Rajeev Gandhi Memorial College of

Engineering & Technology (Autonomous)

BASIC ELECTRICAL
ENGINEERING

UNIT II : Machines & Measuring Instruments

ELECTRICAL MACHINES
Rotating Magnetic Field (RMF)

• It is defined as the “”Field or flux having constant Amplitude but whose axis is
continuously rotating in a plane with a certain speed”.
• Example:- if the arrangement is made to rotate a permanent magnet, then the
resulting field is a rotating magnetic field. But in this method, it is necessary to
rotate a magnet physically to produce rotating magnetic field.
RMF IN 3-PHASE INUCTION MOTOR

➢ But in 3-ø induction motors such a rotating magnetic field is produced by supplying currents to a set of
stationary windings , with the help of 3 -ø AC supply.
➢ The current carrying windings produce the magnetic field or flux and due to interaction of three fluxes
produced due to three phase supply, resultant flux has a constant magnitude and its axis is rotating in space,
without physically rotating the windings. This type of field is nothing but rotating magnetic field.
Magnitude & Speed of RMF

➢ The Magnitude of RMF in three phase induction motors is 1.5 * ø𝑚

➢ The speed of Rotating Magnetic Field (RMF) in three phase induction motor is Synchronous Speed

120∗𝑓
Synchronous Speed 𝑁𝑠 = 𝑃
Where f = Frequency of the supply;
P = No. of poles
CONSTRUCTION OF 3-ø INDUCTION MOTOR
• The main parts of 3-ø induction motor are
Stator :- The part of the machine which is stationary is called stator
Rotor:- The part of the machine which is rotating is called rotor.
➢ The stator has a laminated type of construction made up of
stampings which are 0.4 to 0.5mm thick to reduce the iron
Stator losses.
➢ The stampings are slotted on its inner periphery to carry the
stator winding.
➢ The laminations are insulated from each other.
➢ The laminations are stamped together to build the stator core.
➢ The built up core is then fitted in the casted steel frame.
➢ The choice of material for the laminations is generally silicon
steel to reduce the hysteresis steel.
➢ The stator core carries a three phase winding connected
either in star or delta .
➢ This three phase winding is called stator winding.
➢ It is wound for definite number of poles (P).
➢ This winding when excited by a three phase supply produces a
rotating magnetic field (RMF).
ROTOR

➢The rotor is placed inside the stator.

➢The rotor core is also laminated in construction and uses
cast iron.
➢It is cylindrical and its outer periphery is slotted.
➢The rotor conductors or winding is placed in the rotor
slots.
➢There are two types rotor constructions which are used
for induction motors are,
➢ Squirrel Cage rotor
➢ Slip ring rotor (or) wound rotor
 Squirrel Cage Rotor

➢ The rotor core is cylindrical and slotted on its outer periphery.

➢ The rotor consists of uninsulated copper or aluminum bars called rotor
conductors .
➢ The bars are permanently shorted at each end with the help of conducting
copper ring called END RINGS.
➢ The entire structure looks like a cage , forming a closed electrical circuit so
the rotor is called squirrel cage rotor.
➢ As the bars are permanently shorted to each other through end ring, the
entire rotor resistance is very small. Hence this rotor is also called short
circuited rotor.
➢ As rotor itself short circuited , no external resistance can be added in the
rotor circuit.
➢ So slip ring and brush assembly is not required for this rotor . Hence the
rotor construction is very simple.
• Fan blades are generally provided at the ends of the rotor core. This
circulates the air through the machine while operation, providing the
necessary cooling.
• The air gap between stator and rotor is kept uniform and as small as
possible.
SLIP RING ROTOR OR WOUND ROTOR

• In this type of construction, rotor winding is exactly similar to the stator.

• The rotor carries a three phase star or delta connected, distributed winding, wound for same
number of poles as that of stator.
• The rotor construction is laminated and slotted.
• The slots contain the rotor winding
• The three ends of three phase winding, available after connecting the winding in star or delta, are
permanently connected to the slip rings.
• The sliprings mounted on the same shaft
• We have seen that sliprings are used to connect external stationary circuit to the internal rotating
circuit.
• So in this type of rotor, the external resistances can be added with the help of brushes and slip ring
arrangement, in series with each phase of the rotor winding.
• In the running condition, the slip rings are shorted. This is possible by connecting a metal
collar which gets pushed and connects all the sliprings together, shorting them.
• At the same time brushes are also lifted from the sliprings.
Comparision of Squirrel cage and wound rotor

S.NO Wound rotor or Slip Ring Rotor Squirrel Rotor

1 Rotor consists of a three phase winding similar to Rotor consists of bars which are shorted at the
the stator winding ends with the help of end rings

2 Construction is complicated Construction is very simple

3 Resistance can be added externally As permanently shorted, external resistance can
not be added

4 Slip rings and brushes are present to add external Slip rings and brushes are absent
resistance

5 The construction is dedicate and due to brushes, The construction is robust and maintenance free
frequent maintenance is necessary

6 The rotors are very costly Due to simple construction , the rotors are cheap

7 Only 5% of induction motors in industry use slip Very common and almost 95% induction motors
ring rotor use this type of rotor
 S.NO Wound rotor or Slip Ring Rotor Squirrel Cage Rotor
8 High Starting Torque can be obtained Moderate starting torque which
can to be controlled
9 Rotor resistance starter can be used Rotor resistance starter can not be
used
10 Rotor must be wound for the same number of poles as The rotor automatically adjusts
that of stator itself for the same number of poles
as that of stator
11 Speed control by rotor resistance is possible Speed control by rotor resistance is
not possible
12 Rotor copper losses are high hence efficiency is less Rotor copper losses are less hence
have higher efficiency .
13 Applications:- Applications:-
Used for Lifts, Hoists, Cranes, Elevators, Used for Lathes, Drilling
Compressors etc. machines, Fans, Blowers, Water
pumps, Grinders, Printing
machines etc.
Working principle of 3- ø Induction Motor

➢It works on the principle of Electromagnetic Induction.

➢When a three phase supply is given to the three phase stator winding, a rotating magnetic field of
constant magnitude is produced as discussed earlier.
➢The speed of this rotation magnetic field is synchronous speed𝑁𝑆 r.p.m.
120𝑓
𝑁𝑆 = =speed of RMF
𝑃
Where f = supply frequency in Hz
P = Number of poles for which stator winding is wound
➢This rotating field produces an effect of rotating poles around a rotor. Let direction of rotation of
this rotating magnetic field is clockwise as shown in the Fig. 1(a).
➢Now at this instant rotor is stationary and stator flux R.M.F. is rotating.
➢ Now at this instant rotor is stationary and stator flux R.M.F. is rotating.
➢ So its obvious that there exists a relative motion between the R.M.F. and rotor conductors.
➢ Now the R.M.F. gets cut by rotor conductors as R.M.F. sweeps over rotor conductors. Whenever
conductors cuts the flux, e.m.f. gets induced in it.
➢ So e.m.f. gets induced in the rotor conductors called rotor induced e.m.f. This is electro-magnetic
induction.
➢ As rotor forms closed circuit, induced e.m.f. circulates current through rotor called rotor current as
shown in the Fig.1(b).
➢ Let direction of this current is going into the paper denoted by a cross as shown in the Fig. 1(b).
➢ Any current carrying conductor produces its own flux. So rotor produces its flux called rotor flux.
➢For assumed direction of rotor current, the direction of rotor flux is clockwise as shown in the
Fig. 1(c). This direction can be easily determined using right hand thumb rule.
➢Now there are two fluxes, one R.M.F. and other rotor flux. Both the fluxes interact with each as
shown in the Fig. 1(d).
➢On left of rotor conductor, two fluxes add each other to produce high flux density area. On right
of rotor conductor, two fluxes cancel each other to produce low flux density area.
➢As flux lines act as stretched rubber band, high flux density area exerts a push on rotor conductor
towards low flux density area.
➢So rotor conductor experience a force from left to right in this case, as shown in the Fig. 1(d), due
to interaction of the two fluxes.
➢As all the rotor conductors experience a force, the overall rotor experiences a torque and starts
rotating.
➢So interaction of the two fluxes is very essential for a motoring action. As seen from
the Fig. 1(d), the direction of force experienced is same as that of rotating magnetic
field.
➢Hence rotor starts rotating in the same direction as that of rotating magnetic field
with speed of rotor is N = Speed of rotor i.e. motor in r.p.m.
ALTERNATORS
Working Principle:-
• The alternators work on the principle of electromagnetic induction.
When there is a relative motion between the conductors and the flux,
e.m.f. gets induced in the conductors.
• The d.c. generators also work on the same principle. The only
difference in practical alternator and a d.c. generator is that in an
alternator the conductors are stationary and field is rotating.
• In Alternator a DC supply is given to rotating field winding through
slip rings flux is produced in the field winding which is in rotating in
nature.
• Whenever rotating flux links with the stationery 3- phase armature
winding, then according to Faradys law of electro magnetic induction
emf is induced in armature winding , that is in 3-phase AC Supply.
• But for understanding purpose we can always consider relative motion
of conductors with respect to the flux produced by the field winding.
• Consider a relative motion of a single conductor under the magnetic
field produced by two stationary poles. The magnetic axis of the two
poles produced by field is vertical,
• shown dotted in the Fig. 4.6.
CONSTRUCTION OF AN
ALTERNATOR:-
• As mentioned earlier, most of the alternators prefer rotating field type
of construction.
• In case of alternators the winding terminology is slightly different than
in case of d.c generators, In alternator’s the stationary winding is
called 'Stator' while the rotating winding is called 'Rotor'.
• Most of the alternators have stator as armature and rotor as field,
• in Constructional details of rotating field type of alternator is
discussed below.
Stator :-
• It is a stationary part of the machine and is build up of
silicon steel laminations having slots on it’s inner
periphery . A three phase winding is placed in those
slots and serves as the armature winding of the
alternator . The armature winding is always connected
in star and the neutral is connected to ground.
• The laminated construction is basically to keep down
eddy current losses. Generally choice of material is
steel to keep down hysteresis losses.
Rotor
• There are two types of rotors used in alternators,
• i) Salient pole type and ii) Smooth cylindrical type.
• Salient Pole Type Rotor
• This is also called projected pole type as all the poles
are projected out from the surface of the rotor.
• The poles are built up of thick steel laminations. The poles are bolted
to the rotor as shown in the Fig. 4.3. The pole face has been given a
specific shape as discussed earlier in case of d.c. generators.
• The field winding is provided on the pole core.
• These rotors have large diameters and small axial lengths. The limiting
factor for the Size of the rotor is the centrifugal force acting on the
rotating member of the machine.
• As mechanical strength of salient pole type is less, this is preferred for
low speed alternators ranging from 125 r.p.rn. to 500 r.p.m.
• Prime movers used to drive such rotor are generally water turbines and
I.C engines
Smooth Cylindrical Type Rotor
• This is called non salient type or non projected pole type of rotor.
• The rotor consists of smooth solid steel cylinder, having number of
slots to accommodate the field coil. The slots are covered at the top
With the help of steel or manganese wedges. The unslotted portions of
the cylinder itself act as the the poles are not projecting out and the
surface of the rotor is smooth which uniform air gap between stator
and the rotor.
• These rotors have small diameters and large axial lengths. This is to
keep peripheral speed within limits. The main advantage of this type is
that are mechanically very strong and thus preferred for high speed
alternators ranging between 1500 to 3000 r.p.m. Such high speed
alternators are called 'turboalternators'. The prime movers used to
drive such type of rotors are generally steam turbines, electric motors.
Indicating Instrument
• These instruments make use of a dial and pointer for showing or indicating magnitude of
unknown quantity.
• The examples are ammeters and voltmeter etc.
Essential requirements of an instrument
• In case of measuring instruments, the effect of unknown quantity is converted into a
mechanical force which is transmitted to the pointer which moves over a calibrated scale .
• The moving system of such instrument is mounted on a pivoted spindle. For satisfactory
operation of any indicating instrument, following systems must be present in an
instrument.

1. Deflecting system producing deflecting torque 𝑇𝑑

2. Controlling system producing controlling torque 𝑇𝑐

3. Damping system producing damping torque

1. What are the different methods to produce controlling torque?
A. Spring control
B. Gravity control
2. What are the different methods to produce damping torque?
A. Air friction damping
B. Fluid friction damping
C. Eddy current damping
3. What are different types of systems present in the indicating
instrument?
A. Deflecting system
B. Controlling system
C. Damping system
Permanent Magnet Moving Coil (PMMC)

➢The permanent magnet moving coil instruments are most accurate type for d.c.
measurements.
➢The action of these instruments is based on the motoring principle. When a current
carrying coil is placed in the magnetic, field produced by permanent magnet, the
coil experiences a force and moves.
➢As the coil is moving and magnet is permanent the instrument is called permanent
magnet moving coil instrument. This basic principle is called D'Arsonval principle.
➢The amount of force experienced by the coil is proportional to the current passing
through the coil.
➢The moving coil is either rectangular or circular in shape, It has number of turns of fine
wire. The coil is suspended so that it is free to turn about its vertical axis.
➢The coil is placed in uniform, horizontal and radial magnetic field of a permanent magnet
in the shape of a horse-shoe. The iron core is spherical if coil is circular and is cylindrical
if the coil is rectangular. Due to iron core, the deflecting torque increases, increasing the
sensitivity of the instrument,
➢The controlling torque is provided by two phosphor bronze hair springs,
➢The damping torque is provided by eddy current damping, It is obtained by movement of
the aluminium former, moving in the magnetic field of the permanent magnet.
➢The pointer is carried by the spindle and it moves over a graduated scale. The pointer has
light weight so that it can deflect rapidly.
➢The mirror is placed below the pointer to get the accurate reading by removing the
parallax.
➢The scale markings of the basic d.c. PMMC instruments are usually linearly spaced as the
deflecting torque and hence the pointer deflection are directly proportional to the current
passing through the coil.
Torque Equation

The deflecting toque is given by,

• Td = NBAI
• Where
• Td = deflecting torque
• B = flux density in air gap, Wb/ m2
• N= number of turns of the coil
• A = Effective coil area
• I= Current

The controlling torque is provided by the springs and is proportional to the angular deflection of the pointer.
• Tc = Kθ
• Tc = controlling torque
• K = spring constant, Nm/rad or Nm/deg
• θ = angular deflection
• For the final steady state position,
• Td = Tc
• NBAI = Kθ

Thus the deflection is directly proportional to the current passing through the coil, amperes
Advantages of PMMC Instrument
• The various advantages of PMMC instruments are,
1. It has uniform scale
2. With a powerful magnet. its torque to weight ratio is very high, so operating current is small.
3. The sensitivity is high.
4. The eddy currents induced in the metallic former over which coil is wound, provide effective damping,
5. It consumes low power, of the order of 25 W to 200𝞵W,
6. It has high accuracy.
7. Extension of instrument range is possible.
8. Not affected by external magnetic fields called stray magnetic fields.

Disadvantages of PMMC Instrument

The various disadvantages of PMMC instruments are,

1. Suitable for d.c, measurements only,
2. Ageing of permanent magnet and the control springs
introduces the errors.
3. The cost is high due to delicate construction and accurate
machining.
4. The friction due to jewel-pivot suspension.
Moving Iron Instruments
The moving iron instruments are classified as :
i) Moving iron attraction type instruments and
ii) Moving iron repulsion type instruments
Moving iron attraction type instruments

• The basic working principle of instruments is very

simple that a soft iron piece if brought near the
magnet gets attracted by the magnet.
• The construction of the attraction type instrument
is shown in the Figure.
• It consists of a fixed coil C and moving iron piece
D. The coil is flat and has a narrow slot like
opening. The moving iron is a flat disc which is
eccentrically mounted on the spindle. The spindle
is supported between the jewel bearings.
• The spindle carries a pointer which moves over a graduated scale. The
number of turns of the fixed coil are dependent on the range of the
instrument For passing large current through the coil only few turns
are required.
• The controlling torque is provided by the springs but gravity control
may also be used for vertically mounted panel type instruments.
• The damping torque is provided by the air friction. A light aluminium
piston is attached to the moving system. It moves in a fixed chamber.
The chamber is closed at one end. It can also be provided with the
help of vane attached to the moving system.
• The operating magnetic field in moving iron instruments is very weak.
Hence eddy current damping is not used since it requires a
permanent magnet which would affect or distort the operating field.
Moving iron Repulsion type instrument

➢These instruments have two vanes inside the

coil, the one is fixed and other is movable.
➢When the current flows in the coil, both the
vanes are magnetized with like polarities
induced on the same side.
➢Hence due to the repulsion of like polarities,
there is a force of repulsion between the two
vanes causing the movement of the moving
vane.
➢The repulsion type instruments are the most
commonly used instruments.
➢The two vanes are radial strips of iron.
➢The fixed vane is attached to the coil, The movable vane is attached to
the spindle and suspended in the induction field of the coil.
➢The needle of the instrument is attached to this vane.
➢Even though the current through the coil is alternating, there is always
repulsion between the like poles of the fixed and the movable vane
Hence the deflection of the pointer is always in the same direction.
➢The deflection is effectively proportional to the actual current and
hence the scale is calibrated directly to read -amperes or volts.
➢The calibration is accurate only for the frequency for which it is
designed because the impedance is different for different frequencies.
Advantages of MI Instrument
1. The instruments can be used for both a.c. and d,c. measurements.
2. As the torque to weight ratio is high, errors due to the friction are very less.
3. A single type of moving element can cover the wide range hence these instruments are cheaper than other types of instruments.
4. There are no current carrying parts in the moving system hence these meters are extremely rugged and reliable.
5. These are capable of giving good accuracy. Modern moving iron instruments have a d.c. error of 2% or less.
6. These can withstand large loads and are not damaged even under overload conditions,
7. The range of instruments can be extended.

Disadvantages of MI instrument

1. The scale of the moving iron instruments is not uniform and is cramped at the lower end, Hence accurate readings are not possible at this
end.
2. There are serious errors due to hysteresis, frequency changes and stray magnetic fields.
3. The increase in temperature increases the resistance of coil, decreases stiffness of the springs, decreases the permeability and hence affect
the reading severely.
4. Due to the non linearity of B-H curve, the deflecting torque is not exactly proportional to the square of the current.
5. There is a difference between a.c. and dc. calibrations on account of the effect of inductance of the meter. Hence these meters must always
be calibrated at the frequency at which they are to used. The usual commercial moving iron instrument may be used within its specified
accuracy from 25 to 125 Hz frequency range.
6. Power consumption is on higher side.
Wheatstone Bridge
• Wheatstone Bridge is an instrument designed to measure unknown resistance in electrical circuits.
• It calculates the unknown resistance by balancing the two legs of the bridge circuit where one leg
contains both known resistors and the other leg contains one known (variable) and one unknown
resistor.
• Wheatstone bridge works on the principle of null deflection
Where
• P, Q are known resistances
• S = Variable resistance
• R = Unknown resistance
• G = Galvano meter resistance
• Wheatstone Bridge works on the principle of null
deflection i.e., there is no current flowing through the
galvanometer, and its needle shows no deflection,
hence the name null deflection.
• In the unbalanced state of the Wheatstone bridge i.e.,
when the potential across the galvanometer is different,
the galvanometer shows the deflection, and as the bridge
becomes balanced by changing the variable resistor, the
potential difference across the galvanometer becomes
zero i.e., the equilibrium state of Wheatstone bridge.
So according to Kirchhoff’s law, in closed path ABDA,
-I1P - IgG + I2R = 0 --- 1
and in closed path BCDB,
-(I1 – Ig)Q + (I2 + Ig)S + IgG = 0 --- 2
• The value ​of the variable resistance S is varied in such
a way that no current flows through the galvanometer
G when the key K2, is pressed. This is called
the equilibrium state of the bridge,
• that is, in the equilibrium state of the bridge, the
deflection in the galvanometer is zero (Ig = 0).
Putting Ig = 0, in the above equations,
I1P = I2R -- 3
and
I1Q = I2S -- 4
Divide equation 3 and 4
I1 P / I1 Q = I2 R / I2 S
P/Q=R/S
The Wheatstone Bridge Formula for the calculation of
the unknown resistor is
𝑷
R= S
𝑸