211PHY1301 - Physics UNIT II

MECHANICS &
THERMODYNAMICS
© Kalasalingam academy of research and education
 Syllabus
Moment of inertia (M.I) - Radius of gyration -
Theorems of M .I - M.I of rod, circular disc, solid
cylinder, hollow cylinder, solid sphere and hollow
sphere - K.E of a rotating body - centre of mass -
conservation of linear momentum – Relation
between Torque and angular momentum - Unit II : Mechanics &
Torsional pendulum.
The first law of Thermodynamics-Work done by a Thermodynamics
gas- Heat engines-second law of
Thermodynamics-Reversible and Irreversible
process-Entropy-Carnot Engine- Heat capacity- Outcome
Specific heat capacity - definition - Newton's law
Basic Understanding about the concept of moment of
of cooling.
inertia with calculation for different bodies and
thermodynamics

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 Unit II MECHANICS Outline

Lesson 1. Moment of Inertia & Radius of Gyration

Lesson 2. Theorems of M.I, M.I of different bodies

Lesson 3. Rotational K.E, Conservation of angular

momentum

Lesson 4. Relation between torque & angular momentum

Lesson 5. Torsional Pendulum

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 Course Progress

Lesson 1. Moment of Inertia & Radius of Gyration

Lesson 2. Theorems of M.I, M.I of different bodies

Lesson 3. Rotational K.E, Conservation of angular momentum

Lesson 4. Relation between torque & angular momentum

Lesson 5. Torsional Pendulum

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 Learning Objectives

• To recall Newton’s first law

• To understand types of motion
• To compare the relation analogy between linear and rotational
dynamics

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 Newton’s first law

Isaac Newton (a 17th century scientist) put forth a variety of laws that
explain why objects move (or don't move) as they do.

Newton's first law of motion is often stated as

An object at rest stays at rest and an object in motion stays in motion with
the same speed and in the same direction unless acted upon by an
unbalanced force.

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 Normal Force
Normal Force

Look at this illustration

Why there is no change in both balls?

Gravitational Force Gravitational Force

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 Normal Force
Normal Force
Forces are Balanced

Objects at Rest Objects at Motion

(𝒗 = 𝟎 𝒎/𝒔) (𝒗 ≠ 𝟎𝒎/𝒔)

𝒂 = 𝟎 𝒎/𝒔𝟐 𝒂 = 𝟎 𝒎/𝒔𝟐

Stay at Rest Stay in Motion

(same speed & direction)

Gravitational Force Objects keep on Gravitational Force

doing what
they’re doing

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 Normal Force Normal Force

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It is due to inertia

Gravitational Force Newton’s first law Gravitational Force

• There is an important condition that must be met in order for the first law to be applicable to
any given motion.
• The condition is described by the phrase "... unless acted upon by an unbalanced force."
• As the long as the forces are not unbalanced - that is, as long as the forces are balanced - the
first law of motion applies.

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 Normal Force
Normal Force

Inertia
inertness
or
inability of a body to change
by itself its position of
rest,
or
of uniform motion,
is called Inertia
Gravitational Force fundamental property of matter. Gravitational Force

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 F=m a
F 250 g

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 1 kg
F = ma
F

• Greater the mass of a body, the greater its inertia or opposition to the desired change;
• for, the greater is the force required to be applied for the purpose.

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 Types of Motion

• Let us get to know about types of motion that you come across
in daily life and identify which is translational and rotational.

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 Types of Motion : Name them….

All these
Rectilinear motion : Motion in straight line motions are
translational
motion

Circular motion : Motion in a circular path

Curvilinear motion : Motion in a curved path

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 Types of Motion : Name them….

All these
motions are
Rotational
motion
Fixed Axis
Motion in a circular path about fixed
axis or fixed point

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 Some examples
Merry-go-round

Laptop fan
Pottery Disc
Train Wheel

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 Inertia of Translatory motion Inertia of Rotational motion
Acceleration
Torque

Force Acceleration

Moment of
opposes opposes inertia of a body
i.e effectiveness
mass of a body of mass
Difference between
linear dynamics and rotational dynamics
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 Relation analogy between Linear and rotational dynamics

• Dynamics for rotational motion is completely analogous to

linear or translational dynamics.
• Dynamics is concerned with force and mass and their
effects on motion.
• For rotational motion, we will find direct analogues to force
and mass.

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Concept Displacement Velocity Acceleration Inertia Newton’s 2nd law Work Kinetic energy Momentum

Displacement
Linear Dynamics

s
Rotational Dynamics

𝛉
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Concept Displacement Velocity Acceleration Inertia Newton’s 2nd law Work Kinetic energy Momentum

Velocity
Linear Dynamics

𝑣
Rotational Dynamics

𝝎
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Concept Displacement Velocity Acceleration Inertia Newton’s 2nd law Work Kinetic energy Momentum

Acceleration
Linear Dynamics

𝑎
Cause of acceleration Fnet, net force

Rotational Dynamics

𝜶
Cause of acceleration 𝛕𝐧𝐞𝐭 , net torque

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Concept Displacement Velocity Acceleration Inertia Newton’s 2nd law Work Kinetic energy Momentum

Inertia
Linear Dynamics

"M, mass"
Rotational Dynamics

I, Moment of inertia

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Concept Displacement Velocity Acceleration Inertia Newton’s 2nd law Work Kinetic energy Momentum

Newton’s 2nd law

Linear Dynamics

𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎
Rotational Dynamics

𝜏 = 𝐼𝛼
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Concept Displacement Velocity Acceleration Inertia Newton’s 2nd law Work Kinetic energy Momentum

Work
Linear Dynamics

𝑊 = 𝐹. 𝑠
Rotational Dynamics

𝑊 = 𝜏. 𝜃
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Concept Displacement Velocity Acceleration Inertia Newton’s 2nd law Work Kinetic energy Momentum

Kinetic Energy
Linear Dynamics

1
KT = 𝑚𝑣 2
2
Rotational Dynamics

1 2
KR = 𝐼𝜔
2
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Concept Displacement Velocity Acceleration Inertia Newton’s 2nd law Work Kinetic energy Momentum

Momentum
Linear Dynamics

𝑃 = 𝑚𝑣
Rotational Dynamics

𝐿 = 𝐼𝜔

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 Relation analogy between Linear and rotational dynamics
Concept Linear dynamics Rotational dynamics
Displacement 𝐬 𝛉
Velocity 𝐯 𝛚
Acceleration 𝐚 𝛂
Cause of acceleration Fnet, net force 𝛕𝐧𝐞𝐭 , net torque
Inertia M, mass I, Moment of inertia
Newton’s second law 𝐅 = 𝐦𝐚 𝛕 = 𝐈𝛂
Work 𝐖 = 𝐅. 𝐬 𝐖 = 𝛕. 𝛉
Kinetic energy 𝟏 𝟏
KT = 𝐦𝐯 𝟐 . KR = 𝐈𝛚𝟐
𝟐 𝟐
Momentum 𝐏 = 𝐦𝐯 𝐋 = 𝐈𝛚
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 Torque is the analogue of force and moment of inertia is the
REFLECTION analogue of mass.
SPOT Force and mass are physical quantities that depend on only one
factor.
For example, mass is related solely to the numbers of atoms of
various types in an object.
Are torque and moment of inertia similarly simple?
No.
➢ Torque depends on three factors:
force magnitude, force direction, and point of application.
➢ Moment of inertia depends on both. mass and its distribution
relative to the axis of rotation
➢ So, while the analogies are precise, these rotational quantities
depend on more factors.

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 Newton’s First law

Inertia

Translational Translational Rotational Rotational

motion
Inertia Inertia motion

Moment of Mass & Effective

Mass analogue distance of its
Inertia particles

m I

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 Learning Objectives

• To understand about moment of inertia.

• To learn the concept of radius of gyration

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 Moment of inertia

Property of any object which can

• Moment of inertia is an important topic and is
be rotated
asked in most of the physics problems involving
mass in rotational motion.
• Normally, MOI is used to calculate angular
momentum.
• We shall learn about this topic more.

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 MOMENT OF INERTIA

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Samuel_Dixon_Niagara.jpg Source :
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%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BA.jpg

A 1920s John Deere tractor with the Tightrope walkers use the Flywheels have large moments of
spoked flywheel on the engine. The large moment of inertia of a long inertia to smooth out rotational
moment of inertia of the flywheel smooths rod for balance as they walk on
the operation of the tractor. motion.
the rope. Samuel Dixon
crossing the Niagara River in
1890.

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 REFLECTION Which cylinder roll down slower?
SPOT
𝒎 = 𝒎𝟎 𝑰 = 𝟏𝑰𝟎
𝒎 = 𝒎𝟎 𝑰 = 𝟐𝑰𝟎
𝒎 = 𝒎𝟎 𝑰 = 𝟑𝑰𝟎
𝒎 = 𝒎𝟎 𝑰 = 𝟒𝑰𝟎
𝒎 = 𝒎𝟎 𝑰 = 𝟓𝑰𝟎
𝒎 = 𝒎𝟎 𝑰 = 𝟔𝑰𝟎

The cylinders with higher moment of inertia roll down a

slope with a smaller acceleration, as more of their potential
energy needs to be converted into the rotational kinetic
energy.

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 In 1673 Christiaan Huygens introduced
Introduced this this parameter in his study of the
oscillation of a body hanging from a
pivot, known as a compound pendulum
MOMENT
Christiaan Huygens
OF
INERTIA

Introduced by The term moment of inertia was

introduced by Leonhard Euler in his
book Theoria motus corporum solidorum
seu rigidorum in 1765

Leonhard Euler
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 REFLECTION
The moment of inertia of a body comes into
SPOT the picture when there is

(1) a linear motion

(2) a rotational motion
(3) a curved motion
(4) rectilinear motion

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 X
Expression for Moment of Inertia
r1 m1
• If a rigid body consists of a finite number of particles r2 m2
of masses 𝑚1 , 𝑚2 , 𝑚3 ⋯ 𝑒𝑡𝑐. ,
r3
m3
• at distance 𝑟1 , 𝑟2 , 𝑟3 ⋯ 𝑒𝑡𝑐. , from a given
straight line XY y
Fig 2.1
Moment of inertia of the body about the given line is given by,
Unit: 𝑘𝑔 𝑚2
𝐼 = 𝑚1 𝑟1 2 + 𝑚2 𝑟2 2 + 𝑚3 𝑟3 2 + ⋯ = ∑𝑚𝑟 2
Dimensional formula 𝐼 = 𝑀𝐿2

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 Consider the object shown in figure. What is its rotational
inertia?

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 Consider the object shown in figure. What is its rotational
inertia?

Solution
𝐼 = ∑𝑚𝑟 2
𝐼 = 1 × 12 + 1 × 1.52 + 1 × 0.752 + 2 × 0.752
= 4.9375 kg m2

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 Particle has negligible dimensions

Discrete (System of particles)

Dimensions of the body irrelevant
I=∑ mi ri2 to the description of motion
Rotating systems

Body that does not deform

Continuous (Rigid body)

Dimensions of the body relevant
I = ∫ r2dm to the description of motion

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 Radius of Gyration

The moment of inertia of a body about is represented using

Radius of gyration.
an axis

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 Radius of Gyration
Definition
We can define the radius of gyration as the imaginary distance from the centroid at
which the area of cross-section is imagined to be focused at a point in order to obtain
the same moment of inertia. It is denoted by k.

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 Radius of Gyration
Formula
The formula of moment inertia in terms of the radius of gyration is given as follows:

I = 𝑀k2 --------------- (1)

where I is the moment of inertia and m is the mass of the body
Accordingly, the radius of gyration is given as follows

𝑘= 𝐼 Τ𝑀 --------------- (2)
The unit of the radius of gyration is mm.
By knowing the radius of gyration,
one can find the moment of inertia of any complex body eq (1) without any hassle.

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 Radius of Gyration
Derivation X

• Consider a body having n number of particles each having a mass of m.

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 Radius of Gyration
Derivation X

r1 m

r2 m

r3
m

• Let the perpendicular distance from the axis of rotation be

given by r1, r2, r3,…,rn.

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 Radius of Gyration
Derivation

I = 𝑚1 𝑟12 + 𝑚2 𝑟22 + 𝑚3 𝑟32 +………+ 𝑚𝑛 𝑟𝑛2 ----------(3)

If all the particles have the same mass then eq (3) can be rewritten as:
I = 𝒎 𝑟12 + 𝑟22 + 𝑟32 + ………+ 𝑟𝑛2 ---------- (4)

Since 𝒎 = M/n being the total mass of the body,

𝑀 𝑟12 + 𝑟22 +𝑟32 +………+ 𝑟𝑛2

I= ---------- (5)
𝑛
moment inertia
in terms of the 𝑀 𝑟12 + 𝑟22 +𝑟32 +………+ 𝑟𝑛2
radius of 𝑀𝑘 2 = ---------- (6)
gyration 𝑛

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 Radius of Gyration
Derivation

2 𝑀 𝑟12 + 𝑟22 +𝑟32 +………+ 𝑟𝑛2

𝑀𝑘 = ---------- (7)
𝑛

𝑟12 + 𝑟22 +𝑟32 +………+ 𝑟𝑛2

𝑘2 = ---------- (8)
𝑛

𝑟12 + 𝑟22 +𝑟32 +………+ 𝑟𝑛2

𝑘= ---------- (9)
𝑛

From the equation above, we can say that the

• radius of gyration actually the root-mean-square distance of different
particles of the body.
• It is from the axis of rotation.

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 ________ is root mean square distance of
REFLECTION
SPOT various particle of the body from the axis of
rotation.

(1) Moment of inertia

(2) radius of gyration
(3) moment of force
(4) radial distance

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 Radius of Gyration
Uses

• The radius of gyration is used to compare how various structural shapes will
behave under compression along an axis.

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 Radius of Gyration
Uses when a force presses on a slender structure and makes it collapse

Pressure

• ROG is used to predict buckling in a compression beam or member

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 International unit of gyradius or radius of gyration

• It is the sq. root of Area MOI divided by the area of the object.

𝑰 𝒎𝟒
𝒌= ⇒ 𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒕 ⟹ 𝟐
=𝒎
𝑨 𝒎

SI unit
length inches or
millimetres or
feet
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 Factors that radius of gyration depends

SIZE AND STATE OF THE BODY

A portion of the elements that impact the estimation of the radius of
gyration is the size and state of the body.

ROTATIONAL AXIS AND POSITION

It is the arrangement of the rotational axis and position

MASS APPROPRIATION
It likewise relies upon the mass appropriation regarding the rotational
axis of the body.

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 What is Moment of Inertia? measurement of the
resistance of a body to a
change in its rotational
Body motion
resisting L

Mass Rotational
I = ∑mi ri2 analogue inertia

MOI SI unit
kg m2

distribution
of mass
chosen axis
of rotation. ∫ r2 dm

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 REFLECTION
Moment of Inertia of Continuous Bodies?
SPOT

(1) I = ∫ r2dm
(2) I = ∫ m2dr
(3) I = ∫ dm
(4) I = ∫ dm

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 Topic 1:
Difference between linear
dynamics & Rotational First Lesson Summary
dynamics

Topic 2:
Moment of inertia
➢ The role of the moment of inertia is the same as the role of mass in linear
motion.
➢ The moment of inertia depends on the following factors,
Topic 3: ➢ Shape and size of the body
Radius of Gyration ➢ Axis of rotation (distribution of mass relative to the axis)
➢ density of the material
➢ Moment of inertia, I = ∑mi ri2

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 Course Progress

Lesson 1. Moment of Inertia & Radius of Gyration

Lesson 2. Theorems of M.I, M.I of different bodies

Lesson 3. Rotational K.E, Conservation of angular momentum

Lesson 4. Relation between torque & angular momentum

Lesson 5. Torsional Pendulum

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 Learning Objectives

• To understand the concept of parallel and perpendicular axes

theorem to find moment of inertia.

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 Theorems of Moment of inertia

Theorems of Moment of
inertia

Perpendicular axes
Parallel axes theorem
theorem

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 • Parallel axis theorem and Perpendicular axis theorem are
two very important theorems in the field of rigid body
mechanics.

• They help us generalize results about moments of inertia of

objects to a variety of situations.

• This helps us in many calculations that get simplified in

the process.

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 Parallel Axes theorem [Huygens–Steiner theorem]

C A
Statement:
“If I is a moment of inertia of a body about an G P
h x m
axis through its centre of mass and 𝐼′ is the
moment of inertia about a parallel axis at a
perpendicular distance h from the first axis,
D B
then

𝐼 ′ = 𝐼𝐶𝑀 + 𝑀ℎ2

where M is the mass of the body”

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 Proof:
C A

AB is an axis passing though the centre of the

G P mass of the body G.
h x m

CD is parallel axis at a perpendicular distance h

from AB. M is the mass of the body
D B

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 Consider a particle P of mass at a distance x from AB.

C A M.I. of the Particle P about AB = 𝑚𝑥 2

M.I. of the whole body about AB = I = ∑ 𝑚𝑥 2

G P
h x m M.I. of the Particle P about CD = 𝑚(𝑥 + ℎ)2
= 𝑚(𝑥 2 + ℎ2 + 2𝑥ℎ)
= 𝑚𝑥 2 +𝑚ℎ2 + 2𝑚𝑥ℎ.

D B

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 M.I. of the whole body about CD
= 𝐼 ′ = ∑𝑚𝑥 2 +∑𝑚ℎ2 + ∑2𝑚𝑥ℎ.
But ∑𝑚𝑥 2 = 𝐼. ∑𝑚ℎ2 = 𝑀ℎ2
𝐼 ′ = 𝐼 + 𝑀ℎ2 + 2ℎ∑𝑚𝑥
Now ∑𝑚𝑥 is the algebraic sum of the moments of all the particles about G.
Since the body is balanced about the centre of mass 𝐺 .
∑𝑚𝑥= 0.

𝑰′ = 𝑰𝑪𝑴 + 𝑴𝒉𝟐

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 Perpendicular Axes theorem

Statement: z

If 𝐼𝑥 and 𝐼𝑦 are the moment of inertia of a lamina

about two rectangle axes 𝑂𝑋 and 𝑂𝑌 in its plane.
Its moment of inertia about an axis 𝑂𝑍 , O X
perpendicular to its plane, 90°
Y
x
r P

y
𝐼𝑧 = 𝐼𝑥 + 𝐼𝑦 .

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 Perpendicular Axes theorem
Proof:
z Let 𝑂𝑋 and 𝑂𝑌 be the two perpendicular axes in the
plane of the lamina and 𝑂𝑍 an axis perpendicular to
the lamina.

O X
90°
Y
x Consider a particle P, mass m in the plane of the
r P
lamina.
y 𝑥, 𝑦 and 𝑟 are the distance of the particle from
𝑂𝑌, 𝑂𝑋 and 𝑂𝑍 respectively.

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 Perpendicular Axes theorem

Moment of inertia of the particle about 𝑂𝑍 = 𝑚𝑟 2

∴ M.I of the lamina about 𝑂𝑍 = ∑𝑚𝑟 2
Similarly, M.I of the lamina about 𝑂𝑋 = ∑𝑚𝑦 2
M.I of the lamina about 𝑂𝑌 = ∑𝑚𝑥 2
𝑟2 = 𝑥2 + 𝑦2

∑𝑚𝑟 2 = ∑m 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = ∑𝑚𝑥 2 + ∑𝑚𝑦 2

∑𝑚𝑟 2 = 𝐼𝑧 ; ∑𝑚𝑥 2 = 𝐼𝑦 ; ∑𝑚𝑦 2 = 𝐼𝑥

𝑰𝒛 = 𝑰𝒚 + 𝑰𝒙
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 Applications
• Together perpendicular axis theorem and parallel axis theorem
can be used to simplify the calculations of moment of inertia.

• They can help us extend our knowledge of moment of inertia

from one axis to other related axes.

• Thus we will find it easier to study the rotational dynamics of

rigid bodies in various conditions.

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 Learning Objectives

➢ Calculate the moment of inertia for uniformly shaped, rigid bodies

➢ Apply the parallel axis theorem to find the moment of inertia about
any axis parallel to one already known

➢ Calculate the moment of inertia for compound objects

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 Calculation of MOI of rigid bodies

The system is divided into an infinitesimal

element of mass ‘dm’ and if ‘x’ is the
distance from the mass element to the Using
axis of rotation
MOI = ∫ r2 dm

∴ in the calculation of MOI

MOI of continuous of various rigid bodies
mass distribution is
found by using the
integration technique.
Process

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 MOMENT
OF
INERTIA

SOME RIGID BODIES

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: PHYSICS

 Moment of inertia of a uniform rod

Let us Calculate/derive the moment of inertia of an

uniform rigid rod of length L and mass M about an
axis perpendicular to the rod and passing through O,
at an arbitrary distance h from one end.

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: PHYSICS

 Moment of Inertia of a Uniform Rod

We have to keep in mind a few things;

• We have to imagine that the rod is divided into many pieces of infinitesimally
thin slices.

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 Moment of Inertia of a Uniform Rod

dm

dx

• Each slice will have a length of dx and a mass of dm.

• We have to identify the variable to be summed.

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: PHYSICS

 Now, we show our formula for the calculation for moment of inertia first:

𝑑𝐼 = 𝑑𝑚𝑥2
Using the equation for dm, we substitute it into the first equation. Hence, we have:

𝑀
𝑑𝑚 = 𝑑𝑥
𝐿

Using the equation for dm, we substitute it into the first equation

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: PHYSICS

 Moment of Inertia of a Uniform Rod

𝑀 2
𝑑𝐼 = 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝐿
Now,

𝐼 = න 𝑑𝐼

The lower limit is -h because the left side of the rod is

-h units away from the axis of rotation.

𝑀 𝐿−ℎ 2
𝐼 = න 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝐿 −ℎ

1
𝐼= 𝑀(𝐿2 − 3𝐿ℎ + 3ℎ2 )
3

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: PHYSICS

 Moment of Inertia of a Uniform Rod
1. When the axis is passing through the centre of the rod

𝐿
ℎ=+
2

𝐿
ℎ=−
2

𝐿 1
ℎ= 𝐼 = 𝑀(𝐿2 − 3𝐿ℎ + 3ℎ2 )
2 3 1
𝐼= 𝑀𝐿2
12

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: PHYSICS

 Moment of Inertia of a Uniform Rod
2. When the axis is through the end of the rod.
1
𝐼 = 𝑀(𝐿2 − 3𝐿ℎ + 3ℎ2 )
3
ℎ=0

1
𝐼 = 𝑀𝐿2
3 ℎ=0

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: PHYSICS

 Moment of Inertia of a Uniform Rod
2. When the axis is through the end of the rod.
Alternatively, the parallel axis theorem can also
be used to determine the expression.
We have;
I = Icm + Md2
Now if we substitute the values it becomes;
Iend = (1/12) ML2 + M (L / 2)2
Iend = (1/12) ML2 +( ¼) ML2 ℎ=0

Iend = (⅓ )ML2

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: PHYSICS

 What is the moment of inertia of a 2-kg long
REFLECTION
SPOT uniform rod with a length of 2 m? The axis
of rotation located at one end of the rod.
Solution

The formula of the moment of inertia when

the axis of rotation located at one end of
the rod

I = (1/3) M L2

I = (1/3) (2 kg)(2 m)2

I = 8/3 kg m2

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: PHYSICS

 Moment of inertia of a Disc
• In order to explain how to calculate the moment
of inertia of a disc,
• we will take the example of a uniform thin disc
and discuss three cases rotating Centre

about an axis through its centre

About its diameter

About its tangent to its plane

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: PHYSICS

 Moment of Inertia of a disc z

R
y

• In the figure, we can see a uniform thin disc with radius R rotating about a Z-axis passing
through the centre.
• As we have a thin disc, the mass is distributed all over the x and y plane.
• Let’s find the relation for surface mass density (σ) where it is said to be the mass per
unit surface area.

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: PHYSICS

 Moment of Inertia of a disc

z
Since the disk is uniform, therefore,
the surface mass density will also be constant
R
y where;
σ= m / A
x
m = σA ; dm=σ(dA)

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 Moment of Inertia of a disc

• The thin rings are said to be the

r mass increment (dm) of radius r
which are at equal distance from
the axis.
• The small area (dA) of every ring is
further expressed by the length
• Now it is time for the simplification of the area where it (2πr) times the small width of the
can be assumed the area to be made of a collection of
rings (dr.)
rings that are mostly thin in nature.
𝑑𝐴 = 2 𝜋 𝑟𝑑𝑟

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 Disc

dr
x
r
R One Ring

Rings

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 Moment of Inertia of a disc
Now, we add all the rings from a radius range of 0 to R to get the full area of
the disk. The radius range that is given is the value that is used in the
integration of dr. If we put all these together then we get;
I = O∫R r2σ(πr)dr
I = 2 π σO∫R r3dr
I = 2 πσ r4 / 4 |oR
I = 2 πσ (R4 / 4 – 0)
I = 2 π (𝑀 / 4 )(R4 / 4)
1
I = 2 π (𝑀 / π r2 )(R4 / 4) 𝑰= 𝑀𝑅2
2

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 Moment of Inertia of a disc

1
𝒊𝒊 M.I of the disc about the diameter = 𝐼𝑑 = 𝑀𝑅2 by perpendicular axes
4

theorem.

𝐢𝐢𝐢 Moment of Inertia about a Tangent in its plane.

By the application of theorem of the parallel axes

1 5
𝐼𝑡 = 𝐼𝑑 + 𝑀𝑅2 = 𝑀𝑅2 + 𝑀𝑅2 = 𝑀𝑅2 .
4 4

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 Moment of inertia of a solid cylinder
z

• We will take a solid cylinder with mass M, radius R and

length L.
L • We will calculate its MOI about the central axis.

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 Moment of Inertia of a Solid Cylinder

Here we have to consider a few things:

➢ The solid cylinder has to be cut or split into infinitesimally
thin cylindrical shells. dr

L
➢ Each ring consists of the thickness of dr with length L.
➢ We have to sum up the moments of inertia of these thin
cylindrical shells.

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: PHYSICS

 Moment of Inertia of a Solid Cylinder
We will follow the given steps.
1. We will use the general equation of moment of inertia: z
dr
𝑑𝐼 = 𝑟2 𝑑𝑚
r
Now we move on to finding the dm.
𝑑𝑚 = 𝜌 𝑑𝑉 r

In order to obtain dm we have to calculate dv first. It is given L R

as;
𝑑𝑉 = 𝑑𝐴 𝐿
Meanwhile, 𝑑𝐴 is the area of the big ring (radius: 𝑟 + 𝑑𝑟)
minus the smaller ring (radius: r).

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: PHYSICS

 Moment of Inertia of a Solid Cylinder
𝑑𝐴 = 𝜋(𝑟 + 𝑑𝑟)2 −𝜋𝑟 2
z
𝑑𝐴 = 𝜋 𝑟 2 + 2𝑟𝑑𝑟 + 𝑑𝑟 2 𝑑𝑟 − 𝜋𝑟 2 dr
r
Notably, here the (dr)2 = 0.
𝑑𝐴 = 2𝜋𝑟𝑑𝑟 r
L R
2. Substitution of dA into dV we get;
𝑑𝑉 = 𝑑𝐴 𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑟𝑑𝑟𝐿
Now, we substitute dV into dm and we will have;
𝑑𝑚 = (2𝜋𝑟𝑑𝑟)𝐿𝜌

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: PHYSICS

 Moment of Inertia of a Solid Cylinder
3. This step involves using integration to find the moment of inertia of
the solid cylinder. z
dr
The dm expression is further substituted into the dI equation
r
and we get; 𝑑𝐼 = න 𝑟 2 2𝜋𝑟𝑑𝑟 𝐿𝜌
r
𝑅
𝐼 = 2𝜋𝐿𝜌 න 𝑟 3 𝑑𝑟 L R
0
𝐼 = 2𝜋𝐿𝜌 𝑅4 Τ4
4. We have to find the expression for density.
We use the equation;
𝜌 = 𝑀 Τ𝑉
𝜌 = 𝑀Τ𝜋𝑅2 𝐿
© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: PHYSICS
 Moment of Inertia of a Solid Cylinder
𝑠𝑢𝑏 𝜌 = 𝑀Τ𝜋𝑅2 𝐿
z
dr
r
4Τ
𝐼 = 2𝜋𝐿𝜌 𝑅 4

𝑀 r
𝐼 = 2𝜋𝐿 2 𝑅4 Τ4
𝜋𝑅 𝐿 L R

𝑀
𝐼 = 2𝜋𝐿 2 𝑅4 Τ4
𝜋𝑅 𝐿
1
𝐼 = 𝑀𝑅2
2

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: PHYSICS

 Moment of inertia of a hollow cylinder

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: PHYSICS

 Moment of Inertia of a hollow cylinder

Before we get into the derivation we have to be aware of

certain things. These are;
➢ The cylinder is split into infinitesimally thin shells.
r1
➢ Each shell will have a thickness of dr with length h.
h
➢ the whole calculation process involves summing up the r2

moments of infinitesimally thin cylindrical shells.

It is quite similar to the derivation of the moment of inertia of a solid cylinder.

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: PHYSICS

 Moment of Inertia of a hollow cylinder
Let’s begin.
1. First, let us recall the moment of inertia equation:
𝑑𝐼 = 𝑟2 𝑑𝑚
Here we have to find dm. r1

It is given as; h
r2
𝑑𝑚 = 𝜌 𝑑𝑉
Since we have mentioned dV in the above equation,
we have to calculate it. It will be given as;
𝑑𝑉 = 𝑑𝐴 ℎ

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: PHYSICS

 Moment of Inertia of a hollow cylinder
Here the dA is considered as the area of the ring on top.
Now we get;
𝑑𝐴 = 𝜋 (𝑟 + 𝑑𝑟)2 – 𝜋 𝑟2
𝑑𝐴 = 𝜋 (𝑟2 + 2𝑟𝑑𝑟 + (𝑑𝑟)2) – 𝜋 𝑟2 r1
𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒, (𝑑𝑟)2 = 0. h
𝑑𝐴 = 2 𝜋 𝑟 𝑑𝑟 r2

We can also find dA by differentiating method.

𝐴 = 𝜋 𝑟2
If we differentiate wrt r,
𝑑𝐴 = 2 𝜋 𝑟 𝑑𝑟

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 Moment of Inertia of a hollow cylinder
2. We have to substitute dA into dV.
𝑑𝑉 = 2 𝜋 𝑟 ℎ 𝑑𝑟
If we substitute into dm we get;
𝑑𝑚 = 𝜌 2 𝜋 𝑟 ℎ 𝑑𝑟
We then substitute the dm expression into the 𝑑𝐼 equation.
𝑑𝐼 = 𝑟2 𝜌 2 𝜋 𝑟 ℎ𝑑𝑟
𝑑𝐼 = 𝜌 2 𝜋 𝑟3 ℎ 𝑑𝑟
3. Now, we can find the expression for density. We use the equation;
𝜌 = 𝑀/𝑉
Now,
𝜌 = 𝑀 / ℎ𝜋(𝑟22 – 𝑟12)

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: PHYSICS

 Moment of Inertia of a hollow cylinder
4. The next step involves using integration to find the moment of inertia.
The integration basically occurs from the inner radius to the outer radius:
𝑑𝐼 = 𝜌 2 𝜋 𝑟3 ℎ 𝑑𝑟
𝑟2
𝐼 = 2 𝜌 𝜋 ℎ න 𝑟3 𝑑𝑟
𝑟1

Now, if we take a thin hollow cylinder, setting 𝑟 = 𝑟1 = 𝑟2 and replacing it into the first
equation we get;
𝑰 = 𝑴𝒓𝟐

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: PHYSICS

 Moment of Inertia of a hollow cylinder
4. The next step involves using integration to find the moment of inertia.
The integration basically occurs from the inner radius to the outer radius:
𝑑𝐼 = 𝜌 2 𝜋 𝑟3 ℎ 𝑑𝑟
𝑟2
𝐼 = 2 𝜌 𝜋 ℎ න 𝑟3 𝑑𝑟 = 2 𝜌 𝜋 ℎ [𝑟24/ 4 – 𝑟14/ 4]
𝑟1

= (𝜌 𝜋 ℎ/2) [𝑟24– 𝑟14]

𝐼 = (𝜋 ℎ/2) [ 𝑀 / 𝜋 (𝑟22 – 𝑟22) ℎ] [ (𝑟22 – 𝑟12) (𝑟22 + 𝑟12)]
𝐼 = ½ 𝑀 (𝑟22 + 𝑟12)
Now, if we take a thin hollow cylinder, setting 𝑟 = 𝑟1 = 𝑟2 and replacing it into the first
equation we get;
𝑰 = 𝑴𝒓𝟐
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 Moment of inertia of a uniform sphere

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 Moment of Inertia of a uniform solid sphere
The moment of inertia of a sphere expression is obtained in two
ways.
• First, we take the solid sphere and slice it up into
infinitesimally thin solid cylinders.
• Then we have to sum the moments of inertia of small thin
discs in a given axis from left to right.

We will look and understand the derivation below.

First, we take the moment of inertia of a disc that is thin.
I = (½ )MR2

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Moment of Inertia of a uniform solid sphere
We can write infinitesimally moment of inertia element as;
𝑑𝐼 = ½ 𝑟2𝑑𝑚
Find the dm and dV using;
𝑑𝑚 = 𝜌 𝑑𝑉 R r
ρ = density of a thin disc of mass dm,
dV = volume of the thin disc(cylinder)
x
𝑑𝑉 = 𝜋 𝑟2 𝑑𝑥 dx

Now we replace dV into dm. We get;

𝑑𝑚 = 𝜌 𝜋 𝑟2 𝑑𝑥
And finally, we replace dm with dI.
𝑑𝐼 = (½) 𝜌 𝜋 𝑟4 𝑑𝑥
© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: PHYSICS
 Moment of Inertia of a uniform solid sphere

The next step involves adding x to the equation. If we look at

the diagram we see that r, R and x forms a triangle. Now we
will use the Pythagoras theorem which gives us; R r
𝑟2 = 𝑅2 – 𝑥2
Now if we substitute the values we get; x
dx
𝑑𝐼 = ½ 𝜌𝜋 (𝑅2 – 𝑥2)2 𝑑𝑥
This leads to:

+𝑅
𝐼 = ½𝜌𝜋 න (𝑅2 – 𝑥2)2 𝑑𝑥
−𝑅

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 +𝑅
1
𝐼 = 𝜌 𝜋 න (𝑅2 – 𝑥2)2 𝑑𝑥
2 −𝑅
𝑅
1 𝑥5 2
2𝑅 𝑥3
𝐼 = 𝜌 𝜋 𝑅4𝑥 + −
2 5 3 −𝑅

1 𝑅5 2𝑅2𝑅3 𝑅5 2𝑅2𝑅3
𝐼 = 𝜌 𝜋 𝑅5 + − − −𝑅5 − +
2 5 3 5 3
1 𝑅5 2𝑅 5 𝑅5 2𝑅 5
𝐼 = 𝜌 𝜋 𝑅5 + − + 𝑅5 + −
2 5 3 5 3
1 2𝑅 5 4𝑅 5
𝐼 = 𝜌 𝜋 2𝑅5 + −
2 5 3
1 30𝑅5 + 6𝑅5 − 20𝑅5
𝐼 = 𝜌𝜋
2 15

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 Moment of Inertia of a uniform solid sphere

1 30𝑅5 + 6𝑅5 − 20𝑅5

𝐼 = 𝜌𝜋
2 15
1 16𝑅5 R r
𝐼 = 𝜌𝜋
2 15

1 𝑀 16𝑅5
𝐼 = 3 𝜋
x
2 4𝜋𝑅 15 dx
3

Therefore, the moment of inertia of a uniform solid sphere

2
𝐼 = 𝑀𝑅2
5
© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: PHYSICS
 A 20-kg uniform sphere with the length of
REFLECTION
SPOT 0.1 m. The axis of rotation located at the
center of the sphere.
Solution

Mass of sphere (M) = 20 kg

The radius of sphere (L) = 0.1 m
The formula of the moment of inertia when the axis of
rotation located at the center of the sphere :
I = (2/5) M R2
I = (2/5)(20 kg)(0.1 m)2
I = 0.4/5 kg m2
I = 0.08 kg m2

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 Moment of inertia of a hollow sphere

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 Moment of Inertia of a hollow sphere

•Consider the moment of inertia of a circle which is

𝐼 = 𝑚𝑟2
If we apply differential analysis we get;
𝑑𝐼 = 𝑟2 𝑑𝑚
•We have to find the dm,
𝑑𝑚 = (𝑀/𝐴) 𝑑𝐴
Here, A is the total surface area of the shell = 4𝜋𝑅2
(Total surface area of the shell)

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 Moment of inertia of a hollow sphere

dA is the area of the ring formed by

R
differentiation and is expressed as; rr
dϴ
𝑑𝐴 = 𝑅 𝑑𝜃 × 2𝜋𝑟 ϴ

[ 2πr is the circumference of the ring] Axis

R dθ is the thickness of the circular ring

Note: We get R𝑑𝜃 from the equation of arc length which is
𝑆 = 𝑅 𝑑𝜃
•The next step involves relating r with θ.
© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: PHYSICS
 Moment of Inertia of a hollow sphere
If we look at the diagram,
we will see that a right angle triangle with angle θ is
present.
R rr
We get, sin 𝜃 = 𝑟 /𝑅 ϴ
𝑟 = 𝑅 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 Axis

Now dA becomes:
𝑑𝐴 = 𝑅𝑑𝜃 × 2𝜋𝑅𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑑𝐴 = 2𝜋𝑅2sin𝜃 𝑑𝜃

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 Moment of Inertia of a hollow sphere
If we substitute the equation for dA into dm, we get:
𝑑𝑚 = (𝑀/𝐴) 𝑑𝐴
𝑑𝑚 = (𝑀/4𝜋𝑅2)2𝜋𝑅2sin𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝑑𝑚 = (𝑀/2)sin2𝜃 𝑑𝜃
We will now substitute the equation given above and for r into the equation for dI.
We will get;
𝑑𝐼 = 𝑟2(𝑀/2)sin2𝜃 𝑑𝜃
= (𝑅𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)2(𝑀/2)sin2𝜃 𝑑𝜃
= (𝑀𝑅2/2)sin3𝜃 𝑑𝜃

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 Moment of Inertia of a hollow sphere
Now, we need to split the sin3θ into two, as it depicts the case of integral of
odd powered trigonometrical functions.
We get;
𝑑𝐼 = (𝑀𝑅2/2) sin2 𝜃 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
However, sin2 θ is normally given as sin2 𝜃 = 1 − cos2 𝜃.
Now,
𝑑𝐼 = (𝑀𝑅2/2) (1 − cos2 𝜃) sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
Integrating within the limits of 0 to π radians. From one end to another.

𝑀𝑅2 𝜋
𝐼= න 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃
2 0
© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: PHYSICS
 Moment of Inertia of a hollow sphere
𝑀𝑅2 𝜋
𝐼= න 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃
2 0
we use substitution where 𝑢 = cos 𝜃, 𝑑𝑢 = − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃.
𝑀𝑅2 −1 2
𝐼= න 𝑢 − 1 𝑑𝑢
2 1
−1
𝑀𝑅2 𝑢3
𝐼= −𝑢
2 3 1
𝑀𝑅2 (−1)3 (1)3
𝐼= − −1 − − 1
2 3 3
𝑀𝑅2 −1 1
𝐼= +1− +1
2 3 3

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 𝑀𝑅2 −1 1
𝐼= +1− +1
2 3 3

𝑀𝑅2 2
𝐼= − +2
2 3
𝑀𝑅2 2+6
𝐼= −
2 3

𝑀𝑅2 4
𝐼=
2 3
Moment of inertia of a hollow sphere
2
𝑰 = 𝑴𝑹𝟐
3

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 REFLECTION
The moment of inertia of a solid cylinder of
SPOT mass 'm', radius 'r' and length 'l' about the
longitudinal axis or polar axis is

(A) mr2/2

(B) mr2/4

(C) mr2/6

(D) mr2/8

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 Topic 1:
M.I of Uniform Rod
Second Lesson Summary

Topic 2: Name of the body Axis of rotation Moment of inertia

M.I of Disc 𝒂 About the mid-point of the 1
perpendicular to length 𝐼= 𝑀𝑙 2
12
Thin rod of
Topic 3: length 𝑙 𝒃 About one end of the rod 1
𝐼 = 𝑀𝑙 2
M.I of Solid cylinder 3
𝒂 About an axis passing through its 1
centre and perpendicular to its 𝐼 = 𝑀𝑅2
2
Topic 4: 𝒃
plane
About Diameter 1
M.I of hollow cylinder Circular disc of 𝐼 = 𝑀𝑅2
4
radius R
𝒄 About any tangent (parallel to 5
diameter) 𝐼 = 𝑀𝑅2
Topic 5: 4
M.I of Solid sphere 𝒂 About a diameter 2
𝐼 = 𝑀𝑅2
5
Solid sphere of
Topic 6: radius R 𝒃 About a tangent 7
𝐼 = 𝑀𝑅2
M.I of hollow sphere 5

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education

 Course Progress

Lesson 1. Moment of Inertia & Radius of Gyration

Lesson 2. Theorems of M.I, M.I of different bodies

Lesson 3. Rotational K.E, Conservation of angular momentum

Lesson 4. Relation between torque & angular momentum

Lesson 5. Torsional Pendulum

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education

 Rotational kinetic energy

A rigid rotating body about a fixed axis possesses kinetic

energy because its constituent articles are in motion, even
though the body as a whole remains in its place.

The energy of body by virtue of its rotational motion is

called rotational energy.

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: PHYSICS

 Rotational kinetic energy

The rotational kinetic energy of the grindstone is converted to heat, light, sound, and vibration.
(source: Zachary David Bell, US Navy)

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: PHYSICS

 Rotational kinetic energy

A KERS (kinetic energy recovery system) flywheel used in cars.

(source: “cmonville”/Flickr)

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: PHYSICS

 ROTATIONAL KINETIC ENERGY
In order to derive an expression for the rotational kinetic

energy, suppose a rigid body is rotating about an axis X
r1 m1
𝑋𝑌 with a uniform angular velocity 𝜔. r2
r3
r4 m2
Let the body be composed of a large number of tiny r5
r6
m3
particles of masses 𝑚1 , 𝑚2 , 𝑚3 ⋯ etc. situated at a
y
distance 𝑟1 , 𝑟2 , 𝑟3 , ⋯etc. from the axis of rotation.

As the body rotates, all the particles of the body have the same angular velocity 𝜔,
but move with different linear velocities.

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: PHYSICS

 
X
ROTATIONAL KINETIC ENERGY r1 m1
r2
r3
Let 𝑣1 , 𝑣2 , 𝑣3⋯ etc. be the linear speeds of masses r4
r5
m2

r6
m3
𝑚1 , 𝑚2 , 𝑚3⋯ etc. respectively.
A particle of mass 𝑚1 at a distance 𝑟1 from the axis of y

rotation has a linear velocity 𝑣1 = 𝑟1 𝜔.

1 1
Its kinetic energy is, therefore, 𝑚1 𝑣12 = 𝑚1 𝑟12 𝜔2 .
2 2

Similarly the kinetic energy of another particle of mass 𝑚2 at a

1
distance 𝑟2 from the axis rotation is 𝑚2 𝑟22 𝜔2 and so on.
2

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: PHYSICS

 ROTATIONAL KINETIC ENERGY
The total kinetic energy E of the body is the sum of kinetic
energies of the various particles with which the body is X


r1 m1
made. Hence the kinetic energy of the body, r2
r3
r4 m2
1 1 1 r5
𝐸 = 𝑚1 𝑟1 𝜔 + 𝑚2 𝑟2 𝜔 + 𝑚3 𝑟32 𝜔2 + ⋯
2 2 2 2 r6
2 2 2 m3

1 2 y

= 𝜔 𝑚1 𝑟12 + 𝑚2 𝑟22 + 𝑚3 𝑟32 + ⋯

2
1 2 2
1 2
= 𝜔 ∑𝑚𝑟 = 𝐼𝜔 ∴ 𝐼 = ∑𝑚𝑟 2
2 2
𝟏
𝑬 = 𝑰𝝎𝟐
𝟐
© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: PHYSICS
 ROTATIONAL KINETIC ENERGY
Hence
K.E of rotation of the body = half the product of moment of the
inertia of the body about the axis of rotation and the square of the
angular velocity of the body.

𝟏 𝟏
Now if 𝜔 = 1 𝑬 = 𝑰𝝎𝟐
𝟐
𝑬 = 𝑰(𝟏)𝟐 𝑰 = 𝟐.K.E
𝟐
Thus
MOI of the body about its axis of rotation = 2 K.E of the body when
it rotates with unit angular velocity about that axis.

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: PHYSICS

 REFLECTION
A 20-kg cylinder pulley with a radius of 0.2
SPOT m rotates at a constant angular speed of 4
rad/s. What is the rotational kinetic energy
of the pulley?

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: PHYSICS

 A 20-kg cylinder pulley with a radius of 0.2
REFLECTION
SPOT m rotates at a constant angular speed of 4
rad/s. What is the rotational kinetic energy
of the pulley?
Solution Mass of cylinder pulley (m) = 20 kg
The radius of cylinder (r) = 0.2 m
The angular speed (ω) = 4 rad/s
Formula:
I = 1/2 m r2
The moment of inertia of cylinder pulley :
I = 1/2 (20)(0.2)2 = (10)(0.04) = 0.4 kg m2
The rotational kinetic energy of the pulley :
KE = 1/2 I ω2 = 1/2 (0.4)(4)2 = (0.2)(16) = 3.2 Joule

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: PHYSICS

 Topic 1:
Torque
Third Lesson Summary
Topic 2:
Angular Momentum

Topic 2: ➢ Kinetic energy of rotation of the body is half the product of

Conservation of Angular moment of the inertia of the body about the axis of rotation and
Momentum the square of the angular velocity of the body
𝟏
➢ 𝑬 = 𝟐 𝑰𝝎𝟐

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education

 Course Progress

Lesson 1. Moment of Inertia & Radius of Gyration

Lesson 2. Theorems of M.I, M.I of different bodies

Lesson 3. Rotational K.E, Conservation of angular momentum

Lesson 4. Relation between torque & angular momentum

Lesson 5. Torsional Pendulum

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education

 Torque

TORQUE

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: PHYSICS

 TORQUE

➢ The torque in rotational motion plays the same role as the force in
translation motion.
➢ When an external force acting on a body has a tendency to rotate the
body about an axis (or has a turning effect on the body), then the force is
said to exert a torque upon the body about that axis.
➢ “A quantity that is a measure of this rotational effect produced by the
force is called torque or moment of force”.

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: PHYSICS

 TORQUE
In order to define the torque in a more general way,
consider a rigid body capable of rotation about an axis passing through the origin O
and acted upon by a force F at a point P.

The radial component of force has to do nothing with the rotational motion.

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: PHYSICS

 Y
TORQUE
𝝉
𝑭𝑻 = 𝑭𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽

𝑭
O 𝒓
X
𝜽
P
𝑭𝒓
Z
The tangential component (𝐹𝑟 = 𝐹 sin 𝜃) for which the position vector 𝑟 with respect to
origin O is the moment arm produces the rotational motion and thus the torque is given
by, Where 𝜃 is the angle between 𝑟Ԧ and 𝐹Ԧ and
𝑟 sin 𝜃 is the perpendicular from O to the line
𝜏 = 𝐹𝑟𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃 Ԧ
of action of force 𝐹.

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: PHYSICS

 TORQUE

The moment of torque, about an axis of rotation is equal to the

product of the magnitude of the force and the perpendicular distance
of the line of action of the force from the axis of rotation.
Thus,
Torque = Force × Perpendicular distance of the line of action of the
force from the axis of rotation.

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: PHYSICS

 TORQUE
As the torque 𝜏Ԧ is a vector quantity like force the torque acting on a particle
about the origin is defined as the vector product of 𝑟Ԧ and 𝐹Ԧ that is,

𝝉=𝒓×𝑭
• The torque is maximum when 𝜃 = 90° that is, when applied force is right
angle to 𝑟.
Ԧ
• That is why in opening or closing a heavy revolving door the force (by the
hand) applied at right angle s to the door at its outer edge.
• The torque is producing a counter-clockwise rotation is positive while a
torque producing a clockwise rotation is negative.
• The unit of torque is Newton-meter.
© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: PHYSICS
 Angular momentum

• The angular momentum in a rotational motion is

similar to the linear momentum in linear or
translatory motion.
• The linear momentum of a body moving along a
straight line is the product of its mass and linear
velocity, that is, 𝑝 = 𝑚𝑣.

SOURCE : https://gfycat.com/discover/conservation-of-angular-momentum-gifs

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: PHYSICS

 ANGULAR MOMENTUM

• The angular momentum in a rotational

motion is similar to the linear momentum in
linear or translatory motion.
• The linear momentum of a body moving along
a straight line is the product of its mass and
linear velocity, that is, 𝑝 = 𝑚𝑣.

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: PHYSICS

 ANGULAR MOMENTUM
The angular momentum of A about 𝑂 or the moment of O

momentum about the axis of rotation =momentum×distance or A

𝑚1 𝑣 × 𝑟1 = 𝑚1 𝑟1 𝜔 × 𝑟1 = 𝑚1 𝑟12 𝜔 𝒎𝟏𝒗 = 𝒎𝟏𝒓𝟏𝝎

Where 𝑟1 distance of particle 𝐴 of the body from the axis of

rotation.
Z
∴ The total angular momentum of the whole body 𝐿 is,
𝑳= 𝒓×𝒑
𝐿 = ∑𝑚1 𝑟12 𝜔 = 𝜔∑𝑚1 𝑟12 = 𝐼𝜔
𝑷𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽
Where ∑𝑚1 𝑟12 = 𝐼 the moment of inertia of the body about the O X

𝒓 𝜽
axis of rotation. P

Y
𝑷𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: PHYSICS

 ANGULAR MOMENTUM
Let us consider a particle of mass m moving in the 𝑋 ̵ 𝑌 plane with a velocity 𝑣 and
linear momentum 𝑝Ԧ = 𝑚𝑣Ԧ at a distance 𝑟Ԧ from the origin. The angular momentum
𝐿 of the particle about an axis passing through 𝑂 is defined as the cross product of
𝑟Ԧ and 𝑝.
Ԧ That is,
𝐿 = 𝑟Ԧ × 𝑝Ԧ
Its scalar magnitude is,
𝑳 = 𝒓𝒑 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽
Where 𝜃 is the angle between𝑟Ԧ and 𝑝Ԧ and is along a direction perpendicular to the
plane containing 𝑟Ԧ and 𝑝.
Ԧ

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: PHYSICS

 Relation between Torque & Angular momentum

Let a body of mass 𝑚 with a linear velocity 𝑣 about an axis under the effect of
torque 𝜏, then the rate of change of momentum is represented by the force 𝐹Ԧ as,

𝑑𝑝Ԧ 𝑑
𝐹Ԧ = = 𝑚𝑣Ԧ
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Taking its cross product with radius vector 𝑟Ԧ as,
𝑑
𝑟Ԧ × 𝐹Ԧ = 𝑟Ԧ × 𝑚𝑣Ԧ , But 𝑟Ԧ × 𝐹Ԧ = 𝜏Ԧ
𝑑𝑡

𝑑
∴ 𝜏Ԧ = 𝑟Ԧ × 𝑚𝑣Ԧ ⋯ 1
𝑑𝑡

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: PHYSICS

RELATION BETWEEN TORQUE AND ANGULAR MOMENTUM
According to definition of angular momentum,
𝐿 = 𝑟Ԧ × 𝑝Ԧ ⋯ 2
Differentiating eqn (2) with respect to t, we get

𝑑𝐿 𝑑 𝑑 𝑝Ԧ 𝑑 𝑟Ԧ
= 𝑟Ԧ × 𝑝Ԧ = 𝑟Ԧ × + × 𝑝Ԧ
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝐿 𝑑 𝑑𝐿 𝑑
Or = 𝑟Ԧ × 𝑚𝑣Ԧ + 𝑣Ԧ × 𝑚𝑣Ԧ = = 𝑟Ԧ × 𝑚𝑣Ԧ
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
But from eqn (1),
𝑑𝐿
=𝜏
𝑑𝑡
Thus the rate of change of angular momentum of a body is equal to the external torque
acting upon the body.

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: PHYSICS

 Law of conservation of Angular momentum
Statement
Law of conservation of angular momentum states
that the angular momentum about an axis of a given
rotating body or system of bodies remains constant, if
no external torque acts about that axis.
𝐿 = 𝐼𝜔 = constant

𝑑𝐿
SOURCE : https://astrocampschool.org/momentum/
𝜏=
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝐿
If external torque is zero, then 𝜏 = = 0 or L = constant
𝑑𝑡
© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: PHYSICS
 LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ANGULAR MOMENTUM
Angular momentum and the
They are used in connection
principle of conservation of angular with the rotation of earth
about its axis,
momentum, have wide applications
in physics.

spinning of minute
Law of
particles such as
electrons, neutrons and
conservation of the rotation of
satellite around the
protons inside the atoms
etc.
Angular earth,

momentum

the rotation of wheels of

car on their axles,

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: PHYSICS

 Topic 1:
Torque
Fourth Lesson Summary
Topic 2:
Angular Momentum

➢ Torque 𝜏Ԧ is a vector quantity like force the torque acting on a

Topic 2:
Conservation of Angular particle about the origin is defined as 𝝉=𝒓×𝑭
Momentum ➢ Angular momentum 𝐿 = 𝑟Ԧ × 𝑝Ԧ

𝑑𝐿
➢ If external torque is zero, then 𝜏 = 𝑑𝑡
= 0 or L = constant or
conserved

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education

 Course Progress

Lesson 1. Moment of Inertia & Radius of Gyration

Lesson 2. Theorems of M.I, M.I of different bodies

Lesson 3. Rotational K.E, Conservation of angular momentum

Lesson 4. Relation between torque & angular momentum

Lesson 5. Torsional Pendulum

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education

 Learning Objectives

➢ To understand about torsional pendulum.

➢ To calculate the moment of inertia and rigidity modulus.

➢ To understand the applications of torsional pendulum.

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: PHYSICS

 Torsional Pendulum

TORSIONAL PENDULUM

body suspended from a fixed

torsion is the twisting of an object support so that it swings freely
due to an applied torque. back and forth under the influence
of gravity

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: PHYSICS

 TORSIONAL PENDULUM stand

chuck
➢ A body suspended by a thread or wire which
wire
twists first in one direction and then in the
reverse direction, in the horizontal plane is
called a torsional pendulum. chuck
➢ The first torsion pendulum was developed by Disc

Robert Leslie in 1793.

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: PHYSICS

 TORSIONAL PENDULUM
The period of oscillation of torsion pendulum is given as, stand

chuck
𝐼
𝑇 = 2𝜋 ⋯ 1
𝐶 wire
Where
I => moment of inertia of the suspended body;
C =>couple/unit twist chuck
Disc
But we have an expression for couple per unit twist C as,
1 𝜋𝜂𝑟 4
𝐶= ⋯ 2
2 𝑙
Where 𝑙 =length of the suspension wire; r=radius of the wire; 𝜂 =rigidity modulus of the suspension wire

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: PHYSICS

 TORSIONAL PENDULUM
stand
𝐼 1 𝜋𝜂𝑟 4
𝑇 = 2𝜋 ⋯ 1 𝐶= ⋯ 2
𝐶 2 𝑙 chuck

Substituting (2) in (1) and squaring, wire

we get an expression for rigidity modulus for the

suspension wire as,
chuck
8𝜋𝐼𝑙
𝜂= ⋯ 3 Disc
𝑟4𝑇2

We can use the above formula directly if we calculate

the moment of inertia of the disc, I as
I = (1/2)MR2.
© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: PHYSICS
 TORSIONAL PENDULUM
Now, let I0 be the moment of inertia of the disc alone stand

and I1 & I2 be the moment of inertia of the disc with

chuck
identical masses at distances d1&d2 respectively.
wire
If Ig is the moment of inertia of each identical mass
about the vertical axis passing through its centre of
gravity, then chuck
d21 Disc
𝐼1 = 𝐼0 + 2𝐼𝑔 + 2𝑚𝑑12 ⋯ 4

𝐼2 = 𝐼0 + 2𝐼𝑔 + 2𝑚𝑑22 ⋯ 5
𝐼2 − 𝐼1 = 2𝑚(𝑑22 − 𝑑12 ) ⋯ 6

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: PHYSICS

 TORSIONAL PENDULUM
But from equation (1) , 𝑇 = 2𝜋
𝐼
𝐶
⋯ 1 stand

𝐼0 chuck
𝑇02 = 4𝜋 2 ⋯ 7
𝐶

𝐼1
𝑇12 = 4𝜋 2 ⋯ 8 wire
𝐶

𝐼2
𝑇22 = 4𝜋 2 ⋯ 9
𝐶
chuck
4𝜋2
𝑇22 − 𝑇12 = (𝐼2 −𝐼1 ) ⋯ 10 Disc
𝐶
Where T0,T1,T2 are the periods of torsional oscillation without
identical mass, with identical mass at position d1,d2 respectively.

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: PHYSICS

 TORSIONAL PENDULUM
To find moment of inertia of the disc
Dividing equation (7) by (10) and using (6),
𝐼
𝑇02 = 4𝜋 2 𝐶0 ⋯ 7
𝐼2 − 𝐼1 = 2𝑚(𝑑22 − 𝑑12 ) ⋯ 6
4𝜋2
𝑇22 − 𝑇12 = (𝐼2 −𝐼1 ) ⋯ 10
𝐶

𝑇02 𝐼0 𝐼0
= = ⋯ 11
𝑇22 −𝑇12 𝐼2 −𝐼1 2𝑚(𝑑22 −𝑑12 )

Therefore, the moment of inertia of the disc,

𝑇02
𝐼0 = 2𝑚(𝑑22 2
− 𝑑1 ) 2 2 ⋯ 12
𝑇2 −𝑇1

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: PHYSICS

 TORSIONAL PENDULUM
To find rigidity modulus
Now substituting eq (2) and (5) in (10),

1 𝜋𝜂𝑟 4
𝐶= ⋯ 2 𝐼2 = 𝐼0 + 2𝐼𝑔 + 2𝑚𝑑22 ⋯ 5
2 𝑙

4𝜋2
𝑇22 − 𝑇12 = (𝐼2 −𝐼1 ) ⋯ 10
𝐶

16𝜋𝑚(𝑑22 − 𝑑12 ) 𝑙
𝜂= ⋯ 13
𝑟4 𝑇22 − 𝑇12

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: PHYSICS

 Torsional Pendulum
animation
SOURCE : https://vlab.amrita.edu/?sub=1&brch=280&sim=194&cnt=4

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: PHYSICS

 Applications of Torsional Pendulum

Haller torsion pendulum anniversary clock

➢ The working of “ Torsion pendulum clocks " ( shortly

torsion clocks or pendulum clocks), is based on
torsional oscillation.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Haller_torsion_pendulum_anniversary_clock.jpg

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: PHYSICS

 Applications of Torsional Pendulum

➢ The freely decaying oscillation of Torsion pendulum in medium(like

polymers), helps to determine their characteristic properties.

➢ New researches, promising the determination of frictional forces between

solid surfaces and flowing liquid environments using forced torsion
pendulums.

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: PHYSICS

 Fifth Lesson Summary

Topic 1:
➢ The first torsion pendulum was developed by Robert Leslie in
Torsional Pendulum 1793 .
➢ Moment of inertia of the Disc
2 2
𝑇02
𝐼0 = 2𝑚(𝑑2 − 𝑑1 ) 2
𝑇2 − 𝑇12
➢ Rigidity Modulus
16𝜋𝑚(𝑑22 − 𝑑12 ) 𝑙
𝜂=
𝑟4 𝑇22 − 𝑇12

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education

 Unit 2 Thermodynamics - Outline

Lesson 1. Laws of Thermodynamics

Lesson 2. Work done, Cyclic Process, Reversible and Irreversible process

Lesson 3. Heat Engines

Lesson 4. Carnot Theorem and Carnot Engine

Lesson 5. Specific heat Capacity and Newton’s law of Cooling

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: ENGINEERING PHYSICS

 Course Progress

Lesson 1. Heat & Laws of Thermodynamics

Lesson 2. Work done, Cyclic Process, Reversible and Irreversible process

Lesson 3. Heat Engines

Lesson 4. Carnot Theorem and Carnot Engine

Lesson 5. Specific heat Capacity and Newton’s law of Cooling

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: ENGINEERING PHYSICS

 HEAT & THERMODYNAMICS

HEAT & THERMODYNAMICS:

the science of energy,
specifically heat and work,
and how the transfer of
energy effects the properties
of materials.

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: ENGINEERING PHYSICS

 Introduction - Heat

➢ In mechanics we deal with quantities such as mass, position, velocity,

acceleration, energy, momentum, etc.

Question: What happens to the energy of a ball when we drop it on the

floor?
Answer: It goes into heat energy.

Question: What is heat energy?

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: ENGINEERING PHYSICS

 The answer is a bit longer

In Thermodynamics we deal with quantities which describe our system,

usually (but not always) a gas.
Volume, Temperature, Pressure, Heat Energy, Work.

We all know about Volume.

Force
Pressure? Pressure =
Area

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: ENGINEERING PHYSICS

 Examples

120 lb woman putting all her weight on 2 in2 of heals.

Pressure = 120 lb/2in2 = 60 lb/in2.
Is that a lot?
Comparison: 1 atm = 14.7 lb/in2. Thus of heals is approximately
4 atm.
This is the pressure you would feel at a depth of approximately 133 ft of
water.

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: ENGINEERING PHYSICS

 Temperature and Heat

Everyone has a qualitative understanding of temperature, but it is not

very exact.

Question: Why can you put your hand in a 400 F oven and not get
instantly burned, but if you touch the metal rack, you do?

Answer: Even though the air and the rack are at the same temperature,
they have very different energy contents.

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: ENGINEERING PHYSICS

 Heat

Heat is the random motion of the particles in the

gas, i.e. a “degraded” from of kinetic energy.
The higher the temperature, the faster the
particles (atoms/molecules) are moving, i.e.
more Kinetic Energy.
We will take heat to mean the thermal energy in
a body OR the thermal energy transferred
into/out of a body

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 Units of Heat

Heat is a form of energy so we can always use Joules.

More common in thermodynamics is the calorie: By definition 1 calorie

is the amount of heat required to change the temperature of 1 gram of
water 1C.

1 Cal = 1 food calorie = 1000 cal.

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 Units of Heat

The English unit of heat is the Btu (British Thermal Unit.) It is the
amount of heat required to change the temperature of 1 lb of water
1F.

Conversions:
1 cal =4.186 J
1Btu = 252 cal

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 Temperature
❑Though we all have a feel for temperature (‘like when we are feeling hot’); in the context of TD temperature is
technical term with ‘deep meaning’.
❑As we know (from a commons sense perspective) that temperature is a measure of the ‘intensity of heat’. ‘Heat
flows’ (energy is transferred as heat) from a body at higher temperature to one at lower temperature. (Like pressure
is a measure of the intensity of ‘force applied by matter’→ matter (for now a fluid) flows from region of higher
pressure to lower pressure).
❑That implies (to reiterate the obvious!) if I connect two bodies− (A)-one weighing 100kg at 10C and the other (B)
weighing 1 kg at 500C, then the ‘heat will flow’ from the hotter body to the colder body (i.e. the weight or volume
of the body does not matter).
❑But, temperature comes in two important ‘technical’ contexts in TD:
1➢ it is a measure of the average kinetic energy (or velocity) of the constituent entities (say molecules)
2➢ it is the parameter which determines the distribution of species (say molecules) across various energy states
available.

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 Heat flow

Heat flow direction

A B

500C
10C

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 Heat and Work

❑Work (W) in mechanics is displacement (d) against a resisting force (F). W = F  d

❑Work has units of energy (Joule, J).
❑Work can be expansion work (PV), electrical work, magnetic work etc. (many sets of stimuli and their
responses).
❑Heat as used in TD is a tricky term (yes, it is a very technical term as used in TD).
➢ The transfer of energy as a result of a temperature difference is called heat.
➢ “In TD heat is NOT an entity or even a form of energy; heat is a mode of transfer of energy” [1].
➢ “Heat is the transfer of energy by virtue of a temperature difference” [1].
➢ “Heat is the name of a process, not the name of an entity” [1].
➢ “Bodies contain internal energy (U) and not heat” [2].
❑The ‘flow’ of energy down a temperature gradient can be treated mathematically by considering heat as a
mass-less fluid [1] → this does not make heat a fluid!

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: ENGINEERING PHYSICS

 Heat and Work
❑Work is coordinated flow of matter.
➢ Lowering of a weight can do work
➢ Motion of piston can do work
➢ Flow of electrons in conductor can do work.
❑Heat involves random motion of matter (or the constituent entities of matter).
➢ Like gas molecules in a gas cylinder
➢ Water molecules in a cup of water
➢ Atoms vibrating in a block of Cu.

❑Energy may enter the system as heat or work.

❑Once inside the system:
• it does not matter how the energy entered the system* (i.e. work and heat are terms associated with the surrounding and once
inside the system there is no ‘memory’ of how the input was received and
• the energy is stored as potential energy (PE) and kinetic energy (KE).
❑This energy can be withdrawn as work or heat from the system.

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: ENGINEERING PHYSICS

 Construction of a Temperature Scale

Choose fixed point temperatures that are easy to reconstruct in any lab,
e.g. freezing point of water, boiling point of water, or anything else you can
think of.

Fahrenheit: Original idea:

0F Freezing point of Salt/ice
100F Body Temperature

Using this ice melts at 32F and water boils at 212F (Not overly convenient)
Note: 180F between boiling an freezing.

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 Construction of a Temperature Scale

Celsius (Centigrade) Scale:

0C Ice Melts

100C Water Boils

Note a change of 1C = a change of 1.8F.

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 Conversion between Fahrenheit and Celsius

If we know Celsius and want Fahrenheit

9
F = C + 32
5
If we know Fahrenheit and want Celsius

C = (F − 32)
5
9
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 Heat Transfer Mechanisms

1. Conduction: (solids--mostly) Heat transfer without mass transfer.

2. Convection: (liquids/gas) Heat transfer with mass transfer.

3. Radiation: Takes place even in a vacuum.

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 Conduction

Conduction

 Thermal  Contact  Temperature 

 Conductivity  Area  Difference 
 Rate of  =    
 Heat Flow 
  (Thickness)
Q A
= T
t d

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 Thermal Conductivity

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 Convection

Typically very complicated.

Very efficient way to transfer energy.
Vortex formation is very common feature.
liquid convection
vortex formation
Sunspot
solar simulation
Source: https://www.thoughtco.com/what-is-convection-4041318

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 Convection Examples

Ocean Currents Plate tectonics

Source: https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Plate-motion-with-the-convection-currents-in-the-mantle_fig2_323391985

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 Radiation

Everything that has a temperature radiates energy.

Method that energy from sun reaches the earth.
Q
P = = eAT = (const )T
4 4

t
Note: if we double the temperature, the power radiated goes up by 24 =16.
If we triple the temperature, the radiated power goes up by 34=81.
A lot more about radiation when we get to light.

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 Radiation

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 THERMODYNAMICS

▪ Thermodynamics is a branch of physics

which describes the laws governing the
process of conversion of work into heat and
conversion of heat into work.

▪ The laws of thermodynamics are formulated

over three centuries of experimental works
of Boyle, Charles, Bernoulli, Joule, Clausius,
Kelvin, Carnot and Helmholtz.

Source: https://leverageedu.com

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 Thermodynamic system

A thermodynamic system is a finite part of the

universe. It is a collection of large number of
particles (atoms and molecules) specified by
certain parameters called pressure (P), Volume (V)
and Temperature (T). The remaining part of the
universe is called surrounding. Both are separated
by a boundary.

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 Examples of Thermodynamic system

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 Thermodynamics versus Kinetics

❑ Thermodynamics deals with stability of systems. It tells us ‘what should happen?’. ‘Will
it actually happen(?)’ is not the domain of thermodynamics and falls under the realm of
kinetics.
❑ At –5C at 1 atm pressure, ice is more stable then water. Suppose we cool water to –
5C. “Will this water freeze?” (& “how long will it take for it to freeze?”) is (are) not
questions addressed by thermodynamics.
❑ Systems can remain in metastable state for a ‘long-time’.
➢ Window pane glass is metastable– but it may take geological time scales for it to
crystallize!
➢ At room temperature and atmospheric pressure, graphite is more stable then diamond–
but we may not lose the glitter of diamond practically forever!

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: ENGINEERING PHYSICS

 Thermodynamics (TD): perhaps the most basic science

❑One branch of knowledge that all engineers and scientists must have a grasp of (to some extent
or the other!) is thermodynamics.
❑In some sense thermodynamics is perhaps the ‘most abstract subject’ and a student can often
find it very confusing if not ‘motivated’ strongly enough.
❑Thermodynamics can be considered as a ‘system level’ science- i.e. it deals with descriptions of
the whole system and not with interactions (say) at the level of individual particles.
• I.e. it deals with quantities (like T,P) averaged over a large collection of entities (like molecules,
atoms)*.
• This implies that questions like: “What is the temperature or entropy of an atom?”; do not make
sense in the context of thermodynamics (at lease in the usual way!).
❑TD puts before us some fundamental laws which are universal** in nature (and hence applicable
to fields across disciplines).

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: ENGINEERING PHYSICS

 The language of TD
❑To understand the laws of thermodynamics and how they work, first we need to get the terminology
right. Some of the terms may look familiar (as they are used in everyday language as well)- but their
meanings are more ‘technical’ and ‘precise’, when used in TD and hence we should not use them
‘casually’.
❑System is region where we focus our attention (Au block in figure).
❑Surrounding is the rest of the universe (the water bath at constant ‘temperature’).
❑Universe = System + Surrounding (the part that is within the dotted line box in the figure below)
❑More practically, we can consider the ‘Surrounding’ as the immediate neighbourhood of the system
(the part of the universe at large, with which the system ‘effectively’ interacts).
In this scheme of things we can visualize: a system, the surrounding and the universe at large.
❑Things that matter for the surrounding: (i) T, (ii) P, (iii) ability to: do work, transfer heat, transfer matter,
etc. Parameters for the system: (i) Internal energy, (ii) Enthapy, (iii) T, (iv) P, (v) mass, etc.

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: ENGINEERING PHYSICS

 The language of TD

In TD we u

In TD we usually do not worry

about the universe at large!
sually do not worry about the universe at large!

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: ENGINEERING PHYSICS

 Open, closed and isolated systems

❑To a thermodynamic system two ‘things’ may be added/removed:

➢ energy (in the form of heat &/or work) ➢ matter.
❑An open system is one to which you can add/remove matter (e.g. a open beaker to
which we can add water). When you add matter- you also end up adding heat (which is
contained in that matter).
❑A system to which you cannot add matter is called closed.
Though you cannot add/remove matter to a closed system, you can still add/remove heat
(you can cool a closed water bottle in fridge).
❑A system to which neither matter nor heat can be added/removed is called isolated.
A closed vacuum ‘thermos’ flask can be considered as isolated.

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 Open, closed and isolated systems

Mass

Interactions possible
Work

Heat

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 Open, closed and isolated systems

❑Matter is easy to understand and includes atoms, ions, electrons, etc.

❑Energy may be transferred (‘added’) to the system as heat, electromagnetic radiation etc.
❑In TD the two modes of transfer of energy to the system considered are Heat and Work.
☺➢ Heat and work are modes of transfer of energy and not ‘energy’ itself.
☺➢ Once inside the system, the part which came via work and the part which came via heat, cannot
be distinguished*. More sooner on this!
☺➢ Before the start of the process and after the process is completed, the terms heat and
work are not relevant.
❑From the above it is clear that, bodies contain internal energy and not heat (nor work!).
❑Matter when added to a system brings along with it some energy. The ‘energy density’ (energy per
unit mass or energy per unit volume) in the incoming matter may be higher or lower than the matter
already present in the system.

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: ENGINEERING PHYSICS

 Processes in TD (We will deal with some of them in detail later on)
❑Here is a brief listing of a few kinds of processes, which we will encounter in TD:
➢Isothermal process → the process takes place at constant temperature
(e.g. freezing of water to ice at –10C)
➢Isobaric → constant pressure
(e.g. heating of water in open air→ under atmospheric pressure)
➢Isochoric → constant volume
(e.g. heating of gas in a sealed metal container)
➢Reversible process → the system is close to equilibrium at all times (and infinitesimal alteration of the conditions
can restore the universe (system + surrounding) to the original state. (Hence, there are no truly reversible processes
in nature).
➢Cyclic process → the final and initial state are the same. However, q and w need not be zero.
➢Adiabatic process → dq is zero during the process (no heat is added/removed to/from the system)
❑A combination of the above are also possible: e.g. ‘reversible adiabatic process’.

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: ENGINEERING PHYSICS

 First Law of Thermodynamics: Conservation of energy

Change in internal energy (ΔU) of the system is equal to heat supplied to the system
(Q) minus the work done by the system (W) on the surroundings’

When heat is added into a system it can either 1) change the internal energy of the
system (i.e. make it hotter) or 2) go into doing work.
Q=W +U.
Note: For our purposes, Internal Energy is the part of the energy that depends
on Temperature.

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: ENGINEERING PHYSICS

 First Law of Thermodynamics: Conservation of energy

Change in internal energy (ΔU) of the system is equal to heat supplied to the system
(Q) minus the work done by the system (W) on the surroundings’

When heat is added into a system it can either 1) change the internal energy of the
system (i.e. make it hotter) or 2) go into doing work.
Q=W +U.
Note: For our purposes, Internal Energy is the part of the energy that depends
on Temperature.

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: ENGINEERING PHYSICS

 First Law of Thermodynamics: Conservation of energy

Change in internal energy (ΔU) of the system is equal to heat supplied to the system
(Q) minus the work done by the system (W) on the surroundings’

When heat is added into a system it can either 1) change the internal energy of the
system (i.e. make it hotter) or 2) go into doing work.
Q=W +U.
Note: For our purposes, Internal Energy is the part of the energy that depends
on Temperature.

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: ENGINEERING PHYSICS

 Zero law of Thermodynamics

The zeroth law of thermodynamics states that if

two systems, A and B, are in thermal equilibrium
with a third system, C, then A and B are in
thermal equilibrium with each other.

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 First law of Thermodynamics

❑The internal energy of an isolated system is constant.

❑A closed system may exchange energy as heat or work. Let us consider a close system at rest without external
fields.
❑There exists a state function U such that for any process in a closed system:
U = q + w [1]
➢ q → heat flow in to the system
➢ w → work done on the system (work done by the system is negative of above- this is just ‘one’ sign convention)
q & w are not state functions → i.e. they depend on the path of a process.
❑U is the internal energy. Being a state function for a process U depends only of the final and initial state of the
system. U = Ufinal – Uinitial. In contrast to U, q & w are NOT state functions (i.e. depend on the path followed).

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: ENGINEERING PHYSICS

 First law of Thermodynamics

❑For an infinitesimal process eq. [1] can be written as: dU = dq + dw

❑The change in U of the surrounding will be opposite in sign, such that:
Usystem + Usurrounding = 0
❑Actually, it should be E above and not U {however, in many cases K and V
are zero (e.g. a system at rest considered above) and the above is valid- as
discussed elsewhere}.
❑It is to be noted that in ‘w’ work done by one part of the system on another
part is not included.

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 Second Law of Thermodynamics (What can actually happen)

“For all the processes that occur in nature

(irreversible process), the entropy always
increases. For reversible process entropy will not change”.
Heat does not voluntarily flow from cold to hot.
OR
All heat engines have e<1. (Not all heat can be converted into work.)

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: ENGINEERING PHYSICS

 Second Law of Thermodynamics

Heat flows naturally from a region at high

temperature to a region at low temperature. By
itself, heat will not flow from a cold to a hot
body.

When an isolated system undergoes a change,

passing from one state to another, it will do so
in such a way that its entropy (disorder) will
increase, or at best remain the same.

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 ENTROPY

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 Third law of Thermodynamics

❑For substances in internal equilibrium, undergoing an isothermal

process, the entropy change goes to zero as T (in K) goes to zero.

lim S = 0
T →0

❑The law is valid for pure substances and mixtures.

❑Close to Zero Kelvin, the molecular motions have to be treated using
quantum mechanics → still it is found that quantum ideal gases obey the
third law.
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 Third law of Thermodynamics

Phenomenological description of the third law.

❑ There does not exist any finite sequence of cyclical process, which can cool a body to
zero Kelvin (absolute zero).

Other statements of the third law.

❑ For a closed system in thermodynamic equilibrium, the entropy of the system
approaches a constant value as the temperature goes to absolute zero.
▪ If there is a unique ground state with minimum energy at zero Kelvin, then the entropy
at zero Kelvin is ZERO. However, if there is a degeneracy with respect to the number of
microstates at absolute zero, then there will be some Residual Entropy.

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: ENGINEERING PHYSICS

 Thermal Equilibrium
◼ Systems (or objects) are said to be in
thermal equilibrium if there is no net flow
of thermal energy from one to the other. A
thermometer is in thermal equilibrium with
the medium whose temperature it
measures, for example.

◼ If two objects are in thermal equilibrium,

they are at the same temperature.

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: ENGINEERING PHYSICS

 Topic 1
Heat
First Lesson Summary
Topic 2
Temperature
• Idea about heat
Topic 3
Laws of Thermodynamics • Idea about Temperature
• Heat Conduction Process
• Thermodynamic Systems
• Laws of Thermodynamics

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: ENGINEERING PHYSICS

 Course Progress

Lesson 1. Heat & Laws of Thermodynamics

Lesson 2. Work done, Cyclic Process, Reversible and Irreversible process

Lesson 3. Heat Engines

Lesson 4. Carnot Theorem and Carnot Engine

Lesson 5. Specific heat Capacity and Newton’s law of Cooling

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 Work, energy caused by physical motion

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 WORK
W is negative if work is done on the system.
W is positive if work is done by system.

Environment (man) does work on system: W < 0

(Alternative: system does negative work because force by air
Air does work on the
pressure on thumb is opposite to the direction of motion of the
environment: W > 0.
thumb.)

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: ENGINEERING PHYSICS

 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HEAT AND WORK
Why does the volume of gas expands when it is heated?
W=Fxd
Pressure (P) = (Force) F or F = P A
(Area) A
Volume (V) = L x W x H or A x d
d=V
W=PAV =PV
A
A
© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: ENGINEERING PHYSICS
 Work Done by a Gas

Work=(Force)x(distance)
=Fy

Force=(Presssure)x(Area)

W=P(Ay)
=PV

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: ENGINEERING PHYSICS

 INTERNAL ENERGY (U or E)
Internal energy is the total of the kinetic energy due to the motion of molecules
(translational, rotational, vibrational) and the potential energy associated with the
vibrational and electric energy of atoms within molecules or crystals.

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: ENGINEERING PHYSICS

 First Law of Thermodynamics

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 The First Law of Thermodynamics states that

The internal energy of a system changes from an initial value Ui to a final value Uf
due to heat added (Q) and work done by the system (W)

DU = Uf – Ui = Q – W

Q is positive when the system gains heat, and negative when the system loses heat.
W is positive when it is done BY the system, and negative when it is done ON the
system

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 Problems

Example: 1000 J of thermal energy flows into a

system (Q = 1000 J). At the same time, 400 J of
work is done by the system (W = 400 J). What is
the change in the system's internal energy U?
----------------------------------------------------------

Solution:
DU = Q - W
= 1000 J - 400 J
= 600 J

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: ENGINEERING PHYSICS

 Problems
Example: 800 J of work is done on a system
(W = -800 J) as 500 J of thermal energy is removed from
the system (Q = -500 J). What is the change in the
system's internal energy U?
-----------------------------------------------------

Solution:
DU = Q - W
= -500 J - (-800 J)
= -500 J + 800 J
= 300 J
© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: ENGINEERING PHYSICS
 Work Done by an Expanding Gas

Area under pressure-volume curve is the work done.

W = PDV Isobaric Process: "same pressure"
DV = Vf - Vi Greek: barys, heavy
W = P (Vf - Vi)

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 Work and the Pressure-Volume Curve

Work Done = Area Under PV curve

-------------------------------------
How much work is done by the system when the system is
taken from:
(a) A to B (900 J)
(b) B to C (0 J)
(c) C to A (-1500 J)
-------------------------------------
Each "rectangle" has an area of
100 Pa-m3 = 100 (N/m2)-m3
= 100 N-m
= 100 Joules

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: ENGINEERING PHYSICS

 Problems: Expanding Gas
10 grams of steam at 100oC at constant pressure rises
to 110oC:

P = 4 x 105 Pa DT = 10oC
DV = 30.0 x 10-6 m3
c = 2.01 J/g oC

What is the change in internal energy?

Example: If a gas expands at a constant pressure, DU = Q – W

the work done by the gas is:
W = (4 x 105)(30.0 x 10-6) = 12 J
W = PDV Q = mcDT = (10)(2.01)(10) = 201 J
DU = Q - W = 201 J - 12 J = 189 J

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: ENGINEERING PHYSICS

 Adiabatic Expansion of a Ideal Gas
No heat transfer therefore no temperature change (Q=0).

Generally obtained by surrounding the entire system with a strongly insulating material or by carrying out the
process so quickly that there is no time for a significant heat transfer to take place.

If Q = 0 then ΔU = - W

A system that expands under adiabatic

conditions does positive work, so the internal
energy decreases.

A system that contracts under adiabatic

conditions does negative work, so the
internal energy increases.

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 Adiabatic Expansion of a Ideal Gas

Both adiabatic expansion and compression of gases occur in only

hundredths of a second in the cylinders of a car’s engine.

Blowing air through wide open mouth results to

warm air. Blowing through small opening
results to cooler air due to adiabatic expansion.

Compresses air leaking out through a small

opening also results in adiabatic cooling.

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 PROCESS DIAGRAMS:
visualize processes using properties (T, P, V, etc.)

Area underneath the

slope represents the
amount of work
done (P x V).

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 CYCLE: a system undergoes processes - returning to its initial state

Area
underneath
the slope
represents
the amount
of work done
(P x V).

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 Work Done by a Gas

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 What are reversible and irreversible changes?

Reversible changes – where a change is made physically and can be undone, or

reversed. For example: make freezing to water ice.

Irreversible changes – where the change is made chemically and can’t be

reversed into its original states. For cake a example: baking.

The coloured words are wrong in order.

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: ENGINEERING PHYSICS

 Topic 1
Work done by a gas Second Lesson Summary
Topic 2
Different Thermodynamic Process

Topic 3 •What is work done and for gas is learnt

Reversible and Irreversible Process
• Various thermodynamic systems and its work
done is understood.
• Various process like reversible and irreversible
were discussed.

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: ENGINEERING PHYSICS

 Course Progress

Lesson 1. Heat & Laws of Thermodynamics

Lesson 2. Work done, Cyclic Process, Reversible and Irreversible process

Lesson 3. Heat Engines

Lesson 4. Carnot Theorem and Carnot Engine

Lesson 5. Specific heat Capacity and Newton’s law of Cooling

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: ENGINEERING PHYSICS

 Heat Engines

If we can create an “engine” that operates in a cycle, we return to our

starting point each time and therefore have the same internal energy.
Thus, for a complete cycle

Q=W

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 Gasoline Engine & Heat Engine

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 Heat Engine

A heat engine is any device that uses heat to perform work.

It has three essential features:
1. Heat is supplied to the engine at a relatively high
temperature, hot reservoir.
2. Part of the input heat is used to perform work by the
working substance of the engine, which is the material within
the engine that actually does the work
3. The remainder of the input heat is rejected at a
temperature lower than the input temperature to a place
called the cold reservoir.

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: ENGINEERING PHYSICS

 The First Law of Thermodynamics

The internal energy of a system changes from an

initial value Ui to a final value of Uf due to heat Q
and work W

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: ENGINEERING PHYSICS

 Model Heat Engine

Qhot= W+Qcold
or
Qhot-Qcold=W

(what goes in must come out)

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: ENGINEERING PHYSICS

 Efficiency

Efficiency, e of a Heat Engine

QH = Q C + W

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: ENGINEERING PHYSICS

 Efficiency – Alternative way

We want to write an expression that describes how well our heat engine
works.
Qhot=energy that you pay for.
W=work done (what you want.)
Qcold= Waste energy (money).

Efficiency = e = W/Qhot

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: ENGINEERING PHYSICS

 Try This – What is the Efficiency?

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: ENGINEERING PHYSICS

 Efficiency – Real Engine

If we had a perfect engine, all of the input heat would be converted into
work and the efficiency would be 1.
The worst possible engine is one that does no work and the efficiency
would be zero.
Real engines are between 0 and 1

W Qhot − Qcold Qcold

e= = = 1−
Qhot Qhot Qhot
© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: ENGINEERING PHYSICS
 Example Calculation - Efficiency

In every cycle, a heat engine absorbs 1000 J from a hot reservoir at 600K,
does 400 J of work and expels 600 J into a cold reservoir at 300K.
Calculate the efficiency of the engine.

e= 400J/1000J=0.4

This is actually a pretty good engine.

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: ENGINEERING PHYSICS

 Refrigerator & Heat Pump

A refrigerator pumps heat from the

cooler interior to the warmer room.

A heat pump removes heat

from the outside air and
pumps it into the warmer
house.

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: ENGINEERING PHYSICS

 Schematic Representation of a Heat Pump or Refrigerator

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: ENGINEERING PHYSICS

 Carnot and his cycle

Sadi Carnot created an efficiency measure for a heat engine,

now named after him (Carnot Efficiency).
Always less than 100%
Simply put it is the percentage of the energy taken from the
heat source which is actually converted to mechanical work.

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: ENGINEERING PHYSICS

 Topic 1
Heat Engine Third Lesson Summary
Topic 2
Heat Pump

Topic 3 • Work done and construction of heat engine was

Refrigerator discussed.
• Heat pump, gasoline engine was discussed
• Refrigerator work process was analyzed
• Heat Engine efficiency also studied.

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: ENGINEERING PHYSICS

 Course Progress

Lesson 1. Heat & Laws of Thermodynamics

Lesson 2. Work done, Cyclic Process, Reversible and Irreversible process

Lesson 3. Heat Engines

Lesson 4. Carnot Theorem and Carnot Engine

Lesson 5. Specific heat Capacity and Newton’s law of Cooling

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: ENGINEERING PHYSICS

 Carnot’s ideal heat engine

• In the year 1824 a young French engineer Sadi Carnot proved that a
certain reversible engine operated in cycle between hot and cold
reservoir can have maximum efficiency.

•This engine is called Carnot engine. A reversible heat engine

operating in a cycle between two temperatures in a particular way is
called a Carnot Engine.

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: ENGINEERING PHYSICS

 Carnot Engine

The very best theoretically possible heat engine is the Carnot engine. The
efficiency of a Carnot engine depends on the temperature of the hot and
cold reservoirs.

Tcold
eCarnot = 1−
Thot
Note : The temperatures must
be measured in Kelvins!!!
© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: ENGINEERING PHYSICS
 Example Calculation

In every cycle, a heat engine absorbs 1000 J from a hot reservoir at 600K,
does 400 J of work and expels 600 J into a cold reservoir at 300 K.
Calculate the efficiency of the best possible engine.

e= 1-300/600 =0.5

Recall that the actual engine has e=0.4.

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: ENGINEERING PHYSICS

 Carnot Engine
The Carnot engine has four parts, which are given below.
i. Source: It is the source of heat maintained at constant high temperature TH.
Any amount of heat can be extracted from it, without changing its temperature.

ii. Sink: It is a cold body maintained at a constant low temperature TL. It can absorb any
amount of heat.

iii. Insulating stand: It is made of perfectly non-conducting material. Heat is not conducted
through this stand.

iv. Working substance: It is an ideal gas enclosed in a cylinder with perfectly non-conducting
walls and perfectly conducting bottom. A non-conducting and frictionless piston is fitted in
it.

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: ENGINEERING PHYSICS

 Carnot Cycle

The working substance is subjected to four successive

reversible processes forming is called Carnot’s
cycle. Let the initial pressure, volume of the working
substance be P1,V1.

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: ENGINEERING PHYSICS

 Carnot Cycle

Step A to B: Quasi-static isothermal expansion

from (P1,V1,TH) to (P2,V2,TH):

Step B to C: Quasi-static adiabatic expansion

from (P2,V2,TH) to (P3,V3,TL).

Step C → D: Quasi-static isothermal

compression from (P3,V3,TL)to (P4,V4,TL).

Step D→A: Quasi-static adiabatic compression from

(P4,V4,TL) to (P1,V1,TH)

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: ENGINEERING PHYSICS

 PV diagram for Carnot cycle

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: ENGINEERING PHYSICS

 Work done in Carnot Cycle

Let ‘W’ be the net work done by the working substance in

one cycle

= 𝑊𝐴→𝐵 + 𝑊𝐵→𝐶 + 𝑊𝐶→𝐷 + 𝑊𝐷→𝐴

𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑊𝐷→𝐴 = − 𝑊𝐵→𝐶

Net Work done = 𝑊𝐴→𝐵 + 𝑊𝐶→𝐷

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: ENGINEERING PHYSICS

 Net Work done in Carnot Cycle

It is very important to note that after one

cycle the working substance returns to
the initial temperature TH. This implies
that the change in internal energy of the
working substance after one cycle is zero

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: ENGINEERING PHYSICS

 Efficiency of a Carnot engine
Efficiency is defined as the ratio of work done by the working substance in one cycle to the amount of
heat extracted from the source.

𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 W
𝛈= =
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 QH

QL 𝑇𝐿
=
QH 𝑇𝐻
𝑇
The efficiency 𝛈 = 1 − 𝑇 𝐿
𝐻

Note: TL and TH should be expressed in Kelvin scale.

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: ENGINEERING PHYSICS

 Topic 1
Carnot Engine Fourth Lesson Summary
Topic 2
Carnot Cycle

Topic 3
Efficiency of Carnot Engine
• The ideal Carnot engine was studied.
• The efficiency of the Carnot engine was analyzed.
• Work done in the reversible cycle is evaluated.

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: ENGINEERING PHYSICS

 Course Progress

Lesson 1. Heat & Laws of Thermodynamics

Lesson 2. Work done, Cyclic Process, Reversible and Irreversible process

Lesson 3. Heat Engines

Lesson 4. Carnot Theorem and Carnot Engine

Lesson 5. Specific heat Capacity and Newton’s law of Cooling

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: ENGINEERING PHYSICS

 Heat Capacity

The heat capacity of a substance is the heat required to raise the temperature a unit degree.

Lead Glass Al Copper Iron

1000C 1000C 1000C 1000C 1000C

37 s 52 s 60 s 83 s 90 s

Heat capacities based on time to heat from zero to 1000C. Which has the
greatest heat capacity?

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: ENGINEERING PHYSICS

 Specific heat capacity

All at 1000C placed on Paraffin Slab

Lead Glass Al Copper Iron

Iron and copper balls melt all the way through; others have lesser heat
capacities.

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: ENGINEERING PHYSICS

 Specific heat Capacity

Q
c= ; Q = mct
mt
Quantity Variable Unit
Heat energy Q Joules (J), KiloJoules (kJ),
absorbed/released Calories (cal)

Specific heat c J/kg*K, kJ/g*˚C,

J/kg*˚C
mass m kg
temperature T K, ˚F, ˚C
© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: ENGINEERING PHYSICS
 Specific heat capacity

Liquid water has a high specific heat compared to the specific heat of other substances.

A mass of 1 kg of water requires 4180 J

of energy to increase its temperature
by 1 K. The same mass of copper
requires only 385 J to increase its
temperature by 1 K.

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: ENGINEERING PHYSICS

 Example – Specific heat capacity

What quantity of heat is required to raise the temperature of

450 grams of water from 15°C to 85°C? The specific heat
capacity of water is 4.180 J/g/°C.
450 g

The heat required to do this job is What?

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: ENGINEERING PHYSICS

 Newton’s law of cooling

Newton’s law of cooling states that the rate of loss of heat of a body is directly
proportional to the difference in the temperature between that body and its
surroundings.

𝑑𝑄
∝ −(𝑇 − 𝑇𝑠 )
𝑑𝑇

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: ENGINEERING PHYSICS

 Cooling of hot water with time

• Newton's Law is followed for forced air or

pumped fluid cooling, where the
properties of the fluid do not vary strongly
with temperature, but it is only
approximately true for buoyancy-driven
convection, where the velocity of the flow
increases with temperature difference.

𝑎
−𝑚𝑠𝑡
𝑇 = 𝑇𝑠 + 𝑏2 𝑒

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: ENGINEERING PHYSICS

 Experimental verification - Newton’s law of Cooling

A calorimeter blackened outer is taken and filled with hot water of

about 90oC for (3/4)th of its capacity. The top of the calorimeter is
closed with insulating cap and is kept in a double walled vessel with
water in between two walls at room temperature () as measured by a
thermometer.

A stirrer inside should be used to stir the calorimeter and its content. A thermometer inserted inside the calorimeter
measures the temperature  For every 30 seconds until temperature  falls to (-5) oC
t t

When log e ( - ) is plotted against time t, we get a straight line as shown.

t
Verifying Newton’s law of cooling.

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: ENGINEERING PHYSICS

 Applications of Newton’s Law of Cooling

• Helps to design radiators/cooling system in thermal machine.

• To calculate the time taken for a hot object to cool down to a lower temperature.

• To determine the specific heat capacity of a substance.

• It helps to estimate the time of death by measuring the temperature of dead body.

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: ENGINEERING PHYSICS

 Topic 1
Specific heat capacity

Topic 2
Newton’s law of cooling
Fifth Lesson Summary

• The specific heat capacity was discussed.

• Newton’s law of cooling was discussed

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: ENGINEERING PHYSICS

 Thank You!

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME: ENGINEERING PHYSICS