• Chapter 4

• Types of Corrosion
•
Types of corrosion and their
prevention
Corrosion may be classified on the basis :
1- mechanism
2- environment
Types of corrosion on the basis of the
mechanism
 Uniform Attack – General Corrosion
 Galvanic Corrosion
 Crevice Corrosion
 Pitting
 Intergranular Corrosion
 Selective Leaching
 Erosion Corrosion
 Stress Corrosion
Type I : Corrosion on the basis of the
mechanism

1- Uniform Corrosion 2- Pitting Corrosion

3- Crevice Corrosion 4-Galvanic Corrosion
5- Intergranular Corrosion 6- Selective Corrosion
7- Erosion or Abrasion Corrosion
8- Cavitation Corrosion 9- Fretting Corrosion
10- Stress Corrosion Cracking
11- Microbial Corrosion
• 1- Uniform Corrosion
• Uniform corrosion occurs when corrosion is
quite evenly distributed over the surface,
leading to a relatively uniform thickness
reduction.

• Metals without significant passivation

tendencies in the actual environment, such
as iron, are liable to this form.
• Uniform corrosion is assumed to be the most
common form of corrosion and responsible
for most of the material loss.

• However, it is not a dangerous form of

corrosion because prediction of thickness
reduction rate can be done by means of
simple tests.
 Uniform Corrosion

Formerly a ship

7
• 2- Pitting Corrosion

• Pitting corrosion is one of the most observed

corrosion types for aluminum and steel, and
it is the most troublesome one in near neutral
pH conditions with corrosive anions, such as
Cl- or SO42- present in the media.

• It is characterized by narrow pits with a

radius of equal or lesser magnitude than the
• Pitting is initiated by adsorption of
aggressive anions, such as halides and
sulfates, which penetrate through the
passive film at irregularities in the oxide
structure to the metal-oxide interface.

• It is not clear why the breakdown event

occurs locally.
 Pitting Corrosion
Pitting is a localized form of
corrosive attack. Pitting
corrosion is typified by the
formation of holes or pits on
the metal surface. 304
stainless
steel / acid
chloride
solution

5th Century sword

Boiler tube
• In the highly disordered structure of a metal
surface, aggressive anions enhance
dissolution of the passivating oxide.

• Also, adsorption of halide ions causes a

strong increase of ion conductivity in the
oxide film so that the metal ions from the
metal surface can migrate through the film.
• Thus, locally high concentrations of
aggressive anions along with low solution pH
values strongly favor the process of pitting
initiation.

• In time, local thinning of the passive layer

leads to its complete breakdown, which
results in the formation of a pit.
• In the propagation stage, metal cations from
the dissolution reaction diffuse toward the
mouth of the pit or crevice (in the case of
crevice corrosion), where they react with OH-
ions produced by the cathodic reaction,
forming metal hydroxide deposits that may
cover the pit to a varying extent.
• Corrosion products covering the pits
facilitate faster corrosion because they
prevent exchange of the interior and the
exterior electrolytes, leading to very acidic
and aggressive conditions in the pit.

• Stainless steels have high resistance to

initiation of pitting.
• Therefore, rather few pits are formed, but
when a pit has been formed, it may grow
very fast due to large cathodic areas and a
thin oxide film that has considerable
electrical conductance.
 Prevention of pitting corrosion :

 (1) Use materials with appropriate alloying

elements designed to minimize pitting
susceptibility. e.g. molybdenum in stainless
steel.

 (2) Provide a uniform surface through proper

cleaning, heat treating and surface finishing.
• (3) Reduce the concentration of aggressive
species in the test medium, such as
chlorides, sulfates, etc.

• (4) Use inhibitors to minimize the effect of

pitting.

• (5) Make the surface of the specimen

smooth and shiny and do not allow any
impurities to deposit on the surface.
• 3- Crevice Corrosion

• Crevice corrosion occurs underneath

deposits and in narrow crevices that obstruct
oxygen supply.

• This oxygen is initially required for the

formation of the passive film and later for
repassivation and repair.
• If a crevice ( a crack forming a narrow
opening) between metallic and non-metallic
material is in contact with a liquid, the crevice
becomes anodic region and undergoes
corrosion. Hence, oxygen supply to the
crevice is less. The exposed area has high
oxygen supply and acts as cathode.

• nuts, rivets, joints are examples for this type

of corrosion
Crevice Corrosion

Narrow and confined spaces.

• Provided that crevice is sufficiently narrow
and deep, oxygen is more slowly transported
into the crevice than it is consumed inside it.

• When oxygen has been completely

consumed, OH- can no longer be produced
there.

• Conversely, dissolution of the metal inside

the crevice continues, driven by the oxygen
reduction outside of the crevice.
• Thus, the concentration of metal ions
increases and, with missing OH- production
in the crevice, electrical neutrality is
maintained by migration of negative ions,
such as Cl-, into the crevice.

• This way, an increasing amount of metal

chlorides or other metal salts are produced
in the crevice.
• Metal salts react with water and form metal
hydroxides, which are deposited, and acids
such as hydrochloric acid, which cause a
gradual reduction of pH down to values
between 0 and 4 in the crevice, while outside
of crevice it is 9 to 10, where oxygen
reduction takes place.
• Thus reduction of hydronium ions takes place
in very acidic conditions in addition to the
primary cathodic reaction that is reduction of
oxygen.

• 2H+ + 2e  H2 (3.1)

• O2 + 2H2O + 4e  4OH- (3.2)

• 4-Galvanic Corrosion

• Galvanic corrosion occurs when a metallic

contact is made between a more noble metal
and a less noble one.

• A necessary condition is that there is also an

electrolytic condition between the metals, so
that a closed circuit is established.
 Galvanic Corrosion
Dissimilar metals are
physically joined in the
presence of an electrolyte
The more anodic metal
corrodes.

Bilge pump- Magnesium

shell cast around a steel
core.
• The area ratio between cathode and anode
is very important.

• For instance, if the more noble cathodic

metal has a large surface area and the less
noble metal has a relatively small area, a
large cathodic reaction must be balanced by
a correspondingly large anodic reaction
concentrated in a small area, resulting in a
higher anodic reaction rate.
• This leads to a higher metal dissolution rate
or corrosion rate.

• Therefore, the ratio of cathodic to anodic

area should be kept as low as possible.

• Galvanic corrosion is one of the major

practical corrosion problems of aluminum
and aluminum alloys,
• since aluminum is thermodynamically more
active than most of the other common
structural materials and the passive oxide,
which protects aluminum, may easily be
broken down locally when the potential is
raised due to contact with a more noble
material.
• This is particularly the case when aluminum
and its alloys are exposed in waters
containing chlorides or other aggressive
species.
• Also, if the potential difference between two
metals in a galvanic couple is too large, the
more noble metal does not take part in the
corrosion process with its own ions.

• Thus, under this condition, the reduction

potential of the more noble metal does not
play any role.
 Prevention of galvanic corrosion:
 (1) Do not have the area of the more active
metal smaller than the area of the less
active metal.
 (2) If dissimilar metals are to be used,
insulate them.
 (3) Use inhibitors in aqueous systems
• 5- Intergranular Corrosion

• Intergranular corrosion is the localized attack

with propagation into the material structure
with no major corrosion on other parts of the
surface.

• The main cause of this type of corrosion is

the presence of galvanic elements due to
differences in concentration of impurities or
 Intergranular
Corrosion along
grain boundaries,
often where
precipitate
particles form.
• In most cases, there is a zone of less noble
metal at or in the grain boundaries, which
acts as an anode, while other parts of the
surface form the cathode.

• The area ratio between the cathode and

anode is very large and, therefore, the
corrosion rate can be high.
• The most familiar example of intergranular
corrosion is associated with austenitic steels.

• A special form of intergranular corrosion in

aluminum alloys is exfoliation corrosion.

• It is most common in AlCuMg alloys, but it is

also observed in other aluminum alloys with
no copper present.
• Both exfoliation corrosion and other types of
intergranular corrosion are efficiently
prevented with a coating of a more resistant
aluminum alloy, commercially pure aluminum.
 Method of Prevention
 The following are the methods of prevention of
austenitic nickel chromium stainless steels from
intergranular corrosion:

 (a) Use stainless steel in the annealed condition

in which there is no harmful precipitate. This
only applies when the steel is not to be exposed
to the sensitizing temperature.
 (b) Select low carbon grade steel with a
maximum of 0.03% C, such as 304 L.

 This would prevent the formation of harmful

chromium carbide during fabrication.
• 6- Selective Corrosion

• Selective corrosion or selective leaching

occurs in alloys in which one element is
clearly less noble than the others.

• As a result of this form of corrosion; the less

noble metal is removed from the material,
leading to a porous material with very low
strength and ductility.
Selective Leaching
Corrosion :
Preferred corrosion
of one element /
constituet [e.g., Zn
from brass (Cu-Zn)].
Dezincification.
• However, regions that are selectively
corroded are sometimes covered with
corrosion products or other deposits.

• Thus, the component keeps exactly the

same shape, making the corrosion difficult to
discover.
• 7- Erosion or Abrasion Corrosion
• Erosion or abrasion corrosion occurs when
there is a relative movement between a
corrosive fluid and a metallic material
immersed in it.

• In such cases, the material surface is

exposed to mechanical wear, leading to
metallically clean surfaces, which results in a
more active metal.
Erosion-corrosion
Combined chemical attack and
mechanical wear (e.g., pipe
elbows).

Brass water pump

• Most sensitive materials are those normally
protected by passive oxide layers with
inferior strength and adhesion to the
substrate, such as lead, copper, steel and
some aluminum alloys.
• When wearing particles move parallel to the
material surface, the corrosion is called
abrasion corrosion.

• On the other hand, erosion corrosion occurs

when the wearing particles move with an
angle to the substrate surface.
• 8- Cavitation Corrosion

• Cavitation corrosion occurs at fluid dynamic

conditions, causing large pressure variations
due to high velocities, as often is the case
for water turbines, propellers and pump
rotors.
• Cavitation attacks are deep pits grown
perpendicularly to the surface.

• Pits are often localized close to each other or

grown together over smaller or larger areas,
making a rough, spongy surface.
• 9- Fretting Corrosion

• Fretting corrosion occurs at the interface

between two closely fitting components
when they are subjected to repeated slight
relative motion.
• The relative motion may vary from less than
a nanometer to several micrometers in
amplitude. Vulnerable objects are fits, bolted
joints and other assemblies where the
interface is under load.
• 10- Stress Corrosion Cracking (SCC) :

• Stress Corrosion Cracking is defined as

crack formation due simultaneous effects of
static tensile strength and corrosion.

• Tensile stress may originate from an external

load, centrifugal forces, temperature changes
or internal stress induced by cold working,
welding or heat treatment.
 Stress Corrosion Cracking, SCC
•A structure that has SCC sensitivity, if
subjected to stresses and then
exposed to a corrosive environment,
may initiate cracks and crack growth
well below the yield strength of the
metal.
•Consequently, no corrosion products
are visible, making it difficult to detect
or prevent; fine cracks can penetrate
deeply into the part.
• The cracks are generally formed in planes
normal to the tensile stress, and they
propagate intergranularly or transgranularly
and may be branched.
• 11- Microbial Corrosion

• Another type of corrosion occurs when

organisms produce an electron flow,
resulting in modification of the local
environment to a corrosive one.

• An example is when microbial deposits

accumulate on the surface of a metal.
• They can be regarded as inert deposits on
the surface, shielding the area below from
the corrosive electrolyte.

• The area directly under the colony will

become the anode, and the metallic surface
just outside the contact area will support the
reduction of oxygen reaction and become the
cathode.
• Metal dissolution will occur under the
microbial deposit and, in that regard, would
resemble to pits, but the density of local
dissolution areas should match closely with

• the colony density.

• Another case is when microbial deposits

produce components, such as inorganic and
organic acids, that will change the local
• Specifically, the production of inorganic acids
leads to hydrogen ion production, which may
contribute to hydrogen embrittlement of the
colonized metal.