Electronics Mr.

Chambilo “PM”
ADVANCED SECONDARY EDUCATION

0754249049 PHYSICS
Form Six
PRINCIPLE OF ELECTRONICS

OTHER BOOKS WRITTEN BY THE SAME OUTHER

 Static electricity
 Heat and Thermodynamics
 Waves and Vibration
 Modern Physics
 Principle of Electromagnetism
 Properties of Matter
 Fundamental of Mechanics I
 Envirmental Physics
 Electrical Technology (current)

Obtain your online Copy through [email protected]

ISBN: 978 – 9976 – 59 646 – 5

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Mr. Chambilo “PM”
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Mob: +255 754 249 049/+255 653 176 895
Email: [email protected]
Electronics Mr. Chambilo “PM”

ADVANCED PHYSICS

ELECTRONICS

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Chambilo

Books production & service Centre

P.O BOX 356699 Dar es salaam

MWL Chambilo “PM”

B.Sc. Ed specialized in physics and Mathematics

i
 Electronics Mr. Chambilo “PM”

Copyright © 2018
© All rights reserved. No part of this publication/work may be
reproduced, reported, stored in any retrieval system, or
transmitted in any form or by any means of electronic system,
mechanical system, photocopying, recording or otherwise
without the permission of the copyright owner

ISBN: 978 – 9976 – 59 – 646 – 5

First Edition 2018
Contact details:
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Other series of books related and written by the same author
 Electrostatics
 Heat and thermodynamics
 Modern physics
 Electromagnetism
 Electrostatics
 Fundamental of mechanics

ii
 Electronics Mr. Chambilo “PM”
ACKNOLEDGEMENT

 Special thanks to almighty GOD for giving me knowledge,

strengths, good healthy and courage me to overcome
obstacles and challenges towards accomplishing this text
book.
 I would like to express my special feelings to my precious,
lovely wife Stella Singaile and my lovely son Daniel, for
their tolerant and encouraged me in either a way for
completion of this text.
 I would like to resent a lot of thanks to my lovely parents
who spent a lot energy and spent a lot of money so that I
can acquire this specialization
 I would like to congratulate Mr. Chambilo Tito, a teacher at
Maghare Secondary school (Department of English
language) who helped to organize my work in a
grammatical order and is the one who provided original
idea of extracting the book.
 I will miss the presence of Mr. Jeremia S, a student at Dar
es salaam University College of Education (department of
Linguistic) who played role as a Grammarian
 Also I would like to express my feelings to my lovely
friend Mr. Kitaule S, mechanical engineering at University
of Dar es salaam (UDSM) who helped me to design and to
construct this book
 Important thanks to Dr. Msambwa Y. a senior lecture at Dar
es Salaam University College Of Education (department of
Physics and Mathematics Block No: 003)
 All in all thanks for cooperation and congratulations to
anyone who contributed any idea in either a way GOD bless
you all. Stay blessed
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Electronics Mr. Chambilo “PM”

ABOUT THE BOOK.

This text extracted to cover the whole electronics concepts for

advanced level with reference to the first re-print Advanced
level Physics syllabus of 2010. Everything is extracted from
different sources but are within syllabus. The book designed
in such a way that every advanced level physics students can
grasp the required knowledge of solving different questions,
it is simplified and non-complicated. It consists of many
questions including NECTA question. This book written to
reduce some complexity in electrostatics for advanced leaner.

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Electronics Mr. Chambilo “PM”
DEDICATION OF THE BOOK

IN THE MEMORY OF JESUS

CHRIST

GLORY TO THE GOD

Typing, drawing and all other system type setting was done by
Mwl. Chambilo Edward

+255 754 249 049

[email protected]

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER ONE ..................................................................... 1
BAND THEORY AND SEMINCONDUCTORS ........................ 1
Energy Band Theory In Solids ................................................................... 1
Types Of Solid Materials. ......................................................................... 3
Conductors .................................................................................................... 3
Insulators........................................................................................................ 4
Semiconductors............................................................................................. 5
Types Of Semiconductors .......................................................................... 6
Doping ......................................................................................................... 12
N – Type Semiconductors ........................................................................ 13
P – Type Semiconductor ........................................................................... 14
Band Theory Treatment Of Extrinsic Semiconductors ......................... 15
Differences Between Intrinsic & Extrinsic Semiconductor Materials . 16
Characteristics Of Pure Semiconductors ............................................... 16
Current In Semiconductors ........................................................................ 17
Mobility Of The Electric Charge ......................................................... 18
P-N Junction Semiconductor Diode......................................................... 20
Biasing ......................................................................................................... 24
Forward Bias .............................................................................................. 24
Reverse Bias ............................................................................................... 29
The Current- Voltage Characteristics Of Reversed Bias ................... 30
Effect On Reversed Biased ...................................................................... 31
Rectification ................................................................................................ 34
Types Of Rectifier ..................................................................................... 34
Types Of Rectification. ............................................................................. 34
Full Wave Rectification Using A Bridge Of Four Diode .................... 38
Limitation Of Junction Diode ................................................................... 41
Advantage Of Semiconductor Diode Over Thermionic Diode. ........ 41
General Concept Of Diode As Rectification........................................ 43
Types Of Diodes........................................................................................ 43
Diode Configuration ................................................................................. 43
Connection Of Diodes............................................................................... 44
Types Of P – N Junction Diode .............................................................. 55
Other Types Of Semiconductors Device ............................................... 69
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CHAPTER TWO: TRANSISTOR ......................................... 74
Types Of Transistors ................................................................................. 74
Types Of Bipolar Transistor .................................................................... 76
Transistor Junction ...................................................................................... 78
Bias Arrangement For NPN And PNP Transistor. ................................ 78
Transistor Current ...................................................................................... 79
Transistor Configurations.......................................................................... 79
Common Emitter Transistor Configuration Mode ................................. 80
Common Base Configuration (CB) .......................................................... 81
I-V Characteristics Curves - CE: .............................................................. 85
Input/Base Characteristics ....................................................................... 86
Voltage Amplification and Power Gain ............................................... 92
Single stage CE Amplifier Circuit ........................................................... 93
Performance Of Transistor Amplifier. ................................................... 95
Transistor Load Line (Operating Point) ................................................. 96
Cuescent Point ............................................................................................ 99
Saturation Current ..................................................................................... 99
Cut Off Point ........................................................................................... 100
Stability and Biasing in Transistor ....................................................... 100
thermal Runway. ..................................................................................... 100
Causes of Thermal Runway. ................................................................. 100
Overcoming Of Thermal Runway. ....................................................... 100
Applications Of Transistor as switch ................................................... 101
CHAPTER THREE .....................................................147
DIGITAL ELECTRONICS ............................................147
Integrated Circuit ................................................................................... 147
Logic Gate ............................................................................................... 148
Types Of Logic Gates ........................................................................... 149
CHAPTER FOUR ......................................................179
ANALOGUE ELECTRONICS (OPAMP) .........................179
Inverting Inputs ........................................................................................ 182
Non-Inverting Inputs Amplifier ............................................................. 183
Properties of Op-amp........................................................................... 185
Feedback In Opamp.............................................................................. 185
Application Of an Operational Amplifier (Op-amp) ..................... 187
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Electronics Mr. Chambilo “PM”
Special Cases .......................................................................................... 197
Multivibrators .......................................................................................... 201
Solved Problems ..................................................................................... 202
CHAPTER FIVE ........................................................219
TELECOMMUNICATION ELECTRONICS. ......................219
Introduction To Telecommunication System ........................................ 219
Basic Unit of Communication. ............................................................... 219
Terms Used In Electronic Communication System .............................. 222
Antenna .................................................................................................... 223
Types Of Antenna .................................................................................. 224
Transmitter, Receiver And Modulation ............................................... 226
Transmitter ............................................................................................... 226
2. Receiver ............................................................................................... 228
Modulation ............................................................................................... 229
Amplitude Modulation (AM) ................................................................. 229
Frequency Modulation (FM).................................................................. 235
Radio Wave ............................................................................................ 237
Space Communication............................................................................ 238
Types Of Radio Wave Propagation.................................................. 238
Sky Wave Propagation. ....................................................................... 239
References Books .................................................................................... 244

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CHAPTER
Electronics Band Theory and
Mr. Chambilo “PM”

ONE Semiconductors
CHAPTER ONE
BAND THEORY AND SEMINCONDUCTORS

Energy Band Theory In Solids

The band theory state that

“In any solid materials there are three available energy band
which are valences band, forbidden gap and conduction
band”

The differences between conductors, semiconductors and

insulators lies in the numbers of free electrons in an isolated
atoms has a wall defined as a set of energy level since the
energy changes with the atoms takes place between one level
and another as they in crystals.

At very low temperature and in absence of external energy all

the electrons will exist in a the P.T.O. State of the lowest
possible energy and they will therefore fill the lowest energy
band called the valence band.

The valence band is complete filled with the valence

electrons. The upper energy band and that is empty of
electrons or contain few electrons is called conduction band.

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Conduction band this is the highest energy level which is
responsible for conduction. There is energy gap between
valence band and conduction band. This gap is called
forbidden gap since electrons can never found on it. The best
way of differentiating between conductors, semiconductors
and insulators arise the valence band, conduction band and
the width of the forbidden gap between them.

The valence electron can be removed from valence band to

conduction band by the application of external supply of
energy. The change of electron appearing in the conduction
band depend on the width of the forbidden gap.FERMI –
LEVEL

Sometimes is called Chemical potential or electron chemical

potential. Fermi – level is the energy level when there is
absence 50% to be applied by the electrons. The amount of
energy applied by the Fermi – level is called Fermi Energy
(EF).

This Fermi – energy depends on the following factors

(i). Electron density

(ii).Temperature
(iii). The amount of impurities and illumination.

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Types Of Solid Materials.
i. Conductor
ii. Insulator
iii. Semiconductor

Conductors
This is the materials which allows the current and heat to pass
through. Arrangement of energy band and conductor is
illuminated in the figure below.

In conductors the valence band and the conduction band are

actually overlap. In conductors the valence band is complete
filled with valence electrons while the conduction band is
only partially filled at low temperature

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At absolute zero all electrons fill up the lowest energy level
and the highest filled level is called Fermi – level. At room
temperature some electrons excited to higher energy level
above the Fermi by virtue of chemical energy.

Insulators
An insulator is the substance which does not allow the free
motion of the electrons. The arrangements of energy band in
the insulator

In an insulator the valence band is complete filled with

valence electrons and the conduction band is empty at the
ordinary temperature since the forbidden gap is very wide. It
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would take a great level of energy to make an electron to
jump the gap and to cause the insulator to have the negative
temperature coefficient of resistance. The insulator do not
conduct the electricity and their conductivity are very
negligible (poor)

Semiconductors This is
the materials whose electrical conductivity is higher than that
of insulator and less than that of conductor. Example of
conductors are Silcon (Si), Germanium (Ge), Calcium (ca)
and Antimonide ans Candium sulphide. Arrangements of
energy band for semiconductors.

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A pure semiconductors (Intrinsic semiconductors) the valence
band is complete filled when the electrons are all in their
ground state (Lowest level) and the conduction band is
complete empty at absolute zero then at zero absolute the
semiconductor behave as insulator.

But due to the narrow width the forbidden with the forbidden
gap some electrons can jump across to the conduction band
by application of thermal energy, the few electrons in the
conduction band make the semiconductor to conduct the
electricity less than a conductors on metals.

The conductivity of the semiconductor increase as

temperature rises, when the electrons jump from valence band
to the conduction band they leave behind them spaces or
holes in the valence band. This holes are effectively positive
in pure semiconductor, there are two charge carrier which are
electrons and holes.

Types Of Semiconductors
 Intrinsic semiconductors
 Extrinsic semiconductors

Intrinsic Semiconductors

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Is the pure semiconductors in which there is no any external
impurities has been added to it. Is the pure semiconductor in
which the conduction of electricity takes place by the
promotion of electrons from the valence band to the
conduction band. Is the pure semiconductor in which the
conduction of electricity takes place by the proportion of the
electrons from the valence band to the conductionband.

Both silicon and germanium are tetravalent they have four

electrons in their outer most shell.

Considering the figure below

One Silicon atom form four covalent bond with the

neibouring atom. When the valence electron gain thermal
energy to break covalent bonds the electron jump from the

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Electronics Mr. Chambilo “PM”
valence band to the conduction band making available for
electron for conduction of electricity.

When electron escapes from bond it leaves behind a valence.

The valence is called holes.

The holes is the region which there is excess positive charge.

When a battery is connected to a pure semiconductors
electron drift towards opposite direction. But there is equal
number of free electrons and holes. The mobility (velocity)
drift velocity of the electrons is actually greater than that of
holes.

The current flowing in the pure semiconductors (intrinsic

semiconductors) is given by

( )

Where n = number of charge carrier

E = electronic Charge

A = cross-sectional area

Drift velocity of electron

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Drift veocity of proton for conductor.

Since

Example
In intrinsic semiconductor the energy gap is eV. its
hole mobility is very much smaller than electron mobility and
independent temperature. Calculate the ratio between
conductivity at and at K assume that the
temperature dependence of intrinsic carrier concentration
is given by the relation

( )

Where is constant.

( )

For an intrinsic semiconductor, also it is given

that hence

( )

Since all the pre-exponential terms are independent of

temperature, therefore, we can use a constant such that

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Electronics Mr. Chambilo “PM”

( )

( )

( )

( )

( )

Hence the conductivity of semiconductor is greatly

influenced by temperature.
Example

In p-n junction diode, the current I can be expressed as

( )

Where is called the reverse saturation current, V is the

voltage across the diode and is positive for forward biased
and negative for reverse bias, and I is the current through the
diode, is the Boltzman constant ( eV/K) and T
is temperature. If for a given diode and T
K,

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Electronics Mr. Chambilo “PM”
(a) Calculate the forward current at a forward voltage of
0.6V
(b) What will be the increase of in the current if the
voltage across the diode is increased to V?
(c) What is the dynamic resistance

* +

* +

* +

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Electronics Mr. Chambilo “PM”

Extrinsic Semiconductor

Is the impure semiconductors to which a small amount of

impure atom of trivalent or pendavalent element has been
added to a pure semiconductors OR

Is the semiconductors which is formed by the addition of

impurities atom to the pure semiconductors. A pure
semiconductors has a charge carrier which are generated,
these are relatively few in amount and therefore the electrical
conductivity is slightly increased.

The electrical conductivity of the pure semiconductors can be

increased. Considerably by adding few atoms of the trivalent
element such as sodium, galium or few atoms of pendavalent.
The foreign atoms which are added to the pure
semiconductors are called impurities and the process is called
Dopping

Doping
Doping is the process of adding an impurities atoms to the
pure semiconductors, Example of impurities group IV (donor

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and III (acceptor). The process of doping is to increase the
electrical conductivity of the semiconductor materials. The
doping process of free electrons is more holes for conduction
of the electricity (increase the number of charge carrier)

There are two types of extrinsic semiconductor materials

which are

I. P-type semiconductors
II. N – Type semiconductors

N – Type Semiconductors
This is the kind of semiconductors which is formed due to the
addition of group V elements (donor) on the semiconductor.
This is called N – Type semiconductor because more
formation of negative charges.

The fifth valence electron of arsenic is not involved in the

band formation. If an atom of arsenic form pentavalent
material is added to the pure silicon of which are required for
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Electronics Mr. Chambilo “PM”
bonding and the fifth electron does not take part in bond
formation. So this fifth electron moves very easily to
conduction band at which the ordinary temperature hold true
because there is greater number of negative charge carrier
(electrons) the impure formed semiconductor of atom is
electron.

N – Type semiconductor is formed by adding foreign atoms

which are pendavalent state material to pure semiconductors.
The majority carriers in N – type semiconductor are electrons
and the minority carrier are holes.

The Majority carrier is charge carrier that contribute to the

conduction of electricity. The minority carrier are charge
carrier that contribute least to the conduction of electricity.
The impurity atoms donates electrons are called DONOR.
The conduction of electricity on n – type semiconductor is
mainly to the electrons.

P – Type Semiconductor
This is the type of extrinsic semiconductor which is formed
by adding foreign or impurities atoms which are trivalent to
pure semiconductor. Consider the addition of Boron element
to a pure silicon.

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If a Boron atom from trivalent materials is added from pure
silcon crystal, the three valence of electrons of Boron from
covalent bond with three neibouring silcon atom but the fouth
electron from silcon appear to be un bounded which they
creates the formation of holes (positive holes). The majority
carrier in the P – type semiconductor are holes and the
minority carrier are electrons. The conduction is due to
mainly to the holes for P – type semiconductors. Because
trivalent impurities accept electrons from the structure of
impure semiconductors are called ACCEPTOR.

Band Theory Treatment Of Extrinsic

Semiconductors
Donor Impurity
The addition of donor impurity to an intrinsic semiconductors
creates extra energy level just below the bottom of the
conductor band.
Acceptor Impurity
Addition of an acceptor impurities to the intrinsic purity
conductor creates extra energy level just above the top of a
valence band. They leave a large number of holes in the
valence band and so increase the conductivity.\consider

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Differences Between Intrinsic & Extrinsic

Semiconductor Materials

INTRINSIC EXTRINSIC
SEMICONDUCTOR SEMICONDUCTOR
Pure semiconductor An impure semiconductor
The number of holes is n-type majority carrier are
equal to the number of atoms in p-type majority
electrons carrier are holes
The electrical conductivity Its electrical conductivity is
is slightly increase by greatly increasing by doping
increasing temperature
The electrical conductivity The electrical conductivity
depends on the degree of depend on the amount of
temperature rises. impurity.

Characteristics Of Pure Semiconductors

 A pure semiconductor behaves as an insulator at
absolute zero and as a temperature rise it
behaves as conductor.
 A pure semiconductor does not obey atom’s laws it is
a non atomic conductor.

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 By dopping with external impurity, the electrical
conductivity of semiconductor is gearlly increased.
 Resistance of semiconductor decrease with
temperature rise.
 Conductivity increase with potential difference set up.

Current In Semiconductors
Free electrons and holes are moving on the semiconductor
materials in conductor motion before connection of source
electric current when the material is connected on the battery,
the electric charge are moving on the specific direction.
Hence the charge carrier are electrons and holes.

drift motion, is the randomly motion of the electric charge

on the semiconductor material.

Drift velocity, is the velocity of the electric charge due to

randomly motion.

Drift current, is the current due to randomly motion of the

electric charge for pure semiconductor material.

( )

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Mobility Of The Electric Charge

Mobility of the electric charge is the drift velocity of electric

charge per unit electric field.

Drift velocity of an electron is higher than drift velocity of

holes because the electron have mobility compared to the
mobility of the holes. Also electrons are charge carrier

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Example 01: Physical properties of pure semiconductors that

distinguish from other type of material

a. The mobility of charge carrier on a conductors is

defined by the equation where is drift
velocity which produced by by electric field strength
E. A rod of p-type Germanium of length 10mm and
cross sectional area of
per metre cubic, The electron density being
negligible. Given that the mobility of the holes is
. What is the resistance between the
holes of the rod? Given

Solution

Physical properties

 The electrical conductivity of pure semiconductors

can be greatly increased by doping impurities atoms
from trivalent material or pentavalent material
 The electrical conductivity of the pure semiconductors
can be slightly increased with increasing in
temperature.

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(a) Data given

( )

Since the resistance between the end of the rod is 59.5Ω

P-N Junction Semiconductor Diode

If a region of p-type and n-type material are formed side by
side in a pure of silicon a p-n junction is said to be formed.

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P-N junction is formed when p-type and n-type
semiconductors are fused together in a pure semiconductors
at very high temperature.

Action

(a) Zero bias (No applied field)

Both the p-type and the n-type material contain an imbalance

of conduction electron or hole at boundary holes drift from n-
type to the p-type material to reduce this imbalance. This
thermal diffusion of the holes and electron across the
boundary causes net migration of charge, sets in a potential
barrier.

The potential difference is called potential barrier. The

potential barrier since it opposes the diffusion of holes and
electrons. The resulting field (potential barrier) tends to
prevents further diffusion of charge carrier. The p-type region
becoming slightly negative and the n-type becoming slightly
positive

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The narrow region or layer at p-n junction which contain the

negative and positive charge is called depletion layer or
Barrier layer.

The diffusion establishes potential difference across the

junction. This is called contact potential and within a very
short time the junction is being formed. This becomes layer
enough to prevent any further diffusion.

The size of contact potential depends on

 Nature of crystal
 The amount of doping material
 Temperature

Terms Used

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 Depletion Layer is the region of immobile charge on
either side of the p-n junction caused by electron holes
combination.
 Buld in electric filed Is the electric field set up across
the p-n junction by the mobile charge in the space
charge layer.
 Diffusion current, this is the current which can be
generated due to diffusion of electric charge in the
depletion layer due to the existence of electric field on
p-n junction.
 Potential barrier (contact potential), Potential
barrier is an imaginary battery built up at the junction
to prevent the flow of charge carrier across the
boundary. OR Contact potential barrier is the potential
difference set up between n-type junction which
prevent the further diffusion of the charge layer. The
rise of potential barrier decreases as the temperature
rise it also decreases with increase in density of
doping impurities. No current would flow if the
region were connected by the wire since equal and
opposite charge potential barrier would be set up
between two semiconductors.

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Biasing
Biasing is the process of applying the potential difference
across the p-n junction. There are two types of bias

 Forward bias
 Reverse bias

Forward Bias
When a battery with an emf greater than potential barrier is
connected with a positive terminal to the p-type side and its
negative terminal to n-type side, the p-n junction is now said
to be forward bias.

Forward bias p-type material must be made positive to attack

more electrons moves from n to p type side and n-type
material must be made negative to attack more holes.

The Zero bias potential difference across the boundary it

overcome charge carrier of both sides can move and
recombine at the boundary. Hence the width of the depletion
layer is reduced the p-n junction forms a semiconductor
diode.

Anode Cathode

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When forward bias direction as the applied potential
difference across it is increased current increases.

The graph of Forward bias current ( against potential

difference can be ploted

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The graph above sums the characteristics of p-junction in
forward bias.

If the current through a forward biased junction diode is to

larger it will over heat and may break and melt to prevent this
safety resistor is included in series in the circuit to use up the

Excess supply voltage which cause large current

If is the resistance of the resistor that limit the current to its

correct working value, then voltage supply , is given by

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Example 02: (a)Explain briefly the meaning of the following

terms.

(i). P-N junction

(ii).Potential barrier
(iii). Majority and minority carrier
(b) The voltage drop across the forward biased diode is
1V and current is 1A on the 6V supply. Calculate
 Supply voltage drop across the safety resistor
 Supply current through R
 The value of the resistance R
 The power dissipated in R
 The power dissipated in diode.
 The power taken from the supply

Solution

(i)P-N junction is the combination of p-type and n-type

semiconductors

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(ii) Potential barrier is an imaginary battery buildup at the
junction to prevent the flow of charge carrier across the
boundary.

(iii) Majority carrier are particles that contribute most the

conduction of electricity and minority carriers are particle
that contribute least to the conduction.

(c) Solution
(i) Required V through R

(ii) Since R and diode are in series the current will

be as 1A
(iii) Required R

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(iv) Power dissipated in R

(v) Power dissipated in Diode

(vi) The power taken from the supply

Reverse Bias
Reverse bias is formed when n-type side is connected to the
positive terminal of the battery and the p-type side is
connected to the negative side of the terminal of the battery.
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The zero biased potential barrier across the boundary is
increased and the flow of the majority carrier is further
inhibited. The electron number density in the p-type region in
the hole density in n-type region are both greatly reduced.

Hence very small current flow is due to minority carrier being

pushed across the boundary and form leakage current or
reverse current.

Widened depletion layer in reverse biased the leakage current

due to the minority carrier remain very small for quite a large
range of reverse potential difference

The Current- Voltage Characteristics Of

Reversed Bias

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Effect On Reversed Biased

There are marked increase in current by potential difference
increased. There are two processes by which break down may
occur.

i. Zener Break Down

Zener break down is the result of electric field across the
depletion layer becoming higher to tear electrons away from
their nuclei and produce a large number of electrons holes
pair. This is dominant effect in diodes which have higher
level of doping. There is marked increase in current as p.d
increased beyond a critical breakdown voltage.

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NB: In the reverse biased depletion, no conductance i.e the

reverse tends to increased the width of the depletion layer.

(ii) Avalanche Breakdown

This occurs in the diodes which have low level of doping.
These have wide depletion layer and reverse p.d of much
200V can be applied without electric field across the
depletion layer becoming large enough to produce
conduction.
The electrons which are ejected can themselves produce
ionization and the current avalanche occurs.

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Example 03: (a) What is meant by semiconductors. Explain
how the conductivity of such material change with

i. Temperature
ii. The presence of impurities
(b) In which energy band free electrons and valence
electrons exist?
(c) Why is the current more easily established in
semiconductor than in insulator?
Solution.
(a) Semiconductors are the material which their
electrical conductivity lie between that on
conductors and that of insulator. The conductivity is
slight increased with increase in temperature. The
conductivity is greatly increased with increase or
addition of impurities.
(b) Free electrons exist in conduction band and valence
electrons exist in valence electrons
(c) The current is more easily established in
semiconductor than in insulator, since forbidden gap
is narrow in semiconductor material the insulator.
Most of free electrons can jump over the conduction
band even at room temperature for conduction while
in insulator the forbidden energy gap is very wide so
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no free electrons can jump over the conduction band.
Hence electrical conductivity of insulator is very
negligible (poor).

Rectification
Rectification is the conversion of alternating current (a.c)
onto direct current(d.c). An alternating current can be
converted to direct current by making use of device which
conducts as current move in only one direction. Such device
is called rectifier or semiconductor diode

Rectifier is an electrical device which convert alternating

current a.c to direct current d.c.

Types Of Rectifier
 Thermionic diode
 Semiconductor diode.

A semiconductor diode has low resistance to current in

forward biased direction and high resistance in the reverse
biased direction and no current flow in the reverse biased.
Hence semiconductor or p-n junction is largely and
directional one i.e rectifier.

Types Of Rectification.
 Half wave rectification
 Full wave rectification
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Half Wave Rectification (HWR)
Half wave rectification circuit is one that gives unidirectional
output using just half of each cycle of the alternating input.
The rectifying circuit consist of single diode circuit in series
with ac input to be rectified and load (an electronic system
such as Radio, receiver, TV set, Computer) is represented by
R required the dc output. When an ac input is applied to the
diode and load R, the first half cycle acts on forward direction
a potential difference across R will be conducted as dc output.

The second half cycle is in reverse direction, no current flow

and hence p.d across R is zero. The current pulses are
unidirectional and so the potential difference across R is
varying direct

Considering the diagram below

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In order to filter out off the varying direct voltage a filter
circuit is used it consist of higher inductance (holes) L and in
series with large capacitance C.

The filter circuit thus acts as potential divider separating dc

from ac and giving steady dc output across smoothing circuit
are used to make unidirectional output as a steady value.

Full Wave Rectification

The centre point O of the transfer characteristics has potential
half way between that of A and that of B.O being always at
potential and the other points A and B oscillating about it.
When the first half cycle of ac input makes A positive, B is
negative junction diode conduct giving a current pulse in

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R and does not conduct (is in reverse biased) direction.
When however B become positive then A is negative other
half of the same cycle is formed forward biased direction
conduct to give current in R while does not conduct.
Consider the diagram below.

The current through R is in the same direction during both

half cycle and the output across the resistor is the
unidirectional and make use of each half cycle as illustrated
in figure below.

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The above type of rectification is called central tapped

transformer full wave rectification.

Full Wave Rectification Using A Bridge Of Four

Diode
Full wave rectifier gives unidirectional output using both
value of every cycle input

Another type of circuit that produces the same output

waveform as the full wave rectifier circuit above is that of the
Full Wave Bridge Rectifier. This type of single phase
rectifier uses four individual rectifying diodes connected in a
closed loop “bridge” configuration to produce the desired
output. The main advantage of this bridge circuit is that it
does not require a special centre tapped transformer, thereby
reducing its size and cost. The single secondary winding is

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connected to one side of the diode bridge network and the
load to the other side as shown

The four diodes labeled D1 to D4 are arranged in “series

pairs” with only two diodes conducting current during each
half cycle. During the positive half cycle of the supply,
diodes D1 and D2 conduct in series while diodes D3 and D4
are reverse biased and the current flows through the load as
shown below.

The Positive Half-cycle

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During the negative half cycle of the supply, diodes D3 and

D4 conduct in series, but diodes D1 and D2 switch “OFF” as
they are now reversing biased. The current flowing through
the load is the same direction as before.

The Negative Half-cycle

As the current flowing through the load is unidirectional, so

the voltage developed across the load is also unidirectional,
the same as for the previous two diode full-wave rectifier

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Limitation Of Junction Diode
i. A junction diode cannot give amplification current
increase the amplitude of the vibration of current or
voltage.
ii. A junction diode merely converts ac into dc i.e filter
circuit is used to reduce compound of ac into dc input.

Advantage Of Semiconductor Diode Over

Thermionic Diode.
It is small, require low voltage to operate
It does not waste so much energy
It is quick and cheap to manufacture.

NB: for the full wave rectification

a. Mean value voltage
b. Mean value current

c. Root mean square current

√

Relationship between output and input frequency for a full

wave rectification

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Example 04: A peak of rectified voltage of a single phase
full wave central tapped transformer is 85V.The input
frequency is 60HZ. Calculate

i. Dc output voltage
ii. Output frequency

Solution

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General Concept Of Diode As Rectification
A diode is an electrical device allowing current to move
through it in one direction with far-greater ease than in the
other. The most common kind of diode in modern circuit
design is the semiconductor diode, although other diode
technologies exist.

Types Of Diodes
a) Light emitting diode
b) Zener diode
c) Photo diode.
d) P-N junction diode
e) Light dependent diode

Diode Configuration
(a) Forward biased for diode

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The currents I is forward biased and hence I is maximum.

(b) Reversed biased for diode

The current I is reversed biased and hence I is zero

Connection Of Diodes
Diode can be connected in

 Parallel connection
 Series connection.

Parallel Connection Of Diode.

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Consider the figure above which two diodes are connected in
parallel, then the pd across each diode is the same. Therefore

If the diode made up of silicon material then

And if the diode is made up with Germanium material then

When the diode is under reversed biased to current (little)

voltage is passing through the diode this is due to high
resistance which is caused by increasing width of the
depletion layer.

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( )

( )

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( )

( )

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Series Connection
Consider the diagram below

The circuit above show that the diode is connected in series

with resistor R. The diode D is under forward biased, thus the
current will flow along the diode.

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which flow through the resistor and the

diode can be connected in series with the resistor in order to
prevent overheating of the electrical ciruit.

NB: when two diodes are connected in series is similar to

the circuit in which there is connection only diode in the
electrical circuit.

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The connection of electrical circuit is similar to that in
previous figure.Consider the connection of the circuit below.

From the circuit it show that the diode is under forward

biased while is under reverse biased. This impurities that
very small amount of current pass through (something no
current through )

Since the potential difference is the same across and in

parallel connection hence

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Example 05: Given the circuit diagram below

If

Calculate the value of

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Example 06: Given the diagram below

Given that

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Example 07: Determine tha current I, for the electric network

below if

Consider the figure below

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Types Of P – N Junction Diode

(i) Light Emmiting Diode (Led)
This is the p – n junction diode which emmits light when
a current flows through it in the forward direction.
LED is a junction diode made from semiconductor
Gallium, Arsenide phosphide.

Symbol for LED

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Action
When forward biased it conduct and emmit light such red,
yellow or green depending on its exact composition.
 No conduction or light emmision occurs for reverse
bias. To limit the current through LED a resistor R
must be connected in series with it otherwise it could
be destroyed.

The forward voltage drop across the LED is given by

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Uses Of Led

 Is used to conduct or signal lamp in radio and other

electronic system.
 Used as optical fibre transmiters and in digital
electronic circuits to show whether the output is
higher or low.

Advantage Of Led Over Filament Lamp

 They are small in size and reliability.
 They have long life
 They response faster
 They need small skills.

Zener Diode

Zener diode is the type of junction diode used in reverse bias

when the reverse pd makes a certain value called Zener

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voltage or breakdown voltage, the reverse current increase
suddenly and rapidly.

No breakdown appear (occurs) however if the resistor R

connected in series with diode to limit the reverse current and
to prevent overheating which will destroy the diode.

The pd across the diode then will remain constant at over a

wide a range of reverse current vaue.

This is a property of Zener diode which makes it usefully in

stabilizing the power supply unit.

Voltage Regulation

In an unregulated power supply unit example battery, the

output volatge falls if output current rises. This may upset
the working of an electronic circuit/equipment being supply.

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Voltage regulator

In regulating or stabilizing circuit, Zener diode is reversed

biased and parallel with load. The input voltage taken
from unstabilized supply and is greater than the output
voltage developed across the load.

If and the current in the diode and load respectively

the load current supplied I is given by

If is found to fall or raise by the small

amount so developing I and therefore

This happen because even with different reverse current

through it zener or breakdown voltage has constant value
across it.

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Suppose a series resistor have a resistance R, the potential
difference across R.

The resistance R of the current limmiting resistor is given by

Uses Of Zener Diode

 Is used to regulate to stabilize the voltage output of
the power supply under reverse bias.
 It is used to protect voltimeter overload.

Photodiode
Is the junction diode sensitive to light.

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This connect P –N junction diode in a case with transparent

window through which curent light can enter.

Uses Of Photodiode
 Photo diode is used as optical fibre receivers
 Used as first counter which generate a pulse of current
every time a beam of light is interrupted.
 Photo diode is used in logic circuits

Example 08: Discuss the basic operation of light emmiting

diode

(ii) What is Photo diode

(iii) A particular photodiode is reversed biased with
5V d.c. If a current of is measured what is
the resistance of device?

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 When forward biased on LED conducts and emmits
light such as red, yellow or green light.
 No conduction no emmision of light for reverse
biased.

(ii) Photo diode is pn junction diode which has transparent

region (window) so that the junction can be exposed to light.
This is the junction diode sensitive to light.

(iv) Consider the data given below

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Example 09:

a) Distinguish between extrinsic and intrinsic

semiconductors
b) What is meant by the negative temperature
coefficient of semiconductor materials
c) Differentiate between the following
i. Donor and receptor impurities
ii. Majority and minority carrier
iii. Drift current and diffusion current
d) Determine tha value of , I, for the
parallel diode configuration shows in figure below
given that the voltage across the diode is 0.7V

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An extrinsic semiconductor is an impurities
semiconductors to which a very small amount of impurity
has been added

An intrinsic semiconductor is pure semiconductor to

which nothing has been added to it.

(b) A negative temperature coefficient of a semiconductor

means that electrical conductivity increase with increas in
temperature.

© (i) Donor impurities are imputies atoms which donate

electron WHILE receptor impurities are the impurities of
trivalent atoms from structure of pure semiconductor.

(ii) Majority carrier are charge that contribute to the

conduction WHILE minority carrier are the charge that
contribute least to the conduction.

(iii) drift current is the current due to the free electrons get
drifted towards the positive terminal under the effect of applied
electric field WHILE Diffusion current is the curent due to
thermal diffusion of holes and electrons across the boundary
with no applied electric field.

(d)

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Example 10: (a)calculate the suitable value of resistor in

series with LED if the current is not exceed when
d.c is applied across the LED and resistor combination if the
p.d across the diode is .

(c) A suinosoidal alternating current of is fed

through a perfect full wave rectifying (FWR) device

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as shown in figure below. If the output of rectifying
device is unsmooth and a moving coil d.c metre A is
used to register a current. Calculate the value of
current that metre A indicate

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Example 11: For the circuit shown below, the potentiametre

is adjusted until the LED just begin to glow. At this stage the
voltimeter register and a current of is also
registered by the semiconductor.

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i. Calculate the power transfer in the LED when it just

begin to glow
ii. Show that when the current is , the rate at which
electrons passing through the LED is

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Other Types Of Semiconductors Device

(a) Thermistor

This is the semiconductor materials whose resistance

changes with temperature. Its Circuit symbol

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Thermistor is made from metal oxide such as those of
Manganese and Nickel

Types Of Thermistor
 Thermistor having negativetemperature coefficient
(NTC). The resistance of which decreases
exponetially with temperature rise.
 Thermistor having the positive temperature coefficient
(PTC). Resistance rise abruptly to a certain value at a
definity temperature.

Application Of Thermistor
 Overload protection in razor sockets (PTC) . If the
circuit heat up the resistance of thermistor rise rapidly
to cut off the current.
 Thermistor alarm where the airflow from an airbed
cools while where the body the is moving and
breathing. If the body stops braething the airflows
causes the thermistor (NTC) heats up and the alarm
sound up.

Advantage Of Thermistor
 They use very little energy
 It is stable hence they are used longer time.

Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)

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Is asemiconductor device whose resistance depends on the
amount of light falling on it. The greater the intensity the
lower the resistance. Circuit symbol

The resistance of LRD decrease when light falls on it because

the light provide energy to release bond electrons from their
atoms and increase the number of electron and holes available
foe conduction.

LDr can be used on photographic exposure meters or in

junction with relay as light activated switch

CONCEPTUAL TARGETS WITH ANSWERS

 Can two separate p-n junction diode placed back to be
used to form p-n-p transistor?
Ans. No, because;
(i) The n-region will be to thick.
(ii) Dopping level of region will be very large as
compared to the dopping level required in the base
of the transistor.

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 If emitter and base of NPN transistor have same doping
concentration, explain how will the bace and collector
currents be affected.
Ans. A large number of majority charge carrier will be
neutralized in the base itself. So base current would
increase and collector current shall decrease.
 Explain with aid f diagram, how a thickness of deplation
layer in junction diode changes when it is forward
biased?
 In the n-type silicon, holes are minority carriers and
pentavalent atoms are the dopants, Why?
Ans. When a silicon is dopped with pentavalent atoms,
we get n-type silicon. In n-type semiconductor, electrons
are the majority carrier and holes are minority charge
carriers.


END OF CHAPTER CONCEPTUAL TARGETS

 Describe the valence band, conduction band and
forbidden energy gap with the help of energy level
diagram.
 Describe the energy band structure of insulator,
semiconductor and conductor.
 What do you understand by intrinsic and extrinsic
semiconductor?
 What is rectification?
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 Explain the working of a half wave diode rectifier.
 Explain the working of bridge rectifier (full wave).
 What is zener breakdown?
 Describe the construction of Zener diode.
 Explain with necessary circuit how zener diode can be
used as a voltage regulator.

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CHAPTER
Electronics
TWO Transistor Mr. Chambilo “PM”

CHAPTER TWO: TRANSISTOR

A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify
and switch electronic signals and electrical power. It is
composed of semiconductor material with at least three
or current applied to one pair of the transistor's terminals
changes the current through another pair of terminals.
Because the controlled (output) power can be higher than
the controlling (input) power, a transistor can amplify a
signal. Today, some transistors are packaged
individually, but many more are found embedded in
integrated circuit.

Types Of Transistors

(a) Unipolar or field effect transistor (FET). This is

the type of transistor in which the current is due
to majority carrier only and there is one

(b) bipolar junction transistor (BJT or bipolar

transistor)

This is the transistor consist of three different dipped

semiconductor region which are emitter, collector and
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base. This is named so because the current must go
through two types of semiconductor material which are
is a type of transistor that relies on the contact
of two types of semiconductor for its operation. BJTs
can be used as amplifiers. Switches or in oscillators
BJTs can be found either as individual discrete
components, or in large numbers as parts of integrated
circuits.

Electrons are majority charge carrier in n-type

semiconductors whereas holes are minority carrier of
charge in p-type.

Bipolar transistors are so named because their operation

involves both electrons and holes. These two kinds of
charge carriers are characteristic of the two kinds of
doped semiconductor material; electrons are majority
charge carriers in n-type semiconductors, whereas holes
are majority charge carriers in p-type semiconductors. In
contrast, unipolar transistors such as the field effect
transistor have only one kind of charge carrier.

Charge flow in a BJT is due to diffusion of charge carrier

across a junction between two regions of different charge
concentrations. The regions of a BJT are called emitter,
collector, and base. A discrete transistor has three leads

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for connection to these regions. Typically, emitter is
heavily doped compared to other two layers, whereas
majority charge carrier concentrations in base and
collector layers are about the same. By design, most of
the BJT collector current is due to the flow of charges
injected from a high-concentration emitter into the base
where there are minority carriers that diffuse toward the
collector, and so BJTs are classified as minority-carrier
devices.

BJTs come in two types, or polarities, known as PNP

and NPN based on the doping types of the three main
terminal regions. An NPN transistor comprises two
semiconductor junctions that share a thin p-doped anode
region, and a PNP transistor comprises two
semiconductor junctions that share a thin n-doped
cathode region

This is the dielectric device by joining either two N –

type semiconductor sand mixed by one p – type OR two
p – type send mixed by one N – type semiconductor.

Types Of Bipolar Transistor

(i)

This transistor base emitter junction is normally forward

biased which means that the P –doped side of junction is

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at more positive potential than the n-doped side creating
low resistance for the emitter

These are transistors which the current through the

emmiter point in.

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NPN trnsistor is not most used because current
conduction is mainly by free electrons Since PNP
junction transistor it is by holes since electrons are
more moblie than holes hence we can have high
conduction in NPN than in PNP transistor. Therefore
NPN transistor are commonly used due to mobility
of charge electrons are faster than holes.

Transistor Junction
Transistor has two pn junction

i. Base emmiter junction, It is the junction between

base region and emmiter region
ii. Base collector junction, it is the junction
between base region and collector reion

Bias Arrangement For NPN And PNP

Transistor.
For active operation of transistor , In both cases base
emmiter junctionis forward biased and base collector is
reversed bias.

(i) Consider bias for npn transistor.

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Transistor Current
The transistor is most useful component since it uses a
current amplifier. A current amplifier is used to increase
input values to large values. For the transistor to work as
an amplifier two conditions must be fullfiled.

 Base emmiter (BE) junction must be forward biased

 Base collector (BC) junction must be reversed
biased.

Transistor Configurations
Transistor have three terminals, but in ciruit connectivity four
terminals are required, two for the input and two for the
output. For these case one terminal of the transistor become
common to both, input and output terminals.

The BJT has only three terminals so one of these is usually

shared (i.e. made common) between input and output circuits
i.e the common terminal for both input and output signal
defines the configuration.

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Hence (BJTs) can be configured as an amplifier into three
ways:

 Common Base Configuration (CB)

 Common Emitter Configuration (CE)

 Common Collector Configuration (CC)

Common Emitter Transistor Configuration

Mode
In this mode the emitter is connected to the ground and
common to both input and output circuit (base and
collector circuit). It provide maximum simplification of
current and voltage i.e majority carrier plat partial role of
conduction of current.

Emitter is common or reference to both the input and output

terminals (i.e to base and collector terminals).

 Both the signal source and load share the emitter lead
as a common connection point.

 Has high current and voltage gain.

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 The CE configuration is the most commonly popular
because its input/output impedance is moderate for
practical applications and provides both good current
and voltage gain for either dc or ac signals (most
transistor amplifications, V, I, P (small signals to high
signals)).

Common Base Configuration (CB)

 Base is common to both, input and output sides of the
configuration (terminals, i.e the base is usually the
terminal closest to ground potential.

 Used for high frequency (like network antenna, TV,

radio etc) applications because minimizing
oscillations at high frequency due to exhibits high
stability.

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 It has high voltage gain, relatively low input
impedance and high output impedance compared to
the common collector.

 Its has low current gain, nearly unit, so it is not

attractive, not used for transistor amplifications (loud
speakers).

It has low current gain, nearly unit so it is not attractive not

used for transistor amplification.

Characteristics of Common base amplifier.

(i) Very low input resistance ( Ω
(ii) Very high output resistance up to 500KΩ
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(iii) A current gain is less than 1
(iv) It has large voltage gain about 1500V
(v) Power gain of up to 30dB.

Uses
One of the important use of common base amplifier is in
matching a low impedance circuit to a high impedance
circuit

Common Collector Configuration Mode

(Emmiter Follower)

 Both the signal source and load, share the collector

terminal as a common connection point.

 The output voltage is obtained at the emitter terminal

(Load resistor is connected from emitter to the
ground)
 It is used for impedance matching purpose, since it
has high input impedance, low output impedance and
high current gain. Widely used in power supply

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designed as series element and buffer/shock absorber
(Switch mode).

 It is not more practical applicable since the collector

terminal is the power supply line and so cannot be
made to output terminal.

Characteristics of common collector Amplifier

1. High input impedance (20-500K)
2. Low input impedance (50-1000Ω)
3. High current gain of (
4. Voltage gain is less than 1
5. Power gain of 10 to 20Db

USES

(i) They are used for impedance matching i.e for

connection of a circuit having high output
impedance to one having low input impedance
(ii) They are used for circuit isolation
(iii) They are used as two way amplifier since it can
pass a signal in either direction
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(iv) Used for switching circuit.
(v)

I-V Characteristics Curves - CE:

From the circuit the following relations hold:

 Input/base Characteristics, IB Vs VBE

 IB=(VCC-VBE)/RB

 Transfer Characteristics, IC Vs IB

 IC=βIB

 Output/collector Characteristics, IC Vs VCE

 The load line on output characteristics

is given by equation: IC=VCC/RC-VCE/RC

 At intercepts: Icmax=VCC/R since VCEmax=VCC

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Input/Base Characteristics
 IB (small) is microamperes compared to
miliamperes of IC (large).

 IB will flow when VBE > 0.7 or 0.65 V for

silicon and 0.3 V for germanium, i.e. before these
values, IB is very small and no Ic.

 Increasing VCE will reduce IB for different values.

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Input resistance of base circuit is the small change in the base

emitter voltage provided by the small change in base current.

Input conductance G is the ratio of small change in base current

to the small change in base emitter voltage.

II: Input (Collector) Characteristics

This is the variation of collector current when there

is change in p.d across collector emmiter when
base current is kept constant.

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 Slope of output characteristics in linear region is

nearly zero (scale exaggerated).

 For small VCE (VCE < VCESAT), IC increase

linearly with increasing VCE .

 VCE > VCESAT, IC not totally depends on VCE

(constant IC).

 Small increase in IB cause large increase in IC.

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Determining From the Collectror

Characteristics

In the dc mode the level of and are related by a quantity

called and is defined by the equation

Hence |

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Transistor Currents and CB - CE gain relationship
 Ic and IB flows out of the transistor while IE flows
into the transistors.
IE = Ic +

 Most of IE crosses to the collector and only small

portion flows out of the base terminal, typically about
96 % (0.96) to 99.5 % (0.995) of IE flows the
collector – base junction to collector terminal.

 The ratio of collector current to emitter current: alpha

dc (common base current gain).

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III: Transfer Characteristics Curve

This is observed when the collector current is changed

clos to the dhange base current is kept
constant.

The graph I almost straight line with the slope given by

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Example 12: In a common base connection

Voltage Amplification and Power Gain

A transistor in CE mode is the current amplifier, the
change of output a.c current to output voltage through
a load resistance must be used in a collector output
circuit. The function of load resistor is to detect the
output voltage. Voltage amplificationfactor is the ratio
ofoutput voltage to the input voltage .

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( )
Power gain is the product of current gain and voltage
gain

( )

( )

( )

Single stage CE Amplifier Circuit

The ce circuit is very sensitive to temperature so if no
arrangement is made for temperature stabilization the
output will become distorted when the teperature change.

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Each part in this transistor circuit play its important

function

 A potential divider provide necessary

base bias
 Load resistor provide out protection agaist
current circuit
 Capacitor input capacitor is used to broke off
any d.c omponent of input and ensure that only
an alternating signal from the input is superposed
on the bias and passes into the base.
 Capacitor prevent any undisireble feedbach of
amplified signal to the base emmiter circuit.

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 Capacitor this filters the output signal and it
block d.c output and give a.c signal to the out
circuits. Also this capacitor is used to allow an
alternating potential across to appear across
the output terminals but prevent any d.c
component via load resistor.
 An emmiter resistance stabilize the circuit to
excessive temperature rise prevent transistor from
getting burnt due to phenomena called thermal
run away.

Performance Of Transistor Amplifier.

The performance of transistor amplifier depends up of on
input resistance, output resistance, current gain, voltage
gain and power gain.

When a weak input a.c. signal is applied to the base of the

transistor, a small base current flows. Due to transistor action,
a much larger a.c. current flows through collector load RC, a
large voltage appears across RC and hence at the output.
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Therefore, a weak signal applied to the base appears in
amplified form in the collector circuit. Voltage gain (Av) of
the amplifier is the ratio of the amplified output voltage to the
input voltage.

( )

( )

( )

Transistor Load Line (Operating Point)

Selection of proper quiescent point depends on the
following factors:

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The amplitude of the input signals to be handled by the
amplifier and distortion level in signals.

Bias resistors and load resistors–provide appropriately

input current/voltages and collector current/voltage
conditions.

 Operating point of a transistor amplifier shifts

mainly with temperature change, since the
transistor parameters i.e. hFE (β), ICBO
(collector-base reverse saturation current) and
VBE are the function of temperature variations.

 For Transistors (Bipolar Junction Transistors) to

work, a small biasing voltage (VB ≈ 0.7 V)
should be applied to the base terminal which will
cause a large current to flow from collector to
emitter terminal (functionality of the transistor).

Hence a resistors are used in the biasing circuit to limit

the current flows into the base terminal of a transistor.

Major features when designing a voltage amplifier are

 The desired voltage gain

 Minimum distortion of the output so that it is good

copy of the input. This is done by choosing properly
quescent (d.c) operating point.
 The ampkifier should be operated within the current
voltage and provide limit ti the transistor. If higher

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value thatn specified rate are stated tha transistor will
be destroyed.
 It is important to know the best operating
condiction for a transistor amplifier and this
can be found using load line.
 From the equation of collector emmiter
circuit

This is the equation of straight line called load line on

the transistor.

To draw the loadline we need two end points of the

staright line. These two points can be found under

 When colllector current then collector

emmiter voltage is maximum and is equal to .

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 When the collector emmiter voltage the

collector current is maximum and is equal to

Cuescent Point
This is the point which required to give a minimum
value of current or voltage operating point

Saturation Current
Is the minimum current in the output or collector circuit
when output is zero

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Cut Off Point
Is the Point where no current flow in the collector circuit.
In this case no potential drop across load resistor. At cut
off . The small current in is
due to minority carrier in transistor when

Stability and Biasing in Transistor

thermal Runway.
Is the effect occurred in the transistor due to rise of
temperature which caused by minority carrier to shift the
small current. Due to slightly overloading of transistor or
due to temperature of the transisto may rise. This rise in
temperature may cause the great vibration of
semiconductor atoms which lead to the production of
more and holes.

Causes of Thermal Runway.

 Slightly overload of the transistor
 Increasing in surrounding temperature.
 The replacement of the transistor with one of
the greater current gain.

Overcoming Of Thermal Runway.

To overcome thermal runway effect and stabilize the d.c
operating point special bias circuit must be designed
which automatically will compaset for the variation of
the collector current.
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Transistor as switch
 When a transistor is used for switching, it is in one of
two states: ON or OFF.

 In OFF state: base current (IB) is zero, and the

transistor is in cut off (actually there is a small
amount of leakage current, but it can be ignored in
most cases.)

 In ON state: the base current (IB) is set large enough

to drive the transistor into saturation. In saturation,
the voltage drop across the transistor (VCE) decreases
to zero, and the voltage across the load goes to Vcc
(actually the voltage drop across the transistor
decreases to approximately 0.2 V).

Applications Of Transistor as switch

Transistor as switch can be used for controlling high
power devices such as motors, solenoids or lamps but
they can also be used in digital electronics and logic gate
circuit. In any switching circuit value the input voltage
would be choosen such that output in either

 It must be operated at cut-off for OFF position

and at saturation for ON position.

 With zero voltage on terminal 2, no current will

flow in the transistor. Transistor acts like an open

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switch. The output voltage is 3V as seen through
the resistor R.

 If a large enough voltage is applied to terminal 2,

the transistor will conduct heavily and very low
resistance between terminals 1 and 3.

Transistor acts like a closed switch. The output voltage

is near zero.

Generally: The transistor functioning as a switch

should be in cutoff (VcE = Vcc) or in a saturation (VcE
≈ 0.2 or 0.3 V).

State of transistor

If is the collector current flowing for a particular

voltage, the output voltage or

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Transistor As Oscillator
An electronic device that generates oscillation
(sinusoidal wave) of desired frequency is known as an
Oscillator. A coil and capacitor are electrical
component which together can produce oscillation of
current.

As shown in the figure below.

 Application of Transistor as a Switch

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 Light operated switch
 Darkness operated switch
 Digital Logic Gates
 Switching power supply
 Vin(High) > 0.7
 BE junction forward biased (VBE=0.7V)
 Saturation region
 VCE small (~0.2 V for saturated BJT)
 Vin(Low ) < 0.7 V

 BE junction not forward biased.

 Cutoff region

 No current flows

 Vout = VCE = Vcc

 VCE is high

The main feature of the circuit

 Coil – capacitor, L-C load collector circuits
 Positive feedback through the coil to maintain
oscillation in the circuit
 A potential divider arrangement , to provide
necessary bias.
 An emmiter to stabilize the circuit for
excessive temperature.

Large capacitor and

when switch S is
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closed, then collector current start increasing and change
capacitor C. When this capacitor is full charged, it
discharge through the coil L setting up oscillation. This
oscillation induced some voltage in by mutual
induction. The voltage across is applied between base
and emmiter and appears in the amplified from the
collector circuit.

advantage of transistor as oscillator

i. Due to absence of rotating parts, the operation of
oscillator is quit silent.
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ii. Is used to produce wave from small to extremely
high frequency
iii. It has very high efficient

Transistor as an Amplifiers
 Used to amplify signals - the amplitude of very small
signals increased to levels that must be visualized or
heard for intend purpose while their phase relations
remain unchanged.

 With a small voltage on terminal 2, a large

variation in current from terminals 1 to 3 occurs.

 For example: if a sine wave is applied to the

input, the current through the transistor will be a
sine wave and it will produce a sine wave voltage
across the resistor and the transistor.

 Since the current variation in the transistor is very

large, the output voltage is larger than the smaller
input voltage due to transistor gain.

Example: amplification of audio signals or radio frequency

signals without distortion of original input (increase input
signals in radios, TV, public addressing systems).

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 For these purposes, transistor must be operated
linearly (in active region) -mean collector current and

Vce should be chosen appropriately to be in linear region.

Example 13:For the following electronic circuit

a) Determine the value of and .

Assuming the transistor to be silicon.
b) List down amplification of common base
amplifier.

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(i) Amplification of CB amplifier to provide volatge

gain without current gain and also for imoedence
matching in high frequency amplifier.

Example 14: The figure below show simple form for

silicon common emmiter amplifier. When collector-
emmiter voltage is between times
base current and the base emmiter

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Calculate

i. The base current and the collector emmiter

voltage in the circuit
ii. The voltage gain if the input (base emmiter) a.c
resistance is emmiter) a.c resistance is
iii. The lorgest peak value of input a.c voltage if
varies between

(ii)

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( )

( )

Example 15: In figure below show simple form of

transistor voltage amplifier using npn transistor.

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Calculate the pd across

a.
b.
c.

( )

( )

( )

( )

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( )

(c) The function of provide necessary base

bias so that the base emmiter is forward biased where as
base collector is reversed biased. Capacitor stops dc
component in input signal enter in the circuit, Capacitor
prevent undesireble feedback of amplified signal to
base emmiter circuit

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Example 16: In figure below, if
current amplification .
Calculate

i. The value of
ii.

Example 17: The circuit belo uses silicon with dc

current gain of 100. Determine the value of

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( )

( )

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Example 17: (a) Briefly describe the major factors that

you would consider when design a voltage amplifier.

(c) In a figure below given

mplifier?

(a) Major factors considering when desgning voltage

amplifier

(i) The desired voltage gani for a particular amplifier

should be high.

(ii) Minimum destortion of output so that it is good copy

of the input.

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For the use of transistor as amplifier, the emmiter base
junction should be forward biased as the collector base
junction should be reversed.

The collector voltage is 0.4V w.r.t. emmiter and base

voltage is so the base current is
The emmiter base forward and
collector base is reversed hence the transistor can be used
as amplifier.

Example 18:

In the circuit shown below the operating point is choosen

such that and static value of forward current
transfer ratio of transistor for Assuming the
transistor to be a silicon. Draw d.c load line and
determine the operating point of the transistor. Consider
a circuit given below.

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( )

( )

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Example 19: figure below shows a silicon transistor

with an a.c current amplification factor biased
by base resistor method. Draw d.c load line and
determine the operating point.

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Example 20: The resistance of photoconductive cell

below falls when a cell is illuminated. Find the
approximately value of at which relay will close when
the illumination is increased. Relay close at ,
current transfer ratio of transistor is 80 assume p.d
between base and emmiter is negligible.

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Example 21: The figure below show a circuit of npn

transistor whose current amplication factor

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Ignoring the base emmiter voltage, calculate the base
current and collector current when the input voltage
What is

i. Voltage out put

ii. The resistance of light dependent resistor
LDR decrease when it is illuminated.
iii. Design transistor circuit using LDR.
a. To switch on 6v filament lamp when
darkness fall.
b. T switch off 6V filament lamp when
darkness fall

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(b) To switch off 6V lamp when the filament

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Example 22: In a circuit below the operating point is
choosen such that . If

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Example: In the figure below given that current gain is 100
and V. Show that the transistor work in active
region.

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Example 02: in a circuit shown below has

and the operating point value is to be
and . Calculate the values of

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Transistor questions
1. Determine the Q – point and find the maximum peak
value of base current for linear operation. Assume

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2. (a) Determine the Q – point values of for

the circuit in the figure below. Assume that

(b) Construct the dc load line and plot the Q – point.

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3. For the circuit shown in figure below, find the power
dissipated in the transistor. Assume and

From

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4. In the figure below, the transistor is just saturated with

an input d.c voltage .

(i) What does saturation mean in this circuit?

(ii) If the gain is 100, calculate , neglecting

the base emitter resistance and p.d

i) From the circuit

Saturation means , since is large

Now

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ii) But

5. In the figure below

(i) Show that a silicon transistor will operate in

the saturated region.
(ii) Calculate the value of so that the
transistor is just out of saturation (i.e in active
region)

………(i)

……..(ii)

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Consider equation (i)

Now; to justify the transistor is saturated, evaluate

Hence is less than and this justifies the assumption

that the transistor is saturated.

(iii) Out of saturation (active region

Applying KVL on base section

Applying KVL to the output side

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Consider the equation (i)

Example 6. When the negative feedback is applied to an

amplifier of gain 50, the gain after feedback falls to 25.
Calculate the feedback ratio.

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INDIVIDUAL QUESTIONS
1. Determine the Q – point values of and for the
circuit in figure below. Find and
and then construct the dc load line and plot the Q –
point Assume that to find and

2. Determine in the circuit

below

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Problem 2. Assume and

(a) Let V, determine the Q-point value of

and
(b) If find and determine and

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1. Determine the Q-point and construct dc load line

for this transistor.

Problem 3: Suppose
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(a) Find
(b) Determine Q-point of this transistor.
(c) Construct DC load line and plot Q-point.
(d) Calculate if is changes from Ω to 1kΩ

Problem 4: Find the values of

Assume that

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Problem 5. For the circuit shown in the figure below,
the Q-point is at and when
Assume

(a) Determine the values of

(b) Construct the DC load line and plot the Q-point.

5. (a) Determine the Q-point.

(b) Find the maximum peak value of base current for
linear operation. Assume = 220.

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Problem 6. Consider the circuit shown in Figure below.

Assume and

(a) Determine the value of to make and

then find in the circuit.
(b) Determine the value of to make

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Problem 7. Consider the circuit shown below, assume
, and

(a) Let determine the Q-point value of Ic and

Vce in the circuit
(b) Determine the value of to make and then
calculate

8. for CE transistor amplifier, the audio signal voltage

across the collector resistance of is V. suppose
the current amplification factor of the transistor is 100.

(i). What should be the value of in series with

supply of 2.0V, if the d.c base current has to
be 10 times the base signal current? (Answer;;
kΩ)

9. The current gain of the silicon transistor used in

the circuit as shown in the figure below. Given
barrier potential for silicon is V. find (i) (ii)
(iii)
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(Ans. (i) (ii) (ii) mA (iii) V)

END OF CHAPTER CONCEPTUAL TARGETS

 Describe the working of PNP and NPN transistors.
 Deduce the relation between α and β of a transistor.
 Explain an experiment to determine the
characteristics of a transistor in CE configuration.
Explain how the transistor parameters can be
evaluated.
 Why is a transistor called as current amplification
device?
 Why CE configuration is preferred over CB
configuration for operating transistor as an
amplifier?
 Describe the working of a transistor amplifier.
 Define bandwidth of an amplifier.
 What is meant by feedback? Name the two types of
feedback.
 Derive an expression for voltage gain of an amplifier
with negative feedback.
 What are the advantages of negative feedback?
 universal gates? Why are they called so?

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 What is an EXOR gate? Give the Boolean expression

for the EXOR

 What is an integrated circuit?

 Identify the analog and digital signals from the
following.
(i) square wave, (ii) sine wave
 Differentiate between linear ICs and digital ICs.
 Describe an operational amplifier. Explain its action
as (i) inverting amplifier and (ii) non-inverting
amplifier.
 Explain the term virtual ground of an operational
amplifier.
 Give the important parameters of an operational
amplifier.
 Explain how operational amplifier is used as a
summer.
 Describe the action of an operational amplifier as
difference amplifier.

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CHAPTER Digital Electronics
THREE CHAPTER THREE
DIGITAL ELECTRONICS
Digital electronics is the branch of electronics which
concerned with electronic circuit and signal which can
exist in only two state. Hence the study of electronics
which uses digital.

Integrated Circuit
These are elctronic circuit which consist many diodes,
transistors, capacitors etc fablicated in small chip of
semiconductor materials. These are two broad groups of
integrated circuit.

(a) Linear integrated circuit, these include

amplified type circuit of many kind. They handle
signals that are often electrical representation
analogue, of physical quantities such as
inteinsity.

Analogue signal

(b) Digital integrated circuits. These containing

switching-type circuits which process electrically
signal that have two voltage level. Their input or
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output are either high (near the supply voltage) or low.
The counter compute the outcome of digital
electronics. The basic bulding blocks of digital
electronis is logic gates.

Advantage of integrated circuits

(a) Small size and less weight.

(b) Low power requirement
(c) Improved perfomance even at high temperature.
(d) High reliability due to lesser number of
connection.

Effects of integrated circuits

(a) If any component in integrated circuit get fault
the whole integrated circuit has to be replaced by
new one.

Logic Gate
Is the device which uses transistor as high speed switch.
Logic gate are bulding block of a digital electronics.
They are used in digital electronics to change one
voltage level (input voltage) into another (output
volatge).

Logic gates have two important states

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 Low state (0)
 High state (1)

Low state means that the transistor is switches off state

and high state means that the transistor in logic gate is
switches on state.

Types Of Logic Gates

(a) Inverter logic gate
(b) AND logic gate
(c) NAND logic gate
(d) OR logic gate
(e) NOR logic gate
(f) Exclusivel OR gate
(g) Exclusive NOR gate

Inverter logic gate

Is an electronic circuit that produces an inverted version
of the input at its input. It produce high output if input is
low and viceversa. It has only one input. If the input
value is A, then the inverted value is known as NOT A

Symbol of inverter

A B

A A’

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The truth table of this circuit.

Input A Output ̅

II: AND Logic Gate

The AND logic gate is an electronic circuit that gives
high output (1) only if all input are high. It has two or
more input but only one output A dot or ( is used to
show AND operation.

It is represented by the symbol

The truth table of this circuit

III: NAND Gate

NAND gate means not AND gate. It is inverted AND
gate.
Its symbol

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The truth table of this circuit

Example 23: Draw thw truth table of the following logic

circuit

̅ ̅
̅̅̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅̅̅

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̅ P Q R
0

iv: OR gate
The OR gate is an electronic circuit that gives a high
output (1) if one or all of its input are high. It has two or
more input. The plus (+) or (V) is used to show OR
operation. The boolen expression
Its symbol

It truth table for this logic sysytem.

A B C

In a given electric circuit, the lamp glow (or output is

obtained) when one of the two switches is closed or both
switches are closed.

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The combination of basic logic gate the NOT, OR and

AND gates are the three basic circuits that makes up all
digital circuits

V: Nor Gate
This means not OR gate.it is inverted OR gate. Consider
the symbol below.

Its truth table

A B

vi: exclusive OR gate

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A B

Exclusive OR gate is the gate which excludes the cases

when the input are alike. It is abbriviated as EOR, and its
symbol is

It gives high output if either, but not both of its two

inputs are high. And its truth table is.

vii: exclusive NOR gate.

The exclusive NOR gate does opposite to EOR. It give

high output when its iput are equal i.e both (0) and both
(1) and for this reason it is called equivalence gate and it
is denoted by EXOR. Its symbol is

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̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅

Boolean Algebra

Boolean algebra, named after a mathematician George Boole

is the algebra of logic, which is applied to the operation of
computer devices. The rules of this algebra is simple, speed
and accurate. This algebra is helpful in simplifying the
complicated logical expression.

Laws and theorems of Boolean algebra

The fundamental laws of Boolean algebra are given below
which are necessary for manipulating different Boolean
expressions.
Basic laws
(i) Commutative laws
A+B=B+A
AB = BA

(ii) Associative Laws

A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C
A (BC) = (AB) C

(iii) Distributive law

A (B+C) = AB + AC

New operations :
 A+0=A
 A+1=1
 A.0 = 0
 A.1 = A
 A+A=A
 A+ =1
 =A
 . =0
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 A=A

Special theorems :
 A + AB = A
 (A + B) (A + C) = A + BC
 A (A + B) = A
 A+ B=A+B
 A ( + B) = AB
 (A + B) ( + C) = AC + B
 AB + C = (A + C) ( + B)

Theorems involving a single variable can be proved by

considering every possible value of the variable. For example
considering theorem A + 0 = A,
If A = 0 then, 0 + 0 = 0 = A
and if A = 1 then, 1 + 0 = 1 = A
and hence the theorem is proved.

Example 24: Draw the truth table of the following

circuits

Truth table for this logic system.

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̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ ̅
A B ̅ ̅ E F G

(b)

Truth table for this logic system.

A B ̅ ̅ C D E

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Truth table for this logic system

A B C ̅ F D E G Q

Example 25: below is the logic system to switch the

LED

(a) Construct a truth table for below logic system

showing three inputs A, B and C and the output
X, Y, Z and Q
(b) What combination of A, B and C will activate the
LED
(c) Explain briefly the purpose of diode D

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(a) Truth table for this logic sysytem.

A B C X Y Z Q

(b) The LED will be ON when both the inputs A, B

and C are high (when both switches
are closed)
(c) The function of diode D is to control the current
through the LED (it conduct current easily when
forward biased and practically no current flows
when it reversed biased.

Example 26: use the logic circuit system below to

(a) Determine the truth table

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(b) Design the single gate which is equivalent
to the combination of the above logic
circuit.

(a) Truth table fo this logic system

A B ̅ ̅ C D F

(b) The exclusive OR gate is the circuit which will

provide extactly the same function i.e it give high at
its output only if the input voltages are different

EOR gate

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Example 27: The light emmiting diode (LED) in the
circuit below will be ON provided

i. Switch P and Q are both opened

ii. Switch P and Q are both closed
iii. Switch P is closed and Q is opened.
a.Explain each of the statement above to check
whether is correct or not
b. What will happen to the LED when switch P is
opened and Q is closed.

(a) The input to a gate draw a very little current, so if

conneted to a rail via 1kΩ resistor only the inputs
will be approximately the voltage of rails. But if
switch is closed a large current current flows and
there is potential about 9V across the resistor.
i. If P and Q are both opened, then both inputs
P and Q will read low, which will give high

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output from NAND gate the LED will be
light.
ii. If both P and Q are closed, then both iputs P
and Q will read, which will give low output

Example 28: Below is the logic circuit to activate an

electric bell.

(a) Give logic state X when switch is

opened and then closed.
(b) Construct the truth table for the below logic
circuit including state H, F and Q
(c) What combination of X and Y would
activate electric bell.
(d) Desing the best logic gate which is
equivalent to the combination of the above
logic circuit.

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(a) Whe n switch is opened X is at low state since no
current flow through it and when is closed current
flows giving high state at the nput X.
(b) The truth table for the circuit above .

X Y ̅ ̅ H F Q

(c) The electric bell will be activated when both the

inputs X and Y are 0 or 1
(d) The exclusive NOR gate will perform the same
operation (it gives high output when its iput are
equal.

Example 29: Construct a circuit using a minimum

number of logic gates which gives a following truth
tables

(a)

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A B F
0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0

A B C F
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 1 0 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 1
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1

Solution

̅ ̅ ̅ ̅

̅ ̅ ̅

̅ ̅

̅ ̅

̅ ̅ ̅

̅ ̅

̅ ̅

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(b)
̅ ̅ ̅
̅ ̅ ̅
̅ ̅ ̅
̅ ̅
̅ ̅
̅ ̅
̅ ̅
̅
̅

Example 30:A house holder wants a circuit that will

sound an alarm if it is darkand door is opened or panic
button is pressed. A circuit can be constructed to give
high (1) in dark and low in left (0) and door switch will

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give low (0) when the door is open, otherwise it give a
high (1). The punic button give high when pressed.

(a) Construct a truth table for such control system

(b) Draw suitable logic gate system for the alarm to
sound if it is dark and door is opened or panic button
is pressed

̅
A B C ̅ ̅

(c) Taking entries with low input

̅ ̅ ̅ ̅

̅ ̅ ̅

̅ ̅ ̅

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̅ ̅ ̅ ̅

Its equivalent logic gate system

Example 31: In a car a red warning light comes ON

when the door is not closed properly or the seat belt is
not fastened or both door and seat belt are not properly
secured.

(a) Construct a truth table showing the door and seat

input to a logic gate system.
(b) Design suitable logic gate system for operating the
road warning light

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̅ ̅ ̅ ̅
A B C ̅ ̅ D E F

̅ ̅ ̅ ̅

̅ ̅ ̅

̅ ̅

̅ ̅

̅ ̅ ̅

̅ ̅

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Example 32: The figure below show a logic circuit to
operate LED

(a) What voltage at X when is opoened and

is closed.
(b) What is effect of varying
(c) Construct a truth table for which X, Y and Z
are inputs and P, R and Q are outputs. Show
that the LED lights when the switch are
closed.

(a) When is oponed the voltage at X is low and when

switch is closed the voltage at X is high
(b) Varying will vary the intensity of light emmiting
diode LED since the current will vary and it is the
current when limits the intensity of emmited diode.
 If is too small, the LED will shine bright.
 If is too large the LED will be DIM.
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( c ) the truth table for the above logic system

X Y Z P R Q

 The voltage at Q is low when all the switches are

closed
 For a LED to light, it needs to be forward biased
and and this can only happen if the anode is at
higher potential than the cathode. This situation
occuur only once (where Q =0 is when the
cathode is at low potential relatively to the anode
which is always a ). When all the switches
are closed. Thus the LED will turn ON when all
the switches are closed.

Example 33: Below is a logic gate circuit to operate the

buzzer.

(a) Give the logic state A when switch is

closed.
(b) Draw a truth table for this logic circuit
system.
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(c) What combination of A and B will activate
a buzzer.

(a) When switch is closed the current flows and gives

the high state at the input A. therefore the logic state
A when is closed is in high state or 1

input intermidiate output

A B C D E F G
1
0
0
1

(b) The truth table for the logic circuit

(c) The combination of A and B will activate a buzzer

when A is low and B is also low or when A is high and B
is also high.

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Example 34: the logic system shown below acts as
majority voting system for three judges A, B and C.
Each judge presses a switch for YES vote causing the
respective input to rise to the logic state 1. If a switch is
not pressed the input stays at logic state 0. Logic state 1
at the output represent a majority YES vote.

(i) Construct a truth table for the system

showing the state of input A, B and C
(ii) Design the system such that NAND gates
only used.

(h) The truth table for this logic system

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A B C Z Y X R Q
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
(iii)
̅ ̅ ̅

̅ ̅ ̅
̅ ̅
̅ ̅
̅ ̅
̅ ̅
̅
̅
̅
̅
̅
̅

̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅

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Example 35; Determine the output wave form for the circuit
given below, if the input waveform are as indicated by A and
B

SELF EVALUATION
1. If the two waveforms shown in figure are applied to the OR
gate. What is the resulting output wave form?

Ans.

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2. Find the output F of the logic circuit given below.

Ans. F = A + (B.C)
3. Give the Boolean equation for the logic given loci diagram
below.

4. Prove the following logic expression using the laws and the
theorems of Boolean algebra

5. Construct a logic circuit using NAND gates only for

ANSWER.

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6. The output of the Two NOT gates are NORed as shown

below. What is combination equivalent to?

7. When the negative feedback is applied to an amplifier of gain

50, the gain after feedback falls to 25. Calculate the feedback
ratio. (Answ.
8. You are given the two circuits as shown in the figure
below. Show that circuits.
(a) Acts as OR gate while circuits
(b) Acts as AND gate

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Ans. (a)

(a)
Its truth table is;

(b)

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Its truth table.

9. Write a truth table for a NAND gate connected as given in the

figure below. Identify the exact logic gate carried by this
circuit.

Ans.

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CHAPTER
Electronics Mr. Chambilo “PM”
FOUR Analogue Electronics
CHAPTER FOUR
(Op-Amp)
ANALOGUE ELECTRONICS (OPAMP)
Analogue electronics is the branch of electronics
dealing with d.c or a.c signal which changes smoothly
and continuously over a range of values between a
maximum and a minimum signals.

Analogue circuits are circuits which are represented by

potential difference that can have any value between an
upper limit and lower limit.

OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER (OPAMP)

Is a differential amplifier in which the output is the
amplified copy of the input or is the one in which the
output voltage is directly proportional to the difference
between two input voltage. It is constructed in the way
that it has two inputs and one output. Its symbol

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See the figure below.

Amplifier device

The circuit symbol showing the operational amplifier.

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The negative sign means that the inputs terminals are out
of phase

Consider the sketch below showing input and Output

waveforms of an Inverting OP-AMP.

Always the voltage gain is large because output voltage

is the amplified result of the input voltage

Always OPAMP can conduct mathematical operation

such as addition, substraction, integration, differentiation
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etc. OPAMP have two inputs which are inverting input
and non inverting input.

Inverting Inputs
The input voltage is applied to the inverting input
through the input resistor . The non-inverting is
grounded. The feedback is connected between the
output and the inverting input, hence the input
impedance of the circuit is considered to be very high,
No current can flow into or out the input terminals.

Also;

( )

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( )
Hence the voltage gain for inverting amplifier is given as
( )

Then, the output voltage is expressed as

( )

Non-Inverting Inputs Amplifier

The input signal is applied to the non inverting input
terminal. The resistor is connected from the inverting
input to ground. The feedback resistor is connected
between the output and the inverting input. Feedback voltage
( ) is developed across . Since the potential at the
inverting input tends to be the same as the non-inverting input
(as pointed out with the description of virtual ground), Vin =
VA.

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A non-inverting amplifier is a special case of the differential
amplifier in which a circuit inverting input is grounded and
the input voltage is applied to the non-inverting input.

By using the virtual ground concept at impedance, we can

calculate the current through a resistor and the same
current must be passing through

At junction

( )

( )

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( )

( )

In this case the output and input are said to be in phase

but is also amplified.

Properties of Op-amp
(i) They have low output resistance cause the output
voltage signal to be produced as intended.
(ii) They have high voltage gain
(iii) Have two inputs and only one output
(iv) They have high input resistance to prevent
unnecessary signal to pass through an OPAMP.
Feedback In Opamp
Feedback in an Om-Amp is the process of adding a
fraction of the output signal back to the input. A little of
output result is feedback to the input terminal. These are
two types of feedback in opamp.

(i) Negative feedback

(ii) Positive feedback

Negative Feedback
When a signals at the input and the output are out of
phase, the feedback signal is said to be negative. Hence
Negative feedback Occurs when a little amount of

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output is feedback to the inverting input. Onside the an
OPAMP below

Advantage of negative feed back

(i) Its gain is independent of the characteristics of an
amplifier itself.
(j) The gain has highly stable and it is constant over
range of input voltage frequencies.
(k) Reduction in the noise level
(l) Increased bandwidth
(m) Increase input impedance and decrease output
impedance.

Positive Feedback
When the input and the output signals are in phase, the
feedback is said to be Positive.

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A little of output result is feedback to the input terminal.

This occurs when a little of output is feedback to the non
inverting input.

Advantage of positive feedback.

(ii) It is employed in relaxation oscillators which
generate alternating current signals from d.c
source.
(iii) It increase the gain of the op-amp.

Application Of an Operational Amplifier

(Op-amp)
 It s used as inverter
 Used as summing amplifier
 Used as voltage follower
 Used as integrator
 Used as differentiator
 Op-amp as differential amplifier
 Op-amp as voltage comparator.

Op-amp as inverter
The operational amplifier can be used as an inverting
amplifier when an input signal is applied to and the
input (non inverting input is grounded.

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Inverting amplifier with negative feedback

The fraction of the output signal of the operational amplifier is
feedback to the inverting input through the feedback resistor
. The provide negative feedback.

Advantage of operational amplifier with negative

feedback
 The voltage gain can be reduced and controlled so
that OPAMP can function as linear amplifier.

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 Provide for control of the input and output
impedance.
 Increase circuit stability
 Distortion of the output is less

Op-Amp As Summing Amplifier

Sometimes op-amp may be employed as summing amplifier
when its negative feedback mode. So if may be used to sum
the input so as to produce the output signal.

( )

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( )

The negative sign indicate that output signal is inverted as

compared input signal.

Application Of Summing Amplifier.

i. Is used as mixer in audio application
to combine outputs of microphones,
electric guitars etc
ii. It also used a subs tractor

Op – Amp As Voltage Follower.

This uses both inputs that inverting and non-inverting inputs.
Voltage follower is also known as a buffer amplifier, unity
gain amplifier or isolation amplifier.
Voltage follower can be defined as when the output of the op-
amp circuit follows the inputs of the om-amp directly. The
circuit doesn’t supply an amplification. The output voltage is
equal to the input voltage. In this amplifier voltage gain is
equivalent to 1.

NB: Voltage follower used as buffer because it draws very

little current due to high input impedance of the amplifier,
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thus eliminating loading effects while still maintaining the
same voltage at the output.

When measuring the input voltage in op-amp the voltage drop

across capacitor that gives the input voltage.

( )

Advantages Of Voltage Follower

 It gives gain of power as well as current.
 Less output impedance of the circuit uses the output
 It avoid loading effect
 It has less output impedance.

Application of voltage follower amplifier circuit

Buffer used in logic circuits.
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Used in active filter.
Used through a transducer in a bridge circuit.

Op – amp as an integrator
A circuit that perform a mathematical integration of input
signal is called integrator. It consist of an op – amp input
resistor R and feedback capacitor C (feedback component is a
capacitor instead of resistor). Consider the circuit diagram
below.

Because of virtual and infinity impedance of the op – amp, all

of the input current flows through the capacitor.

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∫ ∫

Thus, the output voltage is proportional to the integral of the

input voltage

Practical application of op – amp integrator

a) Is used in petrol station. The integrating action of circuit
is similar to that of petrol station pumps which operates
on the valve of flow L/s
b) In a car speedometer. The use of circuit would be used to
integrate an input proportional to the speed of car so as to
give output proportional to the distance covered.
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op – amp differentiator.
In electronics, a differentiator is a circuit that is designed such
that the output voltage of the circuit is approximately directly
to the rate of change of the input voltage

If is the voltage across the resistor and is the voltage

across the capacitor, we can rearrange these two equations to
obtain

Op – amp as differential amplifier

Sometimes the differential amplifier is known as subs tractor,

The voltage are provided at both the op – amp input through
the resistor. Consider the circuit diagram below.

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( )

( )

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( )

( ) ( )

Application of op – amp differential amplifier

(i) Used to apply d.c signal to the a.c signal
(ii) Used to sense or to detect earthquakes or seismic
wave.
(iii) Act as input or other operational amplifier.

op – amp as voltage comparator

Comparator is an op – amp circuit without regulative
feedback. And takes advantage of vet high open loop gain. A
comparator has two inputs voltage i.e non inverting and
inverting input. Consider the circuit diagram below.

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To determine the amount of voltage to the input terminal is

highly depends on the value of resistance of LDR since have a
regulative temperature coefficient and its resistance depends
on the condition of flight or darkness condition.

Special Cases
a) Voltage at the inverting input:
The relative value of determine the voltage
comparator. Consider the circuit diagram below.

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The excess resistance difference of the resistance of and

used in the potential difference at the inverting input

( )

( )

( )

b) Voltage At Non Inverting Input

The amount of potential through the non inverting input
depends on the LDR whose resistance changes with variation
of the temperature.

( )

( )

( )

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( ) ( )

( ) ( )

( )

( )

Application Of Comparator Op – Amp

 Used as street lamp
 Used as alarm circuit
 Used as frame sensor
 Used as heat sensor
 Used to determine conductivity of the soil
 Used as level detector

Op – Amp as Switch
Op – amp can be used as switch in which both inputs are
connected to the switch. Consider the circuit diagram below.

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(i) The switch action of op – amp always observed in

the output voltage
(ii) When the output voltage is negative, the op – amp
is said to ne auctioning OFF state.
(iii) When is positive the op – amp is in ON state.

( )

( )

( )

( )

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Multivibrators
Multivibrators are sequential logic circuits that operate
continuously between two distinct states of HIGH and
LOW

A multivibrator circuit oscillates between a “HIGH”

state and a “LOW” state producing a continuous
output. Astable multivibrators generally have an even
50% duty cycle, that is that 50% of the cycle time the
output is “HIGH” and the remaining 50% of the cycle
time the output is “OFF”. In other words, the duty cycle
for an stable timing pulse is 1:1.

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Solved Problems

Example 35: (a) Explain the following

(i) Closed loop gain

(ii) Open loop gain

(b) If the open loop gain of an op-amp is .

Calculate the maximum input voltage swing that can be
supplied to the linear operation on a supply.

(c) For an ideal operational circuit, determine the

value of

(i) Output voltage

(ii) The voltage gain if

(a)(i) Closed loop gain of an op- amp is defined as ratio

of output voltage to the input voltage.

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(ii) open loop gain is the ratio of output voltage to the
p.d between the inputs ( )

(b)

( )

( )

Example 36: Calculate the output voltage for the circuit

if the inputs are

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( )

( )

Example 37: A circuit below is designed to switch ON a

light emitting diode (LED) when darkness fall. A circuit
uses a light dependent resistor (LDR) whose resistance
varies from in sun light.

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Calculate the potential at the inverting input

01. Calculate the approximate potential at the non

inverting inputs when the LDR is
a. In the dark region
b. In the light region
02. Why does LED only light when darkness fall.

( )

( )

( )

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( )

( )

( )

( )

03. when LDR is slit the potential at non inverting

input is less than that of inverting input so the
output voltage will be no conduction takes
place under this condition. When darkness falls
the potential at non inverting input is greater than
the potential at inverting input so the output
voltage will switch to maximize supply
voltage. This positive value will lighr the LED.
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Example 38: Below is an op – amp circuit with two
potential dividers. The junction is connected to the
inverting input and the junction Y is connected to the
non inverting input R variable resistor.

what is the voltage at

a. if is zero what will be voltage at Y

b. what value of R will produce the voltage
at Y
b) what are the value of output voltage if R is
a. slightly less than its value (i) (b)
b. slightly greater than its value

( )

( )

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( )

( ) ( )

( ) ( )

(b)(i) if R< 0.6kΩ , supply voltage is dropped

across 3kΩ resistor making greater than , the
op-amp switched to its positive saturated state
with output voltage being closed to

(ii) If R > 0.6kΩ most of supply voltage dropped

across R, making less than the opamp switches to
its negative saturated state with output voltage being
close to

Example 39: The circuit below contain negative

temperature coefficient of resistance of thermostat.

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When temperature of thermistor reaches
Calculate the
resistance of the thermistor at which LED comes.

( ) ( )

Example 40: An operational amplifier oscillator circuit

is set up as shown below. The output voltage Z oscillates
between . At is
uncharged and the output voltage is at a later time
the voltimeter connected to the output. Show that output

has just changed to . Calculate the time at which

output voltage changes from

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( )

( )

( )

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( )

( )

( ( ))

( )

Problem 41: In the diagram below shows an operational

amplifier circuit with feedback. If the operational
amplifier has gain of .

(a) What will be when V?

(b) If , find the magnitude of
(c) State what the given amplifier circuit represents.
(d) Give the reason for employing negative feedback
in the circuit

(a) From the KCL at point N node and the concept of

virtual ground

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From the potential divider configuration

( )

( )

( )

(b) If
( )

( )

(c) The given amplifier circuit represents a non-

inverting voltage amplifier since the output is in
phase with input.
(d) The negative feedback improves stability of the
gain by making it independent on the values of
the relatively stable resistors, and not on the very
temperature sensitive semiconductor in the
operational amplifier.

Problem 42; A semiconductor has negative temperature

coefficient of resistance, what does this statement mean?
Answer:
The statement means that when the temperature is
increased in a semiconductor its resistance increases also
due to the evolution of many charge carriers that result

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into collision and reduces the mobility of charges

Problem 43; In the amplifier circuit below,

Calculate the output potential .

Problem 44; The input signal is then replaced by the

signal shown below. Copy this diagram and add to it the
corresponding output potential .

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0 -4 +4 0
0 8 -8 0

Problem 45;
Find the output of the ideal operational amplifier shown in the
figure for when the input voltage is 120mV

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Example 46: State three properties of Op-Amp

Answers

 High input resistance

 High voltage gain
 Low output resistance

Example 47.

The diagram below shows a differential amplifier circuit.

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(a) Write down the relationship between output voltage

and input voltages and
(b) What will be the output voltage when
and

( )

( )

( )

( )

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( )

( )

( )

( )

( )

But A is the open loop gain which is of the order of

( )

This is the required relationship between and and

(b) If
Then

Therefore the output voltage is V

ELEMENTARY QUESTION

1. The light operating switch below uses op-amp as

voltage comparator. The circuit designed to switch ON
LED which has resistance of 10MΩ in dark but 1kΩ
when illuminated.

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Calculate

1. The voltage at inverting input (answer 4.5V)

2. The approximately potential of non inverting
input when LDR is
1.In the dark (answer 9V)
2.In the light (answer 1.53V)

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CHAPTER
Electronics Mr. Chambilo “PM”
FIVE Telecommunication
CHAPTER FIVE Electronics
TELECOMMUNICATION ELECTRONICS.
Introduction To Telecommunication
System
Communication is the transmission and reception of
voice and music through the air wave probably the only
application of electronics of any significance. Today
communication touches almost every aspect to over lives
not only in the entertainment area but also machinery,
commerce, transportation and industries. The telephone
at our land at our hands, the radios and television.

In most fundamental of sense, communication involves

the transmission of information from one point to
another through a series of processes, in the early 1900’s
radio.

Basic Unit of Communication.

The form of communication system being considered,
there are three basic element of every communication
system there are:

1) Transmitter
2) Communication channel
3) Receiver

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Information source

transmitter

Channel noise

receiver

Use of information

Generally the transmitter is located at one place to

another place. The communication channel is medium
that link the transmitter and the receiver.

 Transmitter. The function of transmitter is to transform

the message or information eg music speech, picture
written etc into a suitable form and transmit it over the
communication.
Generally, the information is not electrical in nature.
The transmitter first convert the message into
equivalent electrical variation. It is then called signal.
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A high wave called carrier waves and resultant waves
are called modulated waves. The actual method of
modulation varies from one communication system to
another.
 Communication channel. It is medium by which the
modulated waves are transmitted from the transmitter
to the receiver. The communication channel or
transmission medium may be free space, transmission
line or optical fibre example in case of radio and TV
transmission. In the process of transmission signal are
contaminated by noise signals. This is called channel
noise. Noise is unwanted energy usually of random
character generated by numerous natural or man made
events.
 Receiver. The function of receiver is to receive the
modulated waves transmitted by the transmitter and to
do modulation or detection and is the reverse of the
modulation process done in the transmitter. The
received signal is then utilized as the situation
demands.

There are two basic modes of communication

i. Point to point communication

ii. Broadcast mode.
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In point to point communication mode the message is
transmitted over a link between a single transmitter and
single receiver. Conservation between two people
through a telephone is an example of point to point
communication.

In broadcast mode, (point to many point

communication) there is single transmitter and large
number of receiver. Radio broadcasting and television
are example of this mode of communication.

Terms Used In Electronic Communication

System
 Transducer, a device that converts one form of energy
into form of energy is called a transducer. Example a
microphones convert is a transducer similarly or loud
speaker is a transducer. Similarly because converts
electrical energy into sound energy.
 Signal, the information converted into electrical form
that is suitable for transmission is called signal
example in a radio station, music, speech etc are
converted into electrical form by a microphone sound
(music, speech etc).
 Noise, the unwanted signal a noise. The noise is
undersible it disturbs the transmission and processing
of signal in a communication system. The source
generating the noise may be located inside or outside
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the system. Effects should be made to minimize the
noise level in a communication system.
 Transmitter, any electronic system that broadcast
modulated electromagnetic signal toward one or more
distant receiver is called transmitter. In a transmitter
the signal is processed to produce modulated waves.
These modulated waves contain the signal are sent to
the receiver through the channel.
 Receiver, any electronic system that enables the
desired modulated wave to be separated from all other
modulated waves coming into the antenna is a receiver.
 Modulated, the signal in communication system
(example music, speech etc) is low frequency signal
and cannot transmitted to large distance. It is super
composed on a high frequency wave (called carrier
wave). The process is called modulation; modulation.
modulation is done at the transmitter and is an
important of commutation system.
 Range. The range is the largest distance between the
source and the destination up to which the signal can
be received in sufficient strength.

Antenna
An antenna is the metallic structure that is used to radiate
or receive high frequency signals (electromagnetic
waves). In communication system, antennae plays on

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important role and is used for both transmitting and
receiving the radio frequency signals. Its main function
is to convert high frequency current into electromagnetic
waves and vice versa.

Types Of Antenna
a) Dipole antenna
b) Dish antenna
 Dipole antenna it is basically a straight conductor
and can transmit or pick up the radio frequency
signal in all directions. The length of dipole antenna
is generally taken equal to m where is the wave
length of radioactive signal to be transmitted or
receive.

 Dish antenna, A dish antenna is a directional

antenna and is used for the transmitting and
receiving very high frequency waves. It has a

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parabolic reflector with an active element called
dipole and the focus of the reflector. This antenna
can transmit a signal in a particular direction and
can receive the signal, the signal (in electrical form)
is fed to the dipole which convert to the signal into
electromagnetic waves and direct them to the
reflector. The reflection is then transmit the signal
in form of parallel beam for reception, the
electromagnetic waves is directed toward the dish
are focused on the dipole which convert which
convert them into electrical signal. The electrical
signal is fed to the receiver.
The dish antenna in a rador and satellite
communication.

The two fundamental types are Hertz antennas and

macron antennas. All other types may be
considered as derivatives of these two fundamental
type.
A hertz antenna. Also known as haf wave isolated, Is
a straight conductor of length equal to to the half the
wavelength of radio signals to be transmitted are
received
Macron antenna, (also known as quarter wave
antenna) Is the straight conductor of a length equal to

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the quarter wavelength of radio signal to be
transmitted or received

Dish antenna

Transmitter, Receiver And Modulation

Transmitter
In every communication system is a transmitter located
at one place and receiver located at another place the
signal is is transmitted from the transmitter to the
receiver through suitable communication channel

The function of transmitter is to transform message or

information into a suitable form and transmit it over
communication channel.

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The following are the figure that shows the block
diagram of transmitter for radio broadcast. The essential
components of transmitter are

1. Microphone
2. Audio amplifier
3. Oscillation
4. Modulation
5. Transmitting antenna

Microphone source

Audio
amplifier

osillation modulation

The microphone converts sound signal into electrical

signal. The output of microphone is red to mult stage
audio amplifier for ionizing the strength of the weak
signal. The function of the oscillation is to produce high
frequency signal called a carrier waves. The signal is
superposed on the carrier waves in order to carry the
signal to the large distance.this process is called

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modulation and transmitting antenna which convert the
electrical signal into radio waves and transmit them into
free space.

2. Receiver
The signal transmitted by the transmitter in the form of
modulated waves (radio waves) received by the receiver
through the receiving antenna.

The essential components of of the receiver are

 Receiving antenna
 Turned amplifier
 Demodulator
 Audio amplifier
 Land speaker.

Loud spaeker

Turned amplifier Demodulation Audio amplifier

The receiving antenna picks up the radio waves from

different transmitting stations. The desire signal is
selected and amplified turned amplifier

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The receiving antenna picks up the radio waves from
different transmitting stations. The desire signal is
selected and amplified turned amplifier. The output of
the turned amplifier is fed to the demodulation which
separates the audio signal from the modulation. The
audio signal amplifier and then fed to the loud speaker
for reproduction into sound waves.

Modulation
A high frequency carrier waves used to carry the audio
signal. Modulation is the process of mixing a signal
with the sinusoidal waves to produce a new signalor is
the process of changing some characteristics eg
amplitude frequency or phase of carrier waves in
accordance with the intensity of the signal.

Types Of Modulation
a) Amplitude modulation.
b) Frequency modulation
c) Phase modulation.

Amplitude Modulation (AM)

When the amplitude of high frequency is changed in
accordance the intensity of the signal, it is called
amplitude modulation, only the amplitude waves is
changes in accordance with the intensity of the signal.

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However the frequency of modulated waves remain the
same

The amplitude of both positive and negative half cycle of

carrier waves changed in accordance with the signal.

During the negative half cycle of the signal, the

amplitude of carrier wave also decrease. Amplitude
modulation us done by an electronic circuit called
modulator.

NB: Amplitude modulation is the type of modulation

where the amplitude of the carrier signal is modulated
(changed) in proportion to the message of the carrier
signal while the frequency and phase are kept constant.

Modulation index: the description to extend to which

the amplitude of the carrier wave is changed by the
modulating signal.

Hence modulation index is defined as the ratio of the

change of amplitude of the carrier wave to the amplitude
of the un modulated carrier wave.

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If the maximum and minimum voltage of AM wave are

and respectively, it is clear from the figure
above.

The amplitude (A)

Where is the carrier amplitude and is the signal

amplitude.
NOTE: The modulation index lies between 0 and 1

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Bandwidth
Is measured as that amount of data that can be
transferred from one point to another with a network in a
specific amount of time. It is also a measure how much
data can be transferred along a communication channel.
Bandwidth can be defines as the range of frequencies
occupied by a modulated radio frequency signal.

The bandwidth is classified into two classes

(i) Upper side band (USB)
(ii) Lower side band (LSB)

If is the frequency of a modulating signal, is the

frequency of carrier signal then,

Then the bandwidth of the transmitted carrier signal

Example;

A sinusoidal carrier voltage of frequency 2MHz and

amplitude of 70V is amplitude modulated with
sinusoidal voltage of frequency 4kHz producing
modulation factor 55%. Determine

(i) The frequency of the lower side band.

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(ii) The frequency of the upper side band
(iii) The bandwidth of the resultant modulated
signal
(iv) The amplitude of upper and lower side band.

Example 2;
A carrier of frequency kHz is amplitude modulated
by a frequencies range from kHz to kHz. What
frequency range does each side band cover?

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Advantages of Bandwidth
 Used in determining the how fast a web page
loads on a browser.
 It measures how much data can be transferred
along a communication channel.
 Easy transmission and reception
 Lesser bandwidth requirements.
 Low cost

Limitations
(i) Noisy reception : In an AM wave, the signal appears in
theamplitude variations of the carrier. Practically, all the
natural and man made noises consists of electrical amplitude
disturbances. As a radio receiver cannot distinguish between
amplitude variation that represent noise and those that contain
the desired signal, the reception is generally noisy.

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(ii) Low efficiency : In AM, useful power is available in the
side bands, since they contain signals. The sideband power for
an AM wave is low. Hence the efficiency of AM is low.
(iii) Small operating range : Due to low efficiency of
amplitude modulation, transmitters employing this method
have a small operating range i.e. the messages cannot be
transmitted over long distances.

Frequency Modulation (FM)

Frequency modulation is the type of modulation for
which a frequency of carrier wave is changed in
accordance with the intensity of signal. In the frequency
modulation only the frequency of the carrier waves is
changed in accordance with signal. The amplitude waves
remain the same i.e carrier waves depend upon the
instate nous amplitude of the signal as shown in when
the signal approaches its positive peaks.

The carrier frequency is reduced to minimum as shown

by the widely space cycles. The following points may be
important

 All the signal having the same amplitude will change

the carrier frequency by the same amount
irrespectively of their frequency.
 All modulation signals of the same frequency say
2KHz will change the carrier at the same rate 2000
times per second irrespective of their individual
amplitude as shown in figure below.
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Advantage Of Frequency Modulation

a) It give noiseless reception.
b) The operating range is quit large.
c) It gives high fidelity reception.
d) The efficiency of transmission is very high.
e) Since FM has large number of side hands, it
can be used for stereo sound transmission.

Disadvantage Of frequency Modulation.

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a) A much wider band with required is 7 to 8
times large for FM
b) Transmitting and receiving equipment for
modulation and demodulation.

Radio Wave
In radio communication free space act as the
transmission medium. The radio active waves has a very
wide frequency range from 500Hz. This frequency is
divided int the various above

Frequency Frequency Wavelength Typical

band range range
Very la (10 – 30) KHz (30,000 – Long distance to
frequency 10,000)m point
(V.L.F) communication
Low frequency (30 – 300)KHz (1000 – 1000)m Marine
navigational
audio broadcast
Medium (300 – (1000 – 100)m Marine broadsact
frequency 3000)KHz
High frequency (3 – 30)Khz (100 – 10)m Communication
of all type
Very high (30 – 300)MHz (10 – 1)m Radar
frequency broadcasting
(V.H.F)
Upper high 3000 – 10 – 1m Radar radio relay
frequency 30000MHz navigation

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Space Communication
Space communication is the phenomena of sending and
receiving the processing information through space. In
space communication the signal is carried by high
frequency electromagnetic wave from transmitter the
receiver in free space. Since no wire is used since it is
also called wireless communication. The frequency used
in space communication lie in the average or range
radio television and satellite
communication fall under this category.

Types Of Radio Wave Propagation

The radio wave propagation can be carried out on the
following three ways.

a) Ground or surface wave propagation

b) Sky wave or ionospheric wave propagation
c) Space wave or direct waves or tropospheric
propagation

Ground or Surface Wave Propagation

When the radio wave from the transmitting antenna
propagate along the surface of the earth so as to reach the
receiving antenna it is called ground wave propagation
or surface wave propagation in ground wave
propagation.

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Advantage Of Ground Wave Propagation

a) Ground wave propagation has excellent reliability
b) Reception is not affected by changing atmospheric
condition.
c) Given enough transmitting power, ground wave
communication can be maintained with a any place
in the world

Disadvantage Of Ground Wave Propagation

a) Ground wave propagation requires high transmitting
power
b) Ground losses increase very rapidly with the increase
in frequency of the signal.
c) Ground losses vary with surface materials and
composition.

Sky Wave Propagation.

When the radio waves from the transmitting antenna
reach the receiving antenna after reflection from the
ionosphere propagation. The layer of ionosphere act as
radio mirror for certain radio waves on the frequency
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range 2MHz to 30MHz are directed toward the
ionosphere these waves are reflected back to earth by the
various layer of ionosphere as shown below

This mode of propagation is possible only when then

transmitting and receiving antenna are close to the
surface of the earth. As the ground wave over the surface
of of the earth it induces current in the earth. This gives
the riise of resistance losses on the ground. The energy
required to supply this losses must come from the ground
waves decrease as it passes over the earth surface.

Therefore ground wave propagation is limited to low

frequency signal (500KHz to 1500KHz) and for short
range communication it cannot be used for high
frequency and long range transmission.

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 Below 500KHz reliable communication can be
obtained over distance up to 1500km ground wave
alone.
 Amplitude modulated radio waves in the medium
frequency band are transmitted primary via ground
waves.

Receiver reflection from the ionosphere.

The sky wave propagation on guide unavailable it is

because whether or not radio wave is reflected back to

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earth by the ionosphere depends upon several factor
including:

a) Frequency of radio wave

b) Ionization density of ionosphere
c) The angle of incidence at which the radio
wave enters the ionosphere
 Critical frequency as the frequency of sky wave
was increase the ionosphere become
progressively less effective in reflecting of radio
waves to wave is not all reflected back to earth.
This is called critical frequency. The highest
frequency above which the ionosphere no longer
return the sky wave back to the earth when
transmitted on vertical direction is called
frequency.

Space Wave Propagation (Line Sight Propagation)

A frequency above 30MHz, radio transmission cannot be
carried out by ground waves or sky waves. It is because
ground waves are quickly attenuated at such high
frequency and at frequency above 30KHz the ionosphere
is unable to reflect the sky wave back to the earth.

When the radio waves from the transmitting antenna

travelling on the straight line direct reach the receiving

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antenna it is called space wave propagation line of sight

propagation sight.

As the frequency increase the radio wave tend to travel

more and more in a straight line. Therefore the receiving
antenna must receive. The television frequency lies in
the range 100MHz

a) The time of sight distance eg the distance at which

the transmitting and receiving antenna can see each
other.
b) The curvature of the earth. The space waves or direct
waves travel essentially in a line of sight space due to
curvature of the earth.

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References Books
1. John Bird (2003). Electrical Circuit Theory and
Technology. Revised edition.
2. Halliday & Resnick (2007), Fundamental of Physics for
Scientist. 10th Edition.
3. Duncan T, (2009) Advanced Physics (5th ed). London:
John Murray Publishers LTD.
4. Ministry of education and Vocational Training (2009).
Physics syllabus for advanced secondary education. Dar
es salaam: Tanzania Institute of Education.
5. Tanzania Institute of Education (TIE). Physics for
Advanced level secondary schools. Student Book, form
six.
6. Satish K. Gupta 1996; Moderns ABC Plus of Physics
class XII Volume 1 Published by MBD Group Publishers
7. Narinder Kumar 1995; Comprehensive Physics Class XI
volume-II Published by Laxmi publication.
8. Halliday & Resinick 1995; Fundamental of Physics for
Advanced level. 10th Edition.
9. Mehta R, & Mehta, V.K (2009); Principle of Physics for
class XII New Delhi Published by S. Chand & Company
PVT.LTD.

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