suffering from chronic unemployment may remain satisfied for the rest of his life if only he gets
enough food.
HERZBERG'S TWO-FACTOR THEORY
• Frederick Herzberg's two-
factor theory, also known as
the motivation-hygiene
theory or intrinsic/extrinsic
motivation.
Herzberg's Motivation-Hygiene Theory
• According to Hertzberg, Motivation is a two stage process.
• The opposite of Satisfaction is No Satisfaction.
• The opposite of Dissatisfaction is No Dissatisfaction.
• According to Hertzberg, the factors leading to job satisfaction are "separate and distinct from
those that lead to job dissatisfaction.“
Herzberg's Motivation-Hygiene Theory
• Factors for Dissatisfaction
• Company Policies
• Supervision
• Relationship with Supervisor and Peers
• Work conditions
• Salary/Perks
• Status
• Security
Herzberg's Motivation-Hygiene Theory
• Factors for Satisfaction
• Growth opportunity
• The work itself
• Achievement
• Responsibility
• Recognition
• Advancement
Limitation of Herzberg's Theory
• The Two Factor Theory assumes that happy employees produce more.
• Satisfied workers may not actually be more motivated or more productive than dissatisfied
workers.
• Herzberg's theory is that people differ in their responses to hygiene and motivating factors.
Herzberg's theory does not account for these individual differences.
• What motivates one individual might be a de-motivator for another individual.
• Not applicable for blue collar workers.
ALDERFER’S ERG MODEL
Existence Needs
It includes all material and physiological desires (e.g., food, water, air,
clothing, safety, physical love and affection).
Relatedness Needs
Encompass social and external esteem; relationships with
significant others like family, friends, co-workers and
employers. This also means to be recognized and feel secure as
part of a group or family.
Growth Needs
Internal esteem and self-actualization; these impel a person to
make creative or productive effects on himself and the
environment (e.g., to progress toward one's ideal self). This
includes desires to be creative and productive, and to complete
meaningful tasks.
THEORY X AND THEORY Y
• Douglas McGregor, an
American social
psychologist, proposed
his famous X-Y theory
in his 1960 book 'The
Human Side Of
Enterprise‘
THEORY Z
Theory Z is an approach to management based upon a
combination of American and Japanese management
philosophies.
Theory Z was first identified as a unique management approach
by William Ouchi in the 1981 book, Theory Z: How American
Companies Can Meet the Japanese Challenge.
It is characterised by:
• long-term job security,
• consensual decision making,
• slow evaluation and promotion procedures,
• and individual responsibility within a group context
Sometimes considered a blend of the model Theory X and Theory Y,
with more of a leaning towards Theory Y.
ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION THEORY
David McClelland built on this work in his 1961 book, "The
Achieving Society."
Identified three motivators that he believed we all have: a need for
achievement, a need for affiliation, and a need for power.
According to McClelland, these motivators are learned (which is
why this theory is sometimes called the Learned Needs Theory).
Regardless of our gender, culture, or age, we all have three
motivating drivers, and one of these will be our dominant
motivating driver.
ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION THEORY
(contd..)
Power need (n Pow): this is the need to dominate,
influence and control others. Power speaks about the
ability to manipulate or control the activities of others to
suit one’s own purposes.
Affiliation need (n Aff): the need for affiliation is a
social need, for companionship and support, for
developing meaningful relationship with people.
Achievement need (n Ach): this is a need for challenge,
for personal accomplishment and success in competitive
situations.
II. PROCESS THEORIES
A.The Equity Theory
B.The Expectancy theory
C. The goal setting theory.
A. The Equity Theory
• John Stacey Adams' equity theory helps
explain why pay and conditions alone do
not determine motivation. It also explains
why giving one person a promotion or
pay-rise can have a demotivating effect
on others.
• Inputs: Time, effort, loyalty, hard work,
commitment, ability, adaptability,
flexibility, tolerance, determination,
enthusiasm, personal sacrifice.
• Outputs: Typical outcomes are job
security, esteem, salary, employee
benefits, expenses, recognition,
reputation, responsibility, sense of
achievement, praise, thanks.
Equity Theory.
1. People value fair treatment.
2. The structure of equity in the workplace
is based on the ratio of inputs to
outcomes.
Reactions to Inequity
• Employee behaviors to create equity:
• Change inputs (slack off)
• Change outcomes (increase output)
• Distort/change perceptions of self
• Distort/change perceptions of others
• Choose a different referent person
• Leave the field (quit the job)
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B. The Expectancy theory
POSTULATED BY VICTOR VROOM.
It presents a valid, comprehensive and useful approach to
management.
It is a choice model.
Built around three concepts:
• 1. Valence.
• 2. Expectancy.
• 3. Instrumentality.
Vroom’s Expectancy Theory
The strength of a tendency to act in a certain way depends on the
strength of an expectation that the act will be followed by a given
outcome and on the attractiveness of the outcome to the individual.
Expectancy of Instrumentality of Valuation of the reward in
performance success success in getting reward employee’s eyes
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C. THE GOAL SETTING THEORY.
Postulated by Edwin Locke.
According to him, motivation is a result of rational and
intentional behaviour.
Suggests that managers and subordinates should
establish goals on a regular basis.
Goals should be moderately difficult and specific.
Goal Setting Theory.
• Goal setting involves establishing SMART goals.
• People are aware of what is expected from them.
• On a personal level, setting goals helps
people work towards their own objectives.
• Goals are a form of motivation that sets
the standard for self-satisfaction with
performance.
• It is considered an “open” theory, so as
new discoveries are made it is modified.
Goal Setting Theory.
Goal setting and Feedback go hand in hand. Without feedback, goal setting is unlikely to work.
Properly-delivered feedback is also very essential, and the following should be followed for good
feedback:
•Create a positive context for feedback.
•Use constructive and positive language.
•Focus on behaviours and strategies.
•Tailor feedback to the needs of the individuals.
•Make feedback a two-way communication process.
Implementation: Management by Objectives
• MBO is a systematic way to utilize goal-setting.
• Goals must be:
• Tangible
• Verifiable
• Measurable
• Corporate goals are broken down into smaller, more specific goals at
each level of organization.
• Four common ingredients to MBO programs:
• Goal specificity
• Participative decision making
• Explicit time period
• Performance feedback
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III. REINFORCEMENT THEORY
Reinforcement theory of motivation was proposed by BF
Skinner and his associates.
It states that individual’s behaviour is a function of its
consequences.
This theory focuses totally on what happens to an individual
when he takes some action.
The managers use the following methods for controlling the
behaviour of the employees:
• 1. Positive Reinforcement
• 2. Negative Reinforcement
• 3. Punishment
• 4. Extinction
MOTIVATIONAL
APPLICATION
;
Motivation by Job Design: The JCM
• Job Characteristics Model (JCM)
• Hackman and Oldham’s concept that any job can be described through five core
job dimensions:
• Skill variety – Requirements for different tasks in the job.
• Task identity – Completion of a whole piece of work.
• Task significance – The job’s impact on others.
• Autonomy – Level of discretion in decision making.
• Feedback – Amount of direct and clear information on performance.
• The way elements in a job are organized (job design) impacts motivation,
satisfaction, and performance.
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Motivating Potential Score (MPS)
• Five dimensions combined into a single predictive index of motivation.
• People who work on jobs with high core dimensions are generally more motivated,
satisfied, and productive.
• Job dimensions operate through the psychological states in influencing personal
and work outcome variables rather than influencing them directly.
• While the JCM framework is supported by research, the MPS model isn’t
practical and doesn’t work well.
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How Can Jobs Be Redesigned?
• Job Rotation
• The periodic shifting of a worker
from one task to another
• Job Enlargement
• The horizontal expansion of jobs
• Job Enrichment
• The vertical expansion of jobs
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