Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION WITH REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Background of the Study

Gender discrimination pertains to treating people differently based only on

their gender, despite their equal quality. The unequal treatment of individuals based on

gender during the recruitment process is a problem that has existed for a long time and

is still present in many industries, including the shipping industry (Gekara, 2021).

Even though efforts have been made to promote gender equality and diversity,

research shows that prejudicial practices and biases still play a role in hiring decisions,

resulting in fewer opportunities for women in industries that men typically dominate.

The maritime industry faces a significant hurdle in achieving human progress,

economic development, promoting respect, multicultural awareness, and upholding

human rights due to the challenge of gender equality. Regrettably, gender-related

issues are often considered taboo within the maritime sector. (Dragomir, 2018). The

maritime sector has historically been perceived as male-dominated, influenced by

traditional stereotypes, limited representation, and systematic barriers. Although there

has been some improvement toward achieving gender equality in various domains,

there is still a long way to go, and the maritime industry appears to have fallen behind.

Within this industry, which is mainly male-dominated, the International Labour

Organization (ILO) and the International Maritime Organization (IMO) have been

working together to improve the integration of women. Actions to address the gender

gap and the lack of visibility of women working in maritime, oceans, ports, ocean
science, fishing, and seafood harvesting were discussed at the Maritime Community in

Malmö, Sweden, held on April 4-5, 2019.

These actions included measures to promote awareness of seafaring and

increase scholarships available to women attending maritime colleges. Over 350

attendees at the Conference represented more than 70 countries worldwide. These

attendees engaged in constructive discussions and collectively concluded how to

develop and execute gender-responsive policies and programs within their respective

sectors and areas of responsibility. Despite the efforts made by non-governmental

organizations and international agencies, there has been minimal increase in the

number of women who work in the maritime industry. However, over the past decade,

there has been more global attention and momentum towards concerns for women's

equality and empowerment. The presence of women in seafaring has mainly been

ignored in accounts of the male-oriented culture of the seas. Researchers have

highlighted the rarity of women participating in this industry. (Cordingly, 2002; Bin et

al., 2019; Chan, 2019). These concerns are gaining more attention in both the

workplace and broader society. (Kate Pike, 2021).

Employment opportunities for female seafarers are significantly lower

compared to their male counterparts. One of the main reasons for this is sexual

harassment, gender bias, and wrong stereotypes about women which is unfortunately

considered a common occurrence on board. The shipping industry has a long way to

go to achieve gender equality and address these barriers preventing female seafarers

from entering and thriving. The percentage of women working in seafaring has
increased, but they still make up only 2% of the workforce globally. Many

organizations, such as the World Health Organization, the United Nations, the

International Labour Organization, and the European Union, are working towards

promoting gender equality and addressing this issue. These efforts have helped to

bring attention to the importance of women's participation in seafaring. (WHO, 2009;

UN, 2016; ILO, 2017a; EASHW, 2020).

Research suggests that female seafarers are more vulnerable to sexual

harassment on board than their male counterparts. (Kate Pike, 2021). It has been

observed from the data that sexual harassment is considered a norm on board,

indicating that there is still a significant gap in achieving gender equality within the

business.

The largest group of seafarers worldwide is made up of Filipinos, who are

estimated to number 1.6 million. Many have reported experiencing various forms of

sexual harassment from their male colleagues and senior officers, and to make matters

worse, women seafarers who have fallen victim to sexual harassment and assault have

faced hurdles in filing complaints, leaving their aggressor mostly unpunished (Tangi,

2019). The number of female seafarers in the Philippines is nearly 10 percent of the

total seafarers. As of December 2018, around 73,027 female seafarers were recorded

to have been issued with a Seafarer's Identification and Record Book. The Philippine

government has implemented measures to prevent discrimination against women

seafarers, as per the Magna Carta, which aims to eliminate all forms of discrimination

against women and ensure their empowerment. The maritime industry in the
Philippines aims to empower women seafarers by implementing the Magna Carta of

Women, which calls for the State to undertake temporary special measures to increase

the participation and equitable representation of women in all spheres of society,

especially in decision-making and policy-making processes in government and private

entities, to realize their role as agents and beneficiaries of development fully.

However, despite the measures being taken, gender bias in employment remains a

persistent issue in our society, which requires more effort to be eradicated.

Theoretical/Conceptual Framework

Independent variable Dependent Variable

1. Cases of Gender Bias

to MAAP Alumni from

Impact of Gender Bias
2020-2024
Practices to MAAP
2. Gender-related factors
Alumni employability
h
contributing to

employability

Figure 1. Research Paradigm

The researchers would focus on identifying cases of gender bias that were

experienced or seen by MAAP alumni from 2020–2024, as well as gender-related

factors that contribute to the employment of seafarers. Additionally, the study will

identify how these gender-biased practices affect the employability of MAAP alumni.

The study aims to uncover the specific areas where gender bias is most prevalent.

focus on identifying the various forms of gender bias that exist within the maritime

industry and how it affect the employability of Filipino seafarers on board. It will

explore both overt and subtle biases that impact the recruitment, hiring, and promotion

processes.

Statement of the problem

Generally, this study aims to find out the various forms of gender bias that

exist in the maritime industry and how it affects the employability of MAAP Alumni.

It also seeks to answer the following questions:

1. What is the case of gender bias of MAAP alumni from the year 2020-2024?

2. What are the gender-related factors that affect the employability of the

Maritime Academy of Asia and the Pacific?

3. What are the impacts of traditional stereotypes on perceptions of gender-

appropriate roles in Alumni of MAAP and the maritime industry?

Hypotheses of the Study

Gender Bias and stereotypes on board have a direct relationship and affect the

employability of MAAP Alumni from the year 2020-2024.

Significance of the Study

The significance of this study is to gather and present valuable information and

knowledge about the chosen topic. This includes insights from respondents, recent

studies or theses, and relevant sources. The study aims to highlight the importance of

the topic for individuals by providing relevant and useful information in the following

ways:

Gender bias: An important aspect of this study is its focus on addressing

gender bias within the maritime industry by examining crew preferences and

promoting gender equality. Filipino seafarers stand to benefit from the findings of this

research, which aim to promote their preferences for the nationality of crews. The

study addresses their needs and aspirations, contributing to job satisfaction and

fostering an inclusive work environment.

MET institutions: can utilize the insights from this study to enhance their

current training programs, particularly in the areas of cultural diversity awareness and

sensitivity. By exposing cadets or students to diverse environments, the study prepares

them for various events and fosters their readiness to navigate diverse settings.

Moreover, it focuses not only on improving seafarers' skills but also on cultivating

cultural diversity on board ships.

Shipping companies: will find value in this study as it assists them in refining

their manning techniques, ultimately creating a favorable work environment for

seafarers and ensuring their safety and comfort. The research guides for companies to
offer an improved workplace, enhancing employee satisfaction and promoting a

positive working atmosphere.

Future researchers: can draw upon the ideas presented in this study as a

valuable reference for their research endeavours. The research findings serve as a

cross-reference, providing a comprehensive background and overview of the research

topic. This enables future researchers to build upon existing knowledge, conduct

further studies, and validate the findings through comparative analysis.

Scope and Limitation

This study aims to comprehensively investigate gender bias in the Maritime

Industry in terms of employability of graduates from Versileas Class of 2023 1 st batch

and 2nd batch graduates of Maritime Academy of Asia and the Pacific. Getting their

experiences in different shipping companies in the Philippines. The focus extends

beyond institutional practices to include the broader socio-economic, cultural, and

industry-specific factors influencing gender dynamics. By incorporating alumni

perspectives, the research seeks to trace the continuum of gender bias from education

to professional practice within the maritime industry.

The Survey questionnaire will use a quantitative-descriptive design to be

answered by MAAP Alumni who experience gender bias in their companies. The data

collected will be analyzed to draw the different gender biases in employment

opportunities, stereotypes, representation, and systemic barriers. The Alumni

participation is contingent upon their willingness, potentially introducing a selection

bias that could impact the generalizability of findings. The study's timeframe may limit

the depth of understanding, particularly regarding changes in industry trends or

societal perspectives over time.

The study may not capture the full spectrum of gender bias experiences across

diverse maritime sectors and job roles, given the multifaceted nature of the industry.

The confidentiality of alumni responses may limit the extent to which certain

experiences and challenges are shared, affecting the study's overall depth. Broader

external factors, such as global economic shifts or legislative changes, may not be fully

explored within the confines of the study's localized focus.

Future research could employ longitudinal designs, control for more

confounding variables, and utilize different strategies to expand the scope of the

number of respondents. Additionally, it would be beneficial to conduct the study with

a representative sample of each class to gather more information on gender bias

experienced by MAAP alumni across the globe and within different shipping

companies.

Literature Review

Gender-based discrimination during the recruitment process is a long-standing

issue that has persisted in many sectors, including the shipping industry. Despite

efforts to promote diversity and equality, research indicates that biased practices still

affect hiring decisions, leading to fewer job opportunities for women in male-

dominated industries. The objective of this literature review is to analyse the extent

and consequences of gender bias in recruitment practices within the shipping sector.
Gender bias in the hiring process is a continuing problem that has implications for

various industries and organizations, including the shipping industry. Despite progress

in promoting gender diversity and equality, there is evidence that discriminatory

practices and biases still play a role in hiring decisions, which limits opportunities for

women in traditionally male-dominated industries. This review of related literature

aims to examine the extent and impact of gender bias in hiring practices in the

shipping industry.

Professional cultural barriers

Since the Age of the Sail, seafaring has been a profession mostly undertaken by

men. The use of terms such as 'he,' 'his,' and 'him' in various documents implies the

belief that seafarers are exclusively male. Seafaring has been predominantly a male

occupation since the Age of the Sail. In various documents, references to seafarers as

'he,' 'his,' and 'him' indicate the assumption that seafarers are men (Kitada, 2013).

Historically, the maritime industry has largely disregarded the role of women, and

accounts of seafaring culture have focused primarily on men. Scholars have

emphasized the infrequency of women's involvement in this field. (Cordingly, 2002;

Bin et al., 2019; Chan, 2019).

One of the main barriers for female seafarers is the widespread misconception

that women are unsuitable for such jobs, a common prejudice worldwide (Kitada,

2010). However, Basak (2015) points out that this prejudice has been proven wrong,

with many Turkish women seafarers demonstrating their ability to perform their duties
at sea. Moreover, there is an old myth in Europe that women bring bad luck at sea

when on board (Cordingly, 2002).

The Maritime Labor Convention should amend gender requirements to

promote nondiscriminatory employment of female seafarers, with the most important

amendment being implementing gender policies in shipping companies (Cristina,

2018). The issue of gender equality in the maritime field poses a significant challenge

to attaining human progress, economic development, promoting respect, multicultural

awareness, and upholding human rights. Unfortunately, gender-related topics are often

considered taboo within the maritime sector.

Work Environment and Culture

According to Ryals (2023), much of the thinking has moved on, some

shipping companies still perceive that having women on board is more trouble than it

is worth" (International Chamber of Shipping, 2020, p. 29). It is only within the past

few decades that maritime education has been available to women, with which they

can achieve managerial roles. It is even more recent that the LGBTQIA + community

has begun to feel the freedom to express themselves in the maritime workforce,

particularly with the lifting of the "Don't Ask, Don't Tell" policies upheld by the
United States government and military sectors. Those women in the entry-level roles

are less likely to remain in the industry. Many younger women are working at lower

levels in the industry, and they do not tend to have any women in the chain of

command above them. When they look upward. they see an all-male line"

(Mackenzie, 2015, p.76). Understanding and addressing the barriers to gender equality

in maritime can help develop robust recruitment efforts at the educational level and

inform future policy objectives at both a company and government level, both of

which would contribute to the development of a diverse and robust workforce. Studies

confirmed that when women are appointed into male-dominated groups, they bring

with them specialized knowledge skills...women could break the barriers and

contribute in specific areas of the shipping companies (Pastra et al., 2015, p. 50).

Effective policies and strategies

According to Dragomir (2018), adding gender standards to the Maritime

Labor Convention can help women seafarers be better hired, retained, and given

equitable career possibilities, thereby advancing women's empowerment. Changes

brought about by postmodernism in organizational behavior have a positive impact on

the marine industry, which is heavily impacted by gender prejudice. An analysis of the

impact of intergovernmental external requirements- specifically, the Maritime Labor

Convention (MLC) on human resource practices is provided in this research. The

study makes the case for postmodern gender needs in revising marine labor laws and

conventions. Concrete actions have been found to update the MLC with the

requirements needed to improve the work that women seafarers do. The study's

findings help develop more tactics that will effectively attract and retain seafarers

while also ensuring that they have equal career prospects. In recent decades, efforts to

promote female seafarers have focused on marine education and training (MET),

successfully enabling more female students to enroll in seafarer training programs

worldwide. However, the lack of a link between vocational education and employment

practices has limited progress. Unless shipping companies or crewing agencies

employ female cadets trained, these human resources are wasted and remain unwanted

in the labor market. In maritime industries, women contribute to the talent pool for

innovation and smart growth. While there are numerous opportunities to promote

women's involvement in ocean governance and policy-making, the viewpoint also

highlights the persistence of gender biases that influence our interactions with the

ocean. It calls for addressing the structural and systemic hurdles that perpetuate gender

decision-making about the ocean (Gissi, E., et al., 2018).

Effective policies and strategies

According to Dragomir (2018), adding gender standards to the Maritime Labor

Convention can help women seafarers be better hired, retained, and given equitable

career possibilities, thereby advancing women's empowerment. Changes brought

about by postmodernism in organizational behavior have a positive impact on the

marine industry, which is heavily impacted by gender prejudice. An analysis of the

impact of intergovernmental external requirements- specifically, the Maritime Labor

Convention (MLC) on human resource practices is provided in this research. The

study makes the case for postmodern gender needs in revising marine labor laws and

conventions. Concrete actions have been found to update the MLC with the

requirements needed to improve the work that women seafarers do. The study's

findings help develop more tactics that will effectively attract and retain seafarers

while also ensuring that they have equal career prospects.

In recent decades, efforts to promote female seafarers have focused on marine

education and training (MET), successfully enabling more female students to enroll in

seafarer training programs worldwide. However, the lack of a link between vocational

education and employment practices has limited progress. Unless shipping companies

or crewing agencies employ female cadets trained, these human resources are wasted

and remain unwanted in the labor market. In maritime industries, women contribute to

the talent pool for innovation and smart growth. While there are numerous

opportunities to promote women's involvement in ocean governance and policy-

making, the viewpoint also highlights the persistence of gender biases that influence

our interactions with the ocean. It calls for addressing the structural and systemic

hurdles that perpetuate gendered decision-making about the ocean (Gissi, E., et al.,

2018)

Harassment and Discrimination

 This research study highlights the fact that female seafarers are at a higher risk

of sexual harassment as compared to their male counterparts. The findings indicate

that sexual harassment is considered a normalized behavior on board, and the shipping

industry is far from achieving gender equality. Although women's participation in

seafaring has increased, they still represent only 2% of the workforce worldwide.

Based on the study results and critical industry stakeholders ' opinions, the article

questions what can be done to improve female seafarers' work environment and

experiences in the UK shipping sector.

The responses from the industry suggest that female seafarers are likely to face

harassment during their employment, which can have severe consequences on their

safety, well-being, and occupational health. Gender discrimination is a contentious

issue that is being debated globally, regardless of a country's level of development.

Although legal regulations have been established to prevent such discrimination, it

remains a common practice in the business world.

The maritime industry is considered to be one of the sectors where gender role

stereotypes are more prevalent. Discrimination is more widely practiced in professions

that require physical strength. The study aimed to determine the opinions of associate

degree students in maritime programs at public universities throughout Turkey

regarding gender discrimination in marine professions (Fidan, V., et al., 2020). Gender

discrimination occurs when female seafarers experience mistreatment and disrespect

and are denied promotion opportunities while working on a ship. This discrimination
arises from the nature, history, and culture of seafaring, which has traditionally been a

male-dominated industry.

The industry's societal expectations, beliefs, and doubts about women's

abilities continue to plague female seafarers. The impact of gender discrimination can

be detrimental to the dignity and security of female seafarers. Furthermore, if left

unaddressed, it may impede the effective recruitment and retention of women

seafarers, posing challenges for the industry.

Stereotype

Stereotypical gender associations in language have decreased over time, but

remain, with career and science terms showing positive male gender bias and family

and arts terms showing negative male gender bias (Jones et al., 2020). This research

utilizes a vast corpus of digitized books to examine the presence and evolution of

gender stereotypes in English from 1800 to 2000.

By employing word embeddings, the authors quantify male gender bias in four

domains: career, family, science, and arts. The findings indicate that while gender

associations in language have declined over time, they persist. Career and science

terms exhibit a positive male gender bias, suggesting an ongoing association with

masculinity, while family and art terms demonstrate a negative male gender bias,

implying a connection with femininity. The study also explores the potential influence

of the second shift and reveals partial support for changing associations. Overall,

traditional gender ideology remains latent in published English-language books, but

the magnitude of traditionally gendered associations appears to be diminishing over

time (Jones, J., et al., 2020).

Gendered Qualifications and Expectations

The maritime industry is often stated as the most stressful working

environment. Studies have reported that there is an increased risk of high cholesterol,

hypertension, neurosis, suicide, and alcohol abuse; especially among seamen of lower

rank (Agterberg & Passchier, 1998). This could be a particular reason that a maritime

academy is not recommended to women since they cannot manage the stress.

However, studies have shown that women are more capable of coping with stress and

have better physiological well-being (Sandeep Bhattacharjee & Parul Tripathi, 2012).

The major issue for keeps them distracted is they are not adequately rewarded in terms

of the status of promotion following their ability and commitment to work (Suginraj,

2016). Another factor that keeps a barricade for women involved is the sexual

harassment taking place on board.

However, despite the field they are working in, women are commonly harassed

throughout the world. Overcoming sexual harassment could be a burden as well as

may slow down their career development (Arulnayagam, 2020).

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