Climate-Smart Agriculture: Farmer’s Perception of Adapting to Climate-

Dependent Agriculture Practices in Camambugan, Daet

Camarines Norte

A Research Proposal
Presented to the Faculty of the
Camarines Norte Senior High School
Daet, Camarines Norte

In Partial Fulfillment
Of the Requirements for the Subject
Practical Research 1

By:

Aumentado, Eziekel
Casalo, Aerilyn
Carillo, Alekza
De Mesa, James
Elegoyo, Gian
Estopace, Rica
Lacson, Louise

2nd Semester of Academic Year 2024-2025

 Chapter 2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

This chapter explores the relevant related literature and studies of

Climate-Smart Agriculture: Farmer’s Perception of Adapting to Climate-
Dependent Agriculture Practices in Camambugan, Daet Camarines Norte. It
will give an insight into the importance of agricultural practices on a changing
climate that helps for in-depth analysis of findings.

Related Literature
Climate change refers to long-term shifts in temperature, precipitation,
and extreme weather patters, primarily driven by human activities such as
greenhouse gas emissions (IPCC, 2021). These changes on climate can
impact the agricultural sector by reducing crop growth and production,
increasing the frequency of droughts and floods, and disease outbreak. As a
solution, farmers are adopting climate-smart agricultural practices like
conservation farming, agroforestry, and drought-resistant crops to mitigate
these effects.
Climate-smart agricultural practices provide many advantages to
enhance the sustainability and productivity of farming. Conservation farming
improves soil health by reducing erosion and increasing organic matter,
leading to water conservation and nutrient availability. Agroforestry promotes
biodiversity and provides additional sources for income, while drought-
resistant crop varieties help ensure stable yields. These practices also help
climate change mitigation by reducing greenhouse gas emissions (FAO,
2019).
Although the goal of climate-smart agriculture practices is to increase
resilience and sustainability, there are some obstacles that could prevent their
widespread implementation. Small-scale farmers may face financial obstacles
due to the significant initial outlay needed to adopt practices like conservation
farming, agroforestry, and the production of drought-resistant crops.
Furthermore, these procedures frequently call for certain expertise and
knowledge, which may not be easily available in rural areas. Some climate-
smart techniques can be labor-intensive, and their unclear short-term returns
may discourage farmers from abandoning the traditional ways. Furthermore,
incorporating sustainable practices into current agricultural systems is made
more difficult by restricted market access and a lack of government support.
All of these elements work together to make farmers reluctant to adopt
climate-smart agriculture completely (Eos., 2021).
One important framework for tackling the effects of climate change,
particularly those on the agriculture sector, is the “Philippine National Climate
Change Action Plan (NCCAP).”. The NCCAP, which was created by the
Climate Change Commission, it lists key initiatives to improve sustainable
agriculture, ecosystem resilience, and food security. In order to assist farmers
in adjusting to changing climate weather patterns, it encourages climate-smart
farming techniques like conservation farming, agroforestry, and enhanced
irrigation systems. To improve rural livelihoods, the strategy also incorporates
sustainable resource management and disaster risk reduction. Regardless of
these initiatives, there are still obstacles to completely implementing
regulations because of a lack of funding, technical limitations, and the
requirement for more robust local government cooperation (Climate Change
Commission, 2019).
A crucial strategy for tackling the problems that climate change is
posing to food production systems is climate-smart agriculture, or CSA. Rising
temperatures, changing rainfall patterns, and an increase in the frequency of
extreme weather events pose a threat to global agricultural productivity,
especially in developing nations where farming is a major source of income. In
order to improve resilience and productivity and lower greenhouse gas
emissions, CSA incorporates sustainable practices like conservation
agriculture, agroforestry, and better water management. In order to assist
farmers in adjusting to the changing climate, international agencies such as
the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and the World Bank have been
aggressively supporting CSA through funding programs, regulations, and
research projects (FAO, 2021).
Climate-smart agriculture (CSA) has emerged as a method in the
Philippines to mitigate the negative impacts of climate change on the
agricultural industry. Typhoons, droughts, and changing weather patterns
pose a serious danger to the nation’s food security and agricultural
livelihoods. Agroforestry, the deployment of drought-resistant crop varieties,
and sustainable soil and water management practices are just a few of the
initiatives the Department of Agriculture (DA) has put in place to support CSA.
Furthermore, through research on cutting-edge farming technologies, financial
aid, and training, the Climate Resilient Agriculture Program (CRAP) seeks to
improve farmers’ adaptive capacities. Despite these efforts, barriers like
limited funding, inadequate infrastructure, and the need for intense farmer
education continue to prevent CSA from being fully adopted. (DA-BAR, 2021)

Related Studies
Based on the study of Nyang’au et al., (2021) entitled Smallholder
Farmers’ Perception of Climate Change and Adoption of Climate Smart
Agriculture Practices in Masaba South Sub-county, Kisii, Kenya, which aims
to investigate the farmers’ perception and adaptation of farming method to
enhance their resilience towards climate change. The adoption of climate-
smart agriculture practices is affected by farmers’ perception and influenced
by farmers’ attitudes and knowledge of climate change. Additionally, education
and access to information are essential for farmers to perceive climate
change accurately, and also their socioeconomic conditions can significantly
explain their adaptation decisions.
Furthermore, a study of H. Nguyen, Le, Chiem, Hung, et al. (2025)
entitled A Review of Climate-Smart Agriculture in Asia: Critical Achievements,
Key Challenges, and Potential Prospects, Smallholders and Rural
Communities in Asia, stated that, whose livelihoods that depend on farming,
are at risk due to climate change. In order to deal with it, climate-smart
agriculture, or CSA, is strongly promoted for sustainable growth. CSA is a
good strategy for Asian farmers because it boosts output while simultaneously
addressing food security, reducing climate change impact, and improving
climate adaptation shifts.
Additionally, based on the study of Diana et al. (2022), stated that,
climate change is a phenomenon that occurs over many years and has
affected the lives of farmers in the agricultural sector. To address this, their
study entitled Farmers’ Adaptation Strategies to Climate Change in Southeast
Asia: A Systematic Literature Review helps to analyze the factors that affect
farmers’ decisions to adapt to climate change and maintain their livelihoods.
Some of the factors are farmers’ socioeconomic status, experiences, support,
training, and access to information. This study highlights the significance of
information accessibility, education, training, and socioeconomic status for
developing adaptation strategies.
Moreover, the study of Galang and Briones (2024), entitled Culprit and
Victim: Scenarios for Philippine Agriculture amidst Climate Change, without
any enhanced interventions, the agriculture sector of the Philippines is at risk
of long-term supply and consumption reductions, leading to greater
vulnerability. Meanwhile, the implementation of intensified adaptive and
mitigation strategies can potentially improve resilience, productivity, and
contributions to national climate goals, with relatively modest intervention.
In addition, the study of Lirag and Estrella (2017), entitled Adaptation
Measures of Farmers in Response to Climate Change in Bicol Region,
Philippines, which aims to identify the climate change adaptation measures
being practiced by farmers to increase the adaptive capacity of farmers
against climate hazards in Bicol Region. Climate change adaptation (CCA)
measures are significant in agriculture to mitigate major hazards such as
floods, droughts, typhoons, and erosion. These measures include utilizing
climate forecast services, changing roles, community relationships, accessing
savings, crop insurance, using water-resistant crop varieties, and changing
crop duration. Additionally, implementing better soil erosion management and
accessing credit can also help mitigate these hazards.

Synthesis of the State-of-the-Art

These studies are similar in focus on Climate Change and Agriculture,
all studies address how climate change affects farmers and agriculture.
Emphasizing the adaptation and mitigation, all research highlights adaptation
strategies or Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA) practices. These findings also
suggest Role of Socioeconomic Factors Education, knowledge, and financial
access are recurring factors in adaptation decisions. In Policy and Practical
Recommendations, all studies suggest strategies to improve agricultural
resilience. However, these findings are diverse in Geographical Focus –
Some studies focus on Africa (Nyang’au et al.), Asia (Nguyen et al.),
Southeast Asia (Diana et al.), or the Philippines (Lirag & Estrella; Galang &
Briones), Methodology – Some studies use systematic reviews (Diana et al.,
Nguyen et al.), while others use surveys (Nyang’au et al., Lirag & Estrella),
Theoretical Approach – Some studies focus on climate-smart agriculture
(CSA) (Nyang’au et al., Nguyen et al.), while others focus on adaptation
strategies (Diana et al., Lirag & Estrella), and Scope – Some studies provide
policy-oriented analysis (Galang & Briones), while others focus on farmers’
perspectives and adaptation methods.
While existing studies discuss climate-smart agriculture and adaptation
strategies in various regions, there is a lack of localized research on the
specific sustainable agricultural practices used by smallholder farmers in
Camambugan, Daet, Camarines Norte. No study has systematically
measured the effectiveness, challenges, and adoption levels of these
practices in the area. Addressing this gap can provide region-specific data to
inform better climate resilience strategies and policy interventions.

Theoretical Framework
Climate change has been affecting many farmers all over the world,
including Camambugan, Daet Camarines Norte. Because of this problem,
many farmers adapt and want to adapt climate-smart agriculture so that they
can harvest crops and keep their earnings. But every farmer have their own
way on adaptating climate-dependent agriculture because of some factors. To
better understand the factor which affecting farmer decisions, three theories
will help to explain the perception of farmers on adapting climate-smart
agriculture.
Sustainable Development Theory emphasizes the need to balance
economic growth, environmental protection, and social equity to meet present
needs without compromising future generations’ ability to meet theirs. In
agriculture, this theory promotes practices that enhance productivity while
preserving natural resources and ensuring social well-being.
In Asia, the adoption of Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA) technologies
reflects the principles of Sustainable Development Theory. These practices
aim to increase agricultural productivity, build resilience to climate change,
and reduce greenhouse gas emissions. For instance, Conservation
Agriculture (CA) involves minimal soil disturbance, maintaining soil cover, and
promoting crop diversity, which helps prevent soil erosion and degradation,
thereby supporting environmental sustainability. Studies have shown that CA
practices can restore soil fertility and enhance climate resilience (Legoupil et
al., 2015; FAO, 2013).
Agricultural water management strategies, such as the System of Rice
Intensification (SRI) and Alternate Wetting and Drying (AWD), are
implemented to use water resources efficiently. These methods save water,
prevent soil erosion, and improve crop yields, aligning with sustainable
development goals (Chowdhury & Bajracharya, 2018). The adoption of
climate-resilient crop varieties is another example of applying Sustainable
Development Theory in agriculture. Developing and planting crop varieties
that withstand droughts, floods, and salinity ensures food security and farmer
livelihoods amid changing climate conditions (Acevedo et al., 2020; Dhankher
& Foyer, 2018).
These practices demonstrate how Sustainable Development Theory
guides agricultural methods in Asia, promoting economic viability,
environmental health, and social equity.
Garmezy defined resilience as, “not necessarily impervious to stress.
Rather, resilience is designed to reflect the capacity for recovery and
maintained adaptive behavior that may follow initial retreat or incapacity upon
initiating a stressful event” (Garmezy, 1991a). Resilience theory is an ideal
premise that would assist agriculture to understand farming systems’ power to
endure climatic or economic shocks and pest outbreaks, and subsequently
remain productive and functional. The main features of this idea include
biophysical factors (a variety of crops and a variety of farming practices);
socio-economic aspects (not depending on one source of income and mutual
support within the community); adaptive capacity (the capacity to innovate
and learn without interference from others); social capital (joint work, joint
knowledge); institutional support (policies and services genuinely supporting
this). Determining resilience measurements is challenging. This involves
striking a fine balance between what is needed at present for resilience to
allow enormous possibilities for better environmental health, greater food
security, and lower vulnerability to climate change consequences in the long
term. The focus here is on those resilience-building practices in agriculture
that open up space for pluralities spanning cross-practice definitions, shared
community commitments, and astute policy options that would empower the
production of food sustainably into the foreseeable future.
Theory of planned behavior was developed by Icek Ajzen in 1985.
According to the theory of Ajzen (2005), behaviors are influenced by
intentions, which are determined by three key psychological factors. This
theory is widely used to predict and understand decision-making in various
fields, including health, environmental behavior, and agriculture. The three key
psychological factors are attitude, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral
control. Attitude refers to a person’s evaluation of a behavior, which can be
positive, negative, or neutral. Subjective norm can be considered as a social
pressure, while perceived behavioral control refers on how able an individual
feels to perform a specific behavior, in their context. This theory will help to
explain and predict farmers’ adoption of climate-smart practices based on
their attitudes, social influences, and perceived control over their actions.

Theoretical Paradigm

Conceptual Framework
 The conceptual framework depicted in the diagram below represents
an interconnected system showing how climate change adaptation in
agriculture works in Camambungan. It illustrates the relationships between
climate impacts, agricultural challenges, and farming enhancements
demonstrating how these elements influence and respond to each other in a
dynamic agricultural system. The framework serves as a guide for
understanding how farming practices need to adapt to climate change while
maintaining productivity and sustainability.
The primary effects of climate change are the Immediate environmental
issues that farmers need to deal with. Variations in temperature have an
impact on plant development, crop growth cycles, and overall farm
productivity. Farmers are forced to modify their irrigation techniques and crop
selections as a result of rainfall patterns that alter conventional planting
schedules and water availability. Severe storms, protracted droughts, or
floods are examples of extreme weather occurrences that can harm crops
right away and have long-term effects on agricultural fields. Farmers must
use adaptive measures to manage the cascade of effects caused by these
climatic impacts.
Farmers have practical obstacles as a direct result of climate change
impacts, which create hurdles and difficulties in farming. These include
decreased crop yields brought on by drought and heat stress, heightened
pressure from pests and diseases, soil deterioration from severe weather, and
financial losses as a result of poor harvests. Maintaining profitable operations
while adjusting to more erratic weather patterns and environmental
circumstances is a challenging undertaking for farmers. To overcome these
obstacles, farming methods must be continuously modified, and creative
solutions must be put into place to guarantee agricultural sustainability.
Using better farming practices to increase resilience against climatic
threats is the main goal of increasing farming sustainability and production.
This entails embracing contemporary farming methods, applying climate-
smart agricultural strategies, and putting sustainable resource management
into effect. Using crop types resistant to drought, creating effective irrigation
systems, conserving soil, and employing integrated pest control techniques
are some examples of important improvements. The objective of these
enhancements is to preserve or boost agricultural output while maintaining
environmental sustainability.

Conceptual Paradigm

Climate-Smart Agriculture: Farmer’s Perception

of Adapting to Climate-Dependent Agriculture
Practices in Camambugan, Daet

Definition of Terms
Climate change, according to Cambridge Dictionary, it refers to the
long term shift changes of the weather. In this study, it refers to problem that
have been affecting farmers causing damages and loss of income.
Farmer, according to Cambridge Dictionary, it refers to someone who
take care or own. In this study, it is that have been continuously affected by
climate change and the one who make decisions on adapting climate-smart
agriculture.
Adaptation, according to the Merriam-Webster, it is about adjusting to
environmental conditions. On this study, this is the way of farmer to lessen the
negative impact of climate change.
Practices, according to the Merriam-Webster, it refers to to continually
execute or work at in order to gain proficiency. On this study, this is the
farmer’s way of farming method.
Productivity, according to Cambridge Dictionary, is the rate at which a
company or country makes goods, usually judged in connection with the
number of people and the amount of materials necessary to produce the
goods.
 Sustainability, according to Cambridge Dictionary, is the quality of
being able to continue over a period of time, and the quality of causing little or
no damage to the environment and therefore able to continue for a long time.
Subjective Biases, refers to personal beliefs, preferences, or
perspectives that affect how individuals interpret information, make decisions,
or form judgments. These biases are influenced by factors such as personal
experiences, emotions, cultural background, and social influences, often
leading to skewed or irrational conclusions. Unlike objective reasoning,
subjective biases can cloud judgment and prevent impartial decision-making.
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