FOOD PROCESSING

NUT 3141 A00

Food Processing – NUT 3141 – Course syllabus
I. Introduction: properties of food and food processes
II. Non thermal processing operations:
a. Preparation of raw materials
b. Size reduction, mixing, separation and concentration of food components
c. Food biotechnology
d. Food irradiation
e. High hydrostatic pressure process
f. Mixing and encapsulation
g. Minimal food processing
Food Processing – NUT 3141 – Course syllabus
III. Heat treatment:
a. General introduction
b. Steam thermal processes:
i. Bleaching, pasteurization and sterilization
ii.Evaporation and distillation.
c. Extrusion
d. Thermal processes using hot air:
i. Dehydration, smoking
ii.Cooking and roasting.
e. Thermal processes using heated oil:
i. Frying
f. Processes using radiant thermal energy:
i. Ohmic, dielectric and IR heating
Food Processing – NUT 3141 – Course syllabus
IV. Cooling processes
a. Refrigeration
b. Freezing
c. Freeze-drying and cryoconcentration.
V. Post-processing operations
a. Packaging
b. Conditioning
c. Handling, storage and control
VI. Food Processing and Nutrition and Health.
I. Introduction: properties of foods and processing
What is a food?

Foods are materials, in raw, processed or formulated form, that are consumed orally by
humans or animals for growth, health and satisfaction or pleasure (Rahman, IJFP, 2(20),
93-99, 1999).

A food is therefore a biological material that can be raw or processed with various origins:
animal, vegetable, microbial.
I. Introduction: properties of foods and processing

• Like any material, a food can be in different states: solid, liquid and gaseous
(some gaseous additives incorporated into various food matrices).

• The study of food properties partly relates to the study of the properties of
matter in its different states.

• The transition between a fluid and a solid is called "phase transition", a

concept of great importance for operations such as evaporation, drying and
dehydration, distillation, crystallization,...
• The phase transition takes place at a fixed temperature (isothermal) by
absorption or release of latent heat.
I. Introduction: properties of foods and processing

Density (volumetric mass or specific mass ): This parameter is important for

separation processes, for size reduction and mixing operations that can take
place during transformations.

The density of a matter is expressed by the ratio between its mass and its
volume in Kg.m-3

The density of a food is not constant and it changes with temperature and
pressure.
I. Introduction: properties of foods and processing

• For solids and liquid products in dispersion of the emulsion type, when they
do not contain air, the density is intrinsic and it can be estimated from the
mass composition:
1/ρ = Σi (Xi/ ρi)

Xi: mass fraction (this is the ratio between the mass of a component i to
the total mass of the solid or mixture – sum of mass fractions is equal to 1).
ρi: density of component i
• Bulk density or also Apparent density
• Porosity
I. Introduction: properties of foods and processing
• Many solid foods are also porous and they may contain air or gases (i.e. some
cheeses), in these cases the parameter P Called Porosity which can be
expressed as follows:

P = 1 – ρ*/ρ

ρ* is the bulk density and ρ intrinsic density.

• P is also the ratio between the volume of the vacuum Vv in the porous solid
relative to the total volume VT.

P = Vv / VT
I. Introduction: properties of foods and processing
Food / Material Density in Kg/m3 Bulk density Temperature (°C)
in Kg/m3
Aluminium 2640 - 0
Grapes 1067 367 20
Reference:
Properties of food Tomatoes 672 20
and processing Fresh fruit 865-1067 - 20
theory, pg 10. In: Frozen fruit 625-801 - -
Food Processing
Technology, Second Fresh fish 967 - -
Edition, CRC Press, Frozen fish 1056 - -
WoodHead
Oranges - 768 -
publishing limited,
2000 Water 1000 - 0
Ice 948 - -20
Fat 900-950 - 20
Rice 1358-1386 561-591 -
Oats 1350-1378 358-511 -
Carbon dioxide 1.98 - 0
I. Introduction: properties of food and processing
Concentration

• It is the measure of the quantity of a component in a solution (unit of

volume).

• It may be expressed as a unit of mass in relation to a unit of mass (g/Kg) or in

a unit of mass per unit volume (mg/L).

• It can be expressed as a percentage of mass (mass of the component relative

to the total mass) or percentage of volume (the volume of the solute relative
to the total volume).
I. Introduction: properties of food and processing
The moisture content of a food, remember

• There are two expressions used: moisture content on a dry basis and moisture
content on a wet basis..
• Moisture content on a wet basis XH is a mass fraction, is the amount of water in a
food per unit mass of the complete food (including moisture).

XH = mass of water in the food / mass of the complete food

• Moisture content on a dry basis XS is the amount of water in a food per unit mass
of the dry food (without moisture).

XS = mass water in food / mass of dry food

I. Introduction: properties of foods and processing
The moisture content of a food

XH = mass of water in the food / mass of the complete food

= mass of water / mass of water + mass of dry food

By dividing the numerator and denominator by the "mass of the dry food"

XH = XS/ XS +1
And consequently:

XS = XH/ 1- XH
I. Introduction: properties of foods and processing
• Viscosity «η»: This characteristic parameter of fluids including liquid foods. It
is very important for many food technology processes. (i.e. pumping, mixing,
churning, …) and for the sensory quality of food (i.e. creams, mayonnaise,
yogurt,…). This parameter changes with operations such as heating, cooling,
concentration.

This is a measure of the internal resistance to flow and motion that a fluid
can develop..
I. Introduction: properties of foods and processing
●
τ = K γn

●n–1
η = τ/γ = K /γ

 : Shear stress applied tangentially (parallel) to a fluid (force relative to surface: pressure in
Pa)
●
 : Shear rate (s-1) (the velocity gradient of a flowing fluid following the application of a shear
stress) dU/dy
K : Constant
●
n: Slope of the curve  = f(γ) (if n=1 liquid called Newtonian, n≠1 , so-called non-Newtonian
liquid)
h: viscosity expressed as Pa.s (Pascale Seconde or Poiseuille PI)
1 PI = 1 Pa.s = 1 N.m-2.s = 1 (Kg.m.s-2).m-2.s = Kg.m-1.s-1
1 Poise (P) = 0.1 PI
I. Introduction: properties of foods and processing
Fluid Density (Kg.m-3) Dynamic Temperature
viscosity
(N.s.m-2 or PI)
Air 1.29 1.73 10-5 0
Reference:
Water 1000 1.79 10-3 0 Properties of food
and processing
Sucrose solution to 6.02 10-2 20
theory, pg 11. In:
60%
Food Processing
Sodium chloride 1240 2.7 10-3 2 Technology, Second
solution 22% Edition, CRC Press,
WoodHead
Acetic acid 1050 1.2 10-3 20 publishing limited,
2000
Canola oil 900 1.18 10-1 20

Olive oil 8.4 10-2 29

Whole milk 1030 2.12 10-3 20

Skim milk 1040 1.4 10-3 25

I. Introduction: properties of foods and processing

What a food is chemically composed of?

• Water
• Lipids
• Protein
• Carbohydrates
• Minerals
• Organic compounds: vitamins, emulsifiers, acids, antioxidants,
pigments, polyphenols, flavors
I. Introduction: properties of foods and processing
• Water could be present in most foods in different forms.
• Water in food plays roles of structure (bound water) or solubilization,
transport of various other molecules present in a food matrix.

Food Percentage of water

Milk 87 %
Tomato 95 %
Red meats 50 – 70 %
Apple 84 %
Broccoli 91 %
Bread 30 – 37 %
Biscuit 6%
I. Introduction: properties of foods and processing

• The water content of a food plays a fundamental role in its structure,

since water is basic for the structures of the macromolecules composing
food (proteins, lipids, …).

• The water content of a food is an essential element to define its

susceptibility to deterioration by different mechanisms (microbial,
enzymatic,…).

• The taste properties of a food are also dependent on its water content.
I. Introduction: properties of foods and processing

• In food, water is mainly found in two states: free or bound.

• Free water (majority) is not associated with other food constituents and
therefore available for deterioration that may occur, especially by microbial
and enzymatic routes.
• Bound water (minority) is composed of waters of constitution, structure, it
is multilayer and monolayer. This water does not freeze.
Water Activity
• A food is always characterized by its water activity, which is simply a measure of
the availability of water in a food to participate in biological reactions (it is
between 0 and 1).
Food Aw
Pure Water 1
Raw fruit 0.98
Raw meat and vegetables 0.99
Dried fruit 0.65
spice 0.2

The higher the Aw in a food, the higher the amount of free water in that food.
Aw = P/P0 = HR/100
P: Vapour pressure in a food , P0 : Pure water vapour pressure, HR: Relative
humidity at equilibrium at a given temperature.
I. Introduction: properties of foods and processing

Proteins: reminders

They form a large part of food, some foods on a dry basis are composed
mainly of proteins (i.e. meats).

• Proteolysis releases peptides and amino acids that can affect the taste of a
food.
I. Introduction: propriétés des aliments et des transformations
Taste of amino acids in an aqueous solution of pH 6-7, sw - sweet, bi - bitter, neu - neutral

Reference: Food Chemistry 4th and extended edition, H-D. Belitz, W. Grosch, P. Schieberle, Springer, 2009
I. Introduction: properties of foods and processing
Taste of peptides in an aqueous solution of pH 6-7, bitter, degree of bitterness

These bitter peptides

influence the taste of a
food that contained
protein and has
undergone proteolysis
treatment (i.e. ripened
cheeses)

Reference: Food Chemistry 4th and extended edition, H-D. Belitz, W. Grosch, P. Schieberle, Springer, 2009
I. Introduction: properties of foods and processing
Dietary proteins have different functional technological properties such as:

1. Hydration properties: ability to interact with water and absorption,

solubilization.
2. Precipitation properties (i.e. at the isoelectric point).
3. Foaming properties.
4. Gelling properties.
5. Emulsifying properties (oil/water emulsions and stabilizing role of proteins
as surfactants).
6. Enzymatic properties (role of catalysts of several biochemical reactions)
I. Introduction: properties of foods and processing
Techno-functional properties of dietary proteins following their interactions with other
constituents

Interaction with water Interaction with water Interaction with lipids

and other proteins and gases
Moisturizing power Viscous power Emulsifying power
Swelling Gelling power Emulsion stabilization
Rehydratation Fiber formation (long Foaming power
Water retention fibrous chains) Foam stabilizations
Solubility Pasta formation
Formation of membranes

Ref. Chemical and functional properties of food components, 3rd edition, Ed. Zdzislaw E. Sikorski. CRC Press, Taylor &
Francis Group, 2007.
I. Introduction: properties of foods and processing

Lipids: reminders

• They form a large part of food, they are also called fat, oil.
• In food, there are mostly triglycerides, but also:
• phospholipids (milk, eggs, fish, soybeans, chickens),
• glycolipids (some plants),
• Sphingolipids (animal fat, cereals, milk) or lipoproteins (i.e. β-
Lipovitellin in egg yolk).
• Steroids are also lipids (cholesterol vs phytosterols).
I. Introduction: properties of foods and processing

Fat content of certain foods

Food Fat content

Red meats 10 to25 %

Egg 12 %

Whole milk 2.4 to 5.5% (average 3.5%)

Olive oil ̴ 100 %

Butter 80 %
I. Introduction: properties of foods and processing

The composition of a food in fatty acids and lipids can significantly condition
its taste quality and sensory properties.
Flavouring thresholds for certain saturated fatty acids in mg/kg

Fatty Acid Cream Coconut oil Taste quality

Odour Taste Odour Taste
4:0 rancid
4:0 50 60 35 160 6:0 rancid, goat
6:0 85 105 25 50 8:0 rancid, mouldy,
8:0 200 120 >1000 25 soapy
10:0 >400 90 >1000 15
12:0 >400 130 >1000 35 10:0
14:0 >400 >400 >1000 75 12:0 Soapy
14:0

Reference: Food Chemistry 4th and extended edition, H-D. Belitz, W. Grosch, P. Schieberle, Springer, 2009
I. Introduction: properties of foods and processing
Taste of certain unsaturated fatty acids emulsified in water

Fatty acid Threshold of Quality

taste
(mmoles/L)
Oleic acid (18:1) 9-12 Bitter, pungent, acrid
Elaidic acid (18:1 trans) 22 A little spicy,
Linoleic acid (18:2) 4-6 Bitter, pungent, acrid
Linoleloid acid (18:2 trans) 11-15 Bitter, pungent, rough
γ-linolenic acid (18:3) 3-6 Bitter, pungent, acrid
a-Linolenic acid (18:3) 0.6-1.2 Bitter, pungent, acrid (like
fresh nuts)
Arachidonic acid (20:4) 6-8 Bitter, disgusting bad taste

Reference: Food Chemistry 4th and extended edition,

H-D. Belitz, W. Grosch, P. Schieberle, Springer, 2009
I. Introduction: properties of foods and processing

Structures of certain steroids (ref. Food Lipids,

Chemistry, Nutrition and Biotechnology, 4th
edition. Ed. Casmir C. Akoh, CRC Press, Taylor
& Francis Group, 2017)

Beneficial effect recognized for phytosterols for the

role of lowering blood cholesterol by competition for
absorption
I. Introduction: properties of foods and processing

Carbohydrates: reminders

Carbohydrates are present in many foods, mainly in the form of

monosaccharides (oses, simple sugars) and osides (complex carbohydrates).

They play important roles in the taste and functional properties of food.
I. Introduction: properties of foods and processing
Saccharide Occurence Applications
Examples of natural Pentoses
saccharides found in D-Xylose Accompany L-arabionose, vegetable Xylitol reduction (effective
gums, hemicellulose, protopectin against tooth decay)
food and possible
applications in the food Hexoses
industry D-Glucose Plants and animals, honey, invert sugar, Sweetener, nutrient,
saponin preservative
D-Mannose Algae, oranges, mucus from plants
Hexuloses
D-Fructose Fruit, Honey, invert sugar Humectant, sweetener

Disaccharides
Ref. Chemical and functional Lactose Mammalian milk Dairy fermentations
properties of food components, Sucrose Sugar cane, sugar beet Sweetener, caramel
3rd edition, Ed. Zdzislaw E. production
Sikorski. CRC Press, Taylor &
Maltose Starch, sugar beets, honey Yeast additive
Francis Group, 2007.
I. Introduction: propriétés des aliments et des transformations
Saccharide Occurence Applications
Examples of natural Polysaccharides
saccharides found in Agar Red algae Microbial nutrient, gelling agent,
food and possible emulsifier, texturizer
applications in the food Alginates Brown algae Thickener, gelling agent, stabilizing
industry foams
(cont) Carrageenans Red algae Gelling agent, stabilizer, texturizer,
ι, κ, λ, μ, ν lightening agent dairy industries
Cellulose Plants Dietary fibre
Glycogen Muscles and liver Glucose reserve for organisms
Furcellarane Red algae Gelling agent, filler

Gomme Legumes Thickener and stabilizer

Ref. Chemical and functional guarane
properties of food components,
Tragacanth Astragalus species (plant) Thickener and stabilizer
3rd edition, Ed. Zdzislaw E.
Sikorski. CRC Press, Taylor & Inulin Endive, artichault Prebiotic
Francis Group, 2007. Starch Tubers, cereals Thickener, thickener, gelling agent
I. Introduction: properties of foods and processing
Starch can be the subject of several enzymatic and chemical modifications and which
Examples of make it possible to have functional derivatives for specific industrial uses
the use of
Starch Usage
starch in food Waxy starch* not modified Canned food, salad dressings, frozen foods
industries
* Composed mainly of Pre-gelatinized starch or
amylopectin isolated amylopectin Baked goods, pudding mixes

Waxy starch, modified as

carboxymethyl ether Stabilizing emulsions

Boiled thin waxy starch Glazing agent

Reference: Food
Chemistry 4th and Cross-linked starch Filling dough, sauces, broth, soups, children's food,
extended edition, H- spreadable creams
D. Belitz, W. Grosch,
P. Schieberle,
Springer, 2009
I. Introduction: properties of foods and processing

Sensory and taste properties of carbohydrates

Substance / Sweetening
food power Colour and aromas
Sweet taste Sucrose 1
Invert sugar 1.3 Caramelization produces
Maltose 0.3 caramel, a coloring with
multiple uses in the
Raffinose 0.01
formulation of several foods.
Lactose 0.2-0.3
D-Glucose 0.7-0.8 The same caramelization
Honey 0.97 reaction produces furan
Ref. Chemical and functional Molasses 0.74 aldehyde derivatives that give
properties of food components, Aspartame 200 the food a specific flavor.
3rd edition, Ed. Zdzislaw E.
Saccharin 200-700
Sikorski. CRC Press, Taylor &
Francis Group, 2007. Xylitol 0.85-1.2
I. Introduction: properties of foods and processing
Essential mineral Food Na K Ca Fe P
composition (Na, K,
Ca, Fe and P) of Dairy products
selected foods in Raw bovine milk 48 157 120 0.046 92
mg/100g Butter 5 16 13 0.2 21
275 95 1020 0.35 636
Emmental cheese (45% MG)
Eggs 170 154 11 0.2 21
Egg white 51 138 140 7.2 590
Yolk
Meat
Beef 66 342 5.7 2.6 190
Chicken liver 68 218 18 7.4 240
Fish
Herring 117 360 34 1.1 250
Reference: Food Chemistry Grain
4th and extended edition, H- Wheat flour, type 550 2 146 15 1 108
D. Belitz, W. Grosch, P. Maize 6 294 8 1.5 213
Schieberle, Springer, 2009 Rice (raw) 10 238 16 3.2 282
I. Introduction: properties of foods and processing
Essential mineral Aliment Na K Ca Fe P
composition (Na, K,
Ca, Fe and P) of Vegetables, tubers and legumes
certain foods in Peas (green) 2 274 24 1.7 113
Lentiles 6.6 837 65 8 412
mg/100g Potatoes 3.2 418 6.4 0.43 50
(continued) Lettuce (head) 7.5 179 22 0.34 23
Carrots 60 321 37 0.39 35
Spinach 65 554 117 3.8 46
6 341 4.2 1 85
Mushrooms (Boletus edulis)
Fruits
Tomatoes 3.3 242 9.4 0.3 22
Strawberries 1.4 161 21 0.64 29
Grapes 1.1 148 24 0.17 17
Apple 1.2 122 5.8 0.25 12
Orange 1.4 165 42 0.19 23
Yeast
Pressed baker's yeast 34 649 28 3.5 473
I. Introduction: properties of foods and processing
Solid,
dark,
Liquid, light,...
colloidal
suspension, Oilseeds
....

Milk
Transformation (??)

Transformation (??) Creamy,

viscous ....

Photo references:
Milk: https://www.topsante.com
Yoghurt: https://www.magazine-omnicuiseur.fr
Seeds: hhtps://valpibio.com Oil Liquid,
Yoghurt Oils: https://www.passeportsante.net/ green ....
I. Introduction: properties of foods and processing

Raw apples

Deterioration
Transformation (??)
process (??)

Photo references:
Apples: https://fondationolo.ca
Deteriorated apple altered apple: https://www.agro.basf.fr Applesauce
Applesauce: https://www.potagercity.fr
I. Introduction: properties of foods and processing
• First of all, you need to know the properties of a food. What does it
consist of??
Generally:
➢A property of a system or material is any observable attribute or
characteristic of that system or material.
▪ as matter
▪ energy state
▪ interaction with human senses
▪ role in human health
➢The state of a system or material can be defined by listing its properties
(i.e. properties of raw milk versus cheese).
I. Introduction: properties of foods and processing

• Paulus' classification of food properties (1989)):

1. Physical properties: shape, volume, …
2. Nutritional properties: rich in nutrients, essential fatty acids,
special amino acids,…
3. Sensory properties: flavour, colour, texture…
• Classification of food properties by Rahman (1998):
1. Acoustic properties (crunchiness, crispness),
2. Color properties,
3. Electrical properties,
4. Functional properties,
5. Material transfer properties,
I. Introduction: properties of foods and processing

• Classification of food properties by Rahman (1998):

6. Properties of mass, volume and area,
7. Mechanical properties,
8. Medical properties,
9. Properties related to microbial inhibition,
10. Morphometric properties,
11. Optical properties,
12. Physico-chemical constants,
13. Radiative properties,
14. Respiratory properties,
15. Rheological properties,
16. Sensory properties,
I. Introduction: properties of foods and processing
17. Surface properties,
18. Thermodynamic properties,
19. Texturizing properties,
20. Thermal properties,
21. Quality kinetic parameters,
I. Introduction: properties of foods and processing
Overview of sensory properties

• Physiological and psychological perception of certain physical properties of

a food.
• Physiologically: fingers, mouth, eyes, taste and aroma receptors, ears
participate in the consumer's examination of the quality of a food.
I. Introduction: propriétés des aliments et des transformations
Health properties

A. Beneficial properties for health:

1. Nutritional composition
2. Medical properties
3. Functional properties

B. Properties harmful to health:

1. Toxicity at any concentration
2. Toxicity after a critical concentration level
3. Excessive or unbalanced intake
I. Introduction: properties of foods and processing
Overview of health benefits

• Concept of functional foods and nutraceuticals (peak in research and

industry reached in the 1990s and 2000s)).
• These are designated names for complete foods or ingredients with
properties beneficial to human health and that exceed basic nutritional
requirements..

• Case of b-177-183 (from b dairy caseins) has anti-hypertensive properties by

ensuring inhibition of angiotensin-converting enzyme ACE.
(Reference: Maubois, J.L. Cours international
«Functional Foods », CIHEAM Zaragoza, 2006)
I. Introduction: properties of foods and processing

The deterioration affects the organoleptic (sensory) properties

and nutritional properties

Damage Réf. https:// genie-alimentaire.com

• It is a degradation of the quality of a food.

• The shelf life of a food directly depends on the spoilage it may have.
• The spoiled food is rejected by consumers.
• Loss of value resulting in economic losses.
I. Introduction: properties of foods and processing

Several causes can contribute to food spoilage.

• Action of microorganisms (bacteria, yeasts and molds).
• Action of enzymes in food (endogenous).
• Action of insects.
• Action of parasites.

Ref. https://www.shtfblog.com/why-
food-spoils/

Ref. https://dreamstime.com
Ref. Photo personnelle grenades
I. Introduction: properties of foods and processing

Action of microorganisms

• Endogenous origin: mainly bacteria associated with the digestive

tract of animals (Bifidobacterium, Peptostreptococcus, Clostridium,
Staphylococcus, Bacteroides, Eubacterium ranging from 105/g until
108/g).

• Exogenous origin: Post-harvest and post-slaughter contamination by

humans, animals, utensils, water, surfaces (biofilm formation), soil,
presence of organic waste, air…
I. Introduction: properties of foods and processing

Microbial alteration depends on several factors such as:

• Exogenous factors: Surrounding conditions (temperature, humidity,

personnel, surfaces, air,…)
• Endogenous factors: Character of the food and its structure (pH, Aw, redox
potential, intact or degraded structure, nutrients, presence or absence of
antimicrobial compounds).
• Treatments already undergone by the food before processing.
I. Introduction: properties of foods and processing
Minimum pH required pH of the food
for a microbe
7 Cabbage, Bean
7 Optimal PH for
bacteria Fish Lettuce
Fresh milk
5.5 - C. Perfringens
6 Butter
Beef Potato
4.5 - E. Coli, Salmonella
(5.3 – 6.2 according to the Carrots
conditions of slaughter Onions
4.3 - L. Lactis, L.
monocytogenes 5 Bananas
Tomatoes
4 - L. bulgaricus Soft cheeses (i.e. Orange
Camembert) Grape
3.5 - L. plantarum Yoghurt Olives
Reference: Handbook of
4 food science and
2 - Acetic acid bacteria technology 1, Series
3 Rhubarb editors: Jack Legrand et
Apple Gilles Trystram, Wiley
1.5 – 3.5 Yeast 2016
Mold Lemon
2
I. Introduction: properties of foods and processing
• The A W of a food greatly determines the possibilities of microbial contamination.

Aw microorganisms Food

1-0.95 Pseudomonas, Escherichia, Proteous, C. perfringes, Bacillus Highly perishable fresh food

0,95-0,91 Lower limit for bacterial growth Deli, Cheeses, Juice concentrates

0,91-0,87 Many species of yeast (Candida), Micrococcus Fermented beverages, Mature cheeses

0,87-0,80 Majority of moulds, S. aureus, Yeast (Saccharomyces) Condensed milk, Flour, Rice
0,80-0,75 Halophilic bacteria Confitures
0,75-0,65 Xerophilous moulds Sweet, honey, dried fruit
0,65-0,60 Osmophilic yeasts (S. rouxii)
0,50 No microbial growth Pasta, spices
0,40 No microbial growth Powdered eggs
0,30 No microbial growth Biscuit, bread crusts
0,20 No microbial growth Powdered milk, Dehydrated vegetables
I. Introduction: properties of foods and processing
• Raw foods are generally protected from microbes by robust structures (fruit
skin, shells, muscle collagen, ...)
• Food at the post-harvest or slaughter stage is usually contaminated only on
the surface.
• The nutritional composition of the food also plays a role in promoting
microbial deterioration.
Lactic acid
bacteria

Muscle of an animal Microbial deterioration,

slaughtered under good characteristic smell, 107-
Acidification 108 microorganismes /
conditions (0.5 – 1%
carbohydrates) cm2

Pseudomonas, Reference: Handbook of food science and technology 1, Series

Clostridium editors: Jack Legrand et Gilles Trystram, Wiley 2016
I. Introduction: properties of foods and processing
Browning is a very general phenomenon during post-harvest handling
Enzymatic browning
• Frequency in fruits after injury and it is manifested by the appearance of
brown pigments: oxidation of phenolic compounds under the action of
polyphenoloxidases or peroxidases to quinones, which in turn oxidize, and
polymerize giving brown compounds

Non-enzymatic browning (BNE)

• Also called Maillard reaction: set of biochemical reactions giving brown
pigments to food.
I. Introduction: properties of foods and processing

The need for

transformation Preventing food
spoilage

FOOD PROCESSING
TECHNOLOGIES

Stabilize a food.
Increase its lifespan.
Formulating other foods…
I. Introduction: properties of foods and processing
• A transformation process consists of a series of steps corresponding to
successive operations, also called blocks (sorting, washing, peeling,
heating,....).
• Each block requires specific equipment in order for the designed objective to
be achieved (i.e. the purpose of the peeling: the skin of the fruits is
removed).

Unprocessed
food Processed
Step 1 Step 2 Step n
Mix food
ingredients

Diagram of a food processing process

I. Introduction: properties of foods and processing
• Each step of a process is characterized by a physical operation on the food
called unit operation.

• One unit operation can be used by several food processes to manufacture

different foods.

• Unit operations used in food engineering are essentially based on the

principles of material and heat transfer or both combined..
I. Introduction: properties of foods and processing

Examples of unit
operations used
Unit operation class Unitary operation Environment
in food
processing Mechanical operations Handling, weighing, Solids, powder
grinding, sorting
Heat transfer Heating and cooling Solids, liquid, viscoelastic
Refrigeration, freezing products

Pasteurization, sterilization
Material transfers Solvent extraction Solid-liquid and liquid-
liquid
Material and heat transfer Evaporation Liquids
Reference: Éditions Drying Solids, liquids
techniques de l’ingénieur. Distillation Liquids
Bases conceptuelles du
génie des procédés
agroalimentaires, Jean
Jacques Bimbenet, 2005
I. Introduction: properties of foods and processing

Examples of unit
operations and Objective Unitary operation Product
purpose of use
Separations Filtration (Different techniques) Solutions, solids
Centrifugation
Sieving
Texturing Baking-extrusion Powders
Emulsification Aqueous and lipid
phases
Expansion Liquid and gaseous
phases
Référence: Éditions Cooking All products
techniques de l’ingénieur.
Bases conceptuelles du Frying Solids
génie des procédés
agroalimentaires, Jean
Jacques Bimbenet, 2005
I. Introduction: properties of foods and processing
Examples of unit Principle Unitary operation Examples of products
operations used Formatting Moulding Biscuits, sugar
in food Extrusion Pasta
processing Leafing (Puff pastry) Puff pastry
Separation Cutting Pieces of meat, fish
Peeling Fruit
Trimming Green beans
Triage Fruits, vegetables, coffee
Disassembly Meat carcasses
Assembly, packaging Filling Liquids, powders, pasty
products.
Coating Confectionery, cereal bars
Référence: Éditions
techniques de l’ingénieur.
Bases conceptuelles du Material and heat transfer Cooking Bread, biscuits
génie des procédés
agroalimentaires, Jean Salting Cheese, fish
Jacques Bimbenet, 2005
Appertization Canned cans
I. Introduction: properties of foods and processing
Principles applicable in transformation:

• Principle of conservation of energy:

• Energy cannot be created or destroyed. It can only be transformed from one form
to another or transferred from one place to another..

Een = Eex + DE
Een : Energy entering a system
Eex : Energy leaving a system
DE : Accumulation

For a steady-state system DE : 0

I. Introduction: properties of foods and processing
Principles applicable in transformation:
The energy transferred as sensible heat Q (in joules in SI) to a matter without
changing its state, can be expressed in this way:

Or Q = mCpΔT
Q=mCp (T2-T1)

m: mass of matter involved

T1: initial temperature
T2: Final temperature
Cp: Specific heat of the material at constant pressure in J/ Kg.°K
I. Introduction: properties of foods and processing
Principles applicable in transformation:

Cp: It is the ability of a material to absorb or release energy in the form of heat
It corresponds to the amount of energy required to raise the temperature (°F) of a
mass of the same matter (1 pound) by one degree (°F).

In metric system (Cp in J/kg°C) :

For a given food:
Cp = (% fat)  1674.72 + (% non-fat)  837.36 + (% water)  (4186.8)
Non-fat: proteins and carbohydrates
I. Introduction: properties of foods and processing
Principles applicable in transformation:

Cp food above freezing temperature

Cp = 33.49 (moisture content) + 837.36
(Cp in J/kg°C)
Cp food below freezing temperature
Cp = 12.56 (moisture content) + 837.36

Cp a food, containing fat and non-fat and water below freezing

Cp = (% fat)  1674.72 + (% non fat) 837.36 + (% water)  (2093.4)
I. Introduction: properties of foods and processing
Principles applicable in transformation:

Latent heat is the heat Q' (in joules in SI) necessary to change the state of a
material without changing its temperature, it can be expressed in this way:

Q’ = m x q

m: mass of matter involved

q: latent heat of the food
I. Introduction: properties of foods and processing
Example 300 kg of steam at 100 ° C are condensed into water at 100 ° C in a double-walled
equipment to heat 4000 kg of water originally at 20 ° C.

Calculate the final water temperature (Cp of water = 4.187 kJ/kg°C; Latent heat of vaporization =
2257 kJ/kg).

Energy conservation principle: Energy or heat absorbed by water is equal to the energy or heat
given up by steam.
Heat absorbed by water Q = m x Cp x (T2-T1) = 4000 kg x (4.187 kJ/kg°C) x (T2 – 20 °C)
Heat given up by steam Q’ = m x q = 300 x (2257 kJ/kg) = 677,100 kJ

4000 kg x (4.187 kJ/kg°C) x (T2 – 20 °C) = 677,100 kJ

(T2 – 20 °C) = 677,100 kJ/ 4000 kg x (4.187 kJ/kg°C)
40.42 °C = (T2 – 20 °C) therefore T2 = 40.42 °C + 20 °C = 60.42 °C
I. Introduction: properties of foods and processing
Principle of conservation of matter: Allows you to evaluate the performance of a food process

For a steady-state system, the amount of matter remains constant during any change of a physical or
chemical nature.

Parameters:

A matter rate (M) or mass rate is the amount of matter per unit of time. A material flux (Q) is the
amount of material transferred per unit of time and area.

M= m/t
M: mass of matter (Kg)
T: time (s)

Q= M/A
A: surface area in m2
I. Introduction: properties of foods and processing
Principles applicable in transformation:

• For a so-called stationary state, the matter rate is preserved.

Mentrance = Mexit

• For a so-called non-stationary state, the rates of matter at the entrance and
exit are not equal, there is then accumulation.

Mentrance = Mexit + accumulation

I. Introduction: properties of foods and processing
Example
How much dry sugar should be added to 100 Kg/s of an aqueous sugar
solution in a blender, in order to increase its concentration from 20% to 50%?

M2
100 %

100 Kg/s
M1 Sugar blender M3
20 % 50 %
I. Introduction: properties of foods and processing
Material balance: M1 + M2 = M3

100 + M2 = M3
Unknown M2

Mass balance: 0.2xM1 + M2 = M3x0.5

100x0.2 + M2 = M3x0.5
20 + (M3 – 100) = M3x0.5
0.5 x M3 = 80
M3 = 160 Kg/s
M2 = 160 – 100 = 60 Kg (dry sugar)/s
• Focus more on the slides# 9, 12, 13, 26, 33, 34, 52, 54, 56, 57, 62, 64,
67, and the exercice of the slide #70.
Thank You
Questions
FOOD Transformation - NUT 3141
Walid Mottawea (Ph.D.)

School of Nutritional Sciences – Faculty of

Health Sciences – University of Ottawa

1
Food Processing – NUT 3141 – Course syllabus

II. Non-Thermal Food processes

a. Preparation of raw materials
b. Size reduction, mixing, separation and concentration of food components
c. Food biotechnology
d. Food irradiation
e. High hydrostatic pressure process
f. Mixing and encapsulation
g. Minimal food processing

2
II. Non-thermal food processes

a. Preparation of raw material: storage

• It is a main step after harvesting or slaughter.

• Non-animal raw materials can be stored at room temperature

when their properties allow them (Aw, pH,...), pending the first
stages of their processing.

• Meat carcasses are stored in cold rooms.

3
II. Non-thermal food processes

a. Preparation of raw material: storage

Example of storage of tuber

vegetables

Stacked
storage bins
Ref. Handling and preservation of fruits
and vegetables by combined methods
for rural areas – Technical Manual –
FAO agricultural series bulletin # 149
4
II. Non-thermal food processes

a. Preparation of raw material: storage

Cold storage of
meat carcasses after
slaughter
Sunflower seed storage silos before processing into
oil

Ref. Hygiène, habillage et manipulation des

carcasses, section 9. FAO/OMS 5
Réf. https://www.terre-net.fr
II. Non-thermal food processes

a. Preparation of raw material: storage

• The raw material harvested (slaughtered in the case of animals) and properly
stored will be transported (at room temperature or refrigerated) to the
processing plants.

• Liquid products are usually pumped to the feed tank of the production line
and solid products are mechanically conveyed to the washing, sorting,
peeling areas (when applicable).

6
II. Non-thermal food processes
a. Preparation of raw material: washing and cleaning

• The purpose of cleaning is to remove impurities that may be found in raw

food after harvesting or slaughter (and evisceration).).
• This step is fundamental before any transformation process.
• The main contaminants in food are:
• Undesirable parts of plants or animals (stems, tips, hair, feces,...).
• Earth, sand, stone, metal fragments.
• Insects and their eggs.
• Chemical contaminants (pollutants).
• Microbes and their toxins. 7
II. Non-thermal food processes

a. Preparation of raw material: washing and cleaning

The cleaning of the raw material can be done mainly in two modes:

- Dry cleaning, for solid raw materials with low moisture content (i.e.
cereal seeds): by suction, intense brushing, vibration…

- Wet cleaning, for wet and sensitive raw materials containing a lot of
adherent soil (i.e. fruits, tubers): by showering, immersion, or flotation.

8
II. Non-thermal food processes

a. Preparation of raw material: washing and cleaning

Washing and cleaning sugar
beets (référence schéma:
Techniques de l’ingénieur.
Les éditions TI, 2005)

9
II. Non-thermal food processes

a. Preparation of raw material: washing and cleaning:

Water sprays

Fruit

Rotating
cylinders Conveyor Progress Direction
Water vaporization Rubbish
spraying reduces contaminant
loads
Cleaned
Material

Washing fruit by spraying water (Ref. Food Processing Handbook,

2nd edition, Chapter 1, Edition Wiley) 10
II. Non-thermal food processes

a. Preparation of Raw material: peeling

• Applies to certain fruits and vegetables.

• Peeling is the operation of removing the skin before processing.

• Peel can be done manually or mechanically using a pressurized steam

processing step.

• Peel contributes to the reduction of the load of contaminants (i.e. soil,

microbes, pollutants).
11
II. Procédés alimentaires non thermiques
a. Preparation of raw material: sorting

• The purpose of sorting is to sort the raw materials according to physical

properties according to parameters such as shape, size, weight or color..

• It makes it possible to save in the processing chain that the raw material
having specifications well defined by the processor to achieve well-
determined properties of the finished products.
Example
Sorting pears for the retail market.
The parameters involved will be: shape, size, color.
12
II. Non-thermal food processes

a. Preparation of raw material: sorting

• Sorting can be mechanized or manual.

• Sieves are widely used when sorting is based on fruit size.

Rotary industrial
sieve

Reference: Handbook of Food Processing. Food Safety,

Quality and Manufacturing Processes. Ed. T. Varzakas,
C. Tzia. CRC Press Taylor & Francis 2016
13
II. Non-thermal food processes

a. Preparation of the raw material: sizing

• The sizes of certain agricultural materials can be regulated and directly affect
the commercial value of certain products (i.e. eggs in different sizes).
• Apples, for example, are graded according to their size, among other
parameters such as color.

Apple sorting, grading and

weighing line

Source photo: https://www.delma1.com

14
II. Non-thermal food processes

a. Preparation of raw material: sorting

For meat, there are defects to be

checked before processing, in particular
the presence of:

- Blood clots.
- Bruise.
- Bone fragments.
Photo: https://www.agri-mutuel.com/ - Ligaments and cartilage.
- Fecal matter.
- Foreign matter.
- Hair, wool, skin. 15
II. Non-thermal food processes

a. Preparation of raw material: conveying

Hydraulic conveyor of tomatoes: transport to the next stage

(ref. https://www.directindustry.fr/)
Pumping liquid food ingredients to feed tanks for next
steps
16
(ref. https://www.windsorpump.com/)
Food Processing – NUT 3141 – Course syllabus

II. Non-Thermal Food processes

a. Preparation of raw materials
b.Size reduction, mixing, separation and concentration of food components
c. Food biotechnology
d. Food irradiation
e. High hydrostatic pressure process
f. Mixing and encapsulation
g. Minimal food processing

17
II. Non-thermal food processes

b. Size reduction operations

• For solids, it is the operation of reducing the size of the raw materials, usually
by grinding (grinding) or compression.
• Operations such as chopping, cutting, grinding into pastes and powder are all
considered size reduction techniques.
• There are also specific operations of reduction of liquids to droplets/droplets
by spray (not included in this part of the course).).

18
II. Non-thermal food processes

b. Size reduction operations

The reduction in size of solid raw materials is beneficial to facilitate processing,

because it allows:
✓ Increase the exposed surface of the material which reduces the time of
operations such as drying, cooking, cooling.
✓ Facilitate the extraction operations of the liquid contained in the solid
raw material (i.e. juice, oil,...).
✓ Facilitate the blending operations that are necessary for the formulation
of different processed products.

19
II. Non-thermal food processes

b. Size reduction operations

The reduction ratio (RR) of the size of a solid can be calculated as follows::

RR = d1/d2

d1: Initial particle size in m.

d2: Final particle size in m.

RR allows you to evaluate the quality of a size reduction operation:

Coarse grinding: RR < 8:1

Fine grinding: RR ≥ 100:1
20
II. Non-thermal food processes

b. Size reduction operations

Examples of size
reduction
equipment and
their properties

Reference:
Food Processing
Technology, Second
Edition, CRC Press,
WoodHead
publishing limited,
2000
21
II. Non-thermal food processes

b. Size reduction operations

Examples of size reduction
equipment: A B
A - Hammer mill
B – Roller mill

Reference:
Food Processing Technology,
Second Edition, CRC Press,
WoodHead publishing limited,
2000
II. Non-thermal food processes

b. Size reduction operations: cutting

Cutting is also a technique to reduce the size of solid raw materials:

• It can give products cut in several ways (i.e. Slices, Cubes, Rings…), depending
on the objective defined by the processor.

• The weight of the cut material could be as uniform or not (i.e. cubes of raw
fruit salad can be around 1cm3).

• Fresh meat and fish products can also be cut according to well-defined
geometries (i.e. raw fish fillets).
23
II. Non-thermal food processes

b. Size reduction operations: cutting

Two-dimensional cutting Slice cutting machine. Model

machine. Model M- Urschel OC- Urschel

circular Cutting wheel

knives

Product Knives

Feed Roller

Feed Drum
Transverse
knives

Reference: Éditions techniques de

l’ingénieur. Découpe des produits
alimentaires. Sébastien Roustel, 24
2005
I. Introduction: properties of foods and processing
b. Size reduction operations: the case of liquids

Emulsification: Formation of stable emulsions from two immiscible liquids and

homogenization consists of reducing the sizes of the emulsions
Liquid A
VB > VA et A < B
A:
Dispersed
phase
Liquid B B:
Continuous
phase
Emulsification
Émulsion of A
in B
25
II. Non-thermal food processes

b. Size reduction operations: the case of liquids

There are basically two types of emulsions:

1. Oil in water (O/W): The case of milk

2. Water in oil (W/O): The case of margarine

The stability of emulsions is determined by:

• Type and quantity of emulsifying agents (i.e. proteins, phospholipids, synthetic

additives).
• Size of the globules in the dispersed phase.
• Interfacial tensions acting on the surfaces of globules.
• The viscosity of the continuous phase.
• The difference in density between the two phases. 26
II. Non-thermal food processes

b. Size reduction operations: the case of liquids

Reference:
Food Processing Technology,
Second Edition, CRC Press,
Ultrasonic homogenizer
WoodHead publishing limited,
27
2000
II. Non-thermal food processes

b. Mixing operations

• Any recipe for a food product always starts with mixing the ingredients in
well-defined proportions..

• These proportions can be regulated many times and thus required in order to
ensure the designation of the processed product (i.e. chocolate milk).

• The mixing of ingredients is therefore a necessary step in order to ensure the

desired composition of the processed product and ensure the subsequent
steps of the process..
28
II. Non-thermal food processes

b. Mixing operations: example

A chocolate milk in Canada must absolutely contain:

1. 25% total cocoa solids, of which 15 % of cocoa butter

and 2.5% defatted cocoa solids,
2. 12% milk solids,
3. 3.39 % milk fat,
4. It may contain other ingredients specified in the
regulations (1.5% specified emulsifying agents, mono
and di glycerides,…).

Référence: règlement sur les aliments et drogues

Source photo: www.lindt.ca 29
II. Non-thermal food processes

b. Mixing operations

• Mixing, therefore, is a basic unit operation in food processing..

• Mixing is used to obtain from various ingredients a homogeneous and

uniform mixture with desired sensory and functional properties.

• Blending can greatly determine the final quality of a processed product and
for this reason it should be carried out by the processor in an efficient and
cost-effective manner..

30
II. Non-thermal food processes

b. Mixing operations

Industrial mixers are classified into different types that are suitable for the
following uses:

1. Ingredients in powders and solid particles.

2. Low or medium viscosity liquid ingredients.
3. Liquid or pasty (semi-liquid) ingredients with high viscosity.
4. Ingredients composed of powder dispersions in liquids.

31
II. Non-thermal food processes

b. Mixing operations: example of mixers

Mixer agitators for low and
medium viscosity liquids

a) Thin blade agitator

b) Disc turbine agitator
c) Propeller agitator

Metal tape mixer designed to mix powdered ingredients

and solid particles

Reference:
Food Processing Technology, Second Edition,
32
CRC Press, WoodHead publishing limited, 2000
II. Non-thermal food processes

b. Mixing operations

Advantages and
limitations of
certain liquid
mixers

Reference:
Food Processing
Technology, Second Edition,
CRC Press, WoodHead
publishing limited, 2000 33
II. Non-thermal food processes

b. Moulding operations
Many industries need to mould their mixed and homogenized raw materials
before various processing steps (i.e. bread and biscuits before baking,...) in
order to have finished products with desired shapes..

Source photos:
Mouleuse chocolat
https://www.buhlergroup.com
Biscuits pattes d’ours
https://www.darefoods.com/

34
II. Non-thermal food processes

b. Moulding operations Reference:

Food Processing
Technology,
Second Edition,
CRC Press,
WoodHead
publishing
limited, 2000

Case of moulding and shaping of biscuits:

(a) Rotary moulder
(b) Moulding rollers
(c) wire cut machine
35
II. Non-thermal food processes

b. Separation and concentration operations : centrifugation

• During processing, several techniques can be used to separate ingredients of
interest from a raw mixture, and/or concentrate them.
• Techniques such as settling, gravity sedimentation or centrifugation
(application of centrifugal force) can separate various substances based on
differences in densities and sizes..

Source photo: https://byjus.com 36

II. Non-thermal food processes
b. Separation and concentration operations : centrifugation

This technique is used to separate complex mixtures such as immiscible liquids

and solids from liquids.

It is based on the same principle of sedimentation, but using centrifugal

acceleration to separate the constituents faster and with greater efficiency.

Centrifugal force is generated by applying rapid rotation in equipment called a

centrifuge which is characterized by its rotational speed and radius relative to a
central axis..

37
II. Non-thermal food processes

b. Separation and concentration operations : centrifugation

Centrifugation, principles of operation

and applications

Orbit Before After

Axis

Centrifugal Centripetal
force
force

Source photo: https://www.fishersci.se/ 38

II. Non-thermal food processes

b. Separation and concentration operations : centrifugation

• For centrifugations applied to liquid mixtures, tubular bowl centrifuges are
best designed.
• For centrifugations applied to solid-liquid mixtures, nozzle separators or
horizontal spiral centrifuges (decanter).

Separation properties of Centrifuge Particle size rank Solid

different centrifuges (mm) content (%
m/m)
Disc bowl (clarifier) 0.5 - 500 2 – 10
Reference:
Food Processing Nozzle Bowl 0.5 – 500 5 – 25
Technology, Second Edition, Decanter 5 - 50000 3 – 60
CRC Press, WoodHead (horizontal)
publishing limited, 2000 39
II. Non-thermal food processes

b. Separation and concentration operations: Filtration

• Filtration is a technique for separating liquids and solids.

• Passage of the product through a porous material (usually a membrane or

filter bed) that retains elements larger than the pores (or micropores) it
contains and allows the liquid called filtrate to drain.

• Each filter is characterized by its porosity, which defines its filtration threshold
and permeability.

40
II. Non-thermal food processes

b. Separation and concentration operations: filtration

Filtration equation

Q = (S x DP x PM)/(E x h)

Q: filtrate flow rate in m3/s

S: Filtration surface area m2
DP: pressure difference in Pa
PM: permeability in m2
E: thickness of the filter layer in m Photo reference: Éditions techniques de
h: viscosity of the mixture to be filtered, l’ingénieur. Filtration frontale avec adjuvants.
Dominique Lallier, 2005 41
in Pa.s
II. Non-thermal food processes

b. Separation and concentration operations: filtration

Mixture to be filtered

Mixture to be filtered
Concentrate

Membrane Membrane
filter
filter

Filterate Filterate

Frontal Tangential
42
II. Non-thermal food processes

b. Separation and concentration operations: filtration

Recirculation
pump
Photo reference:
Éditions techniques de
l’ingénieur. Séparation
par membrane dans
l’industrie alimentaire.
P. Aimar et G. Daufin,
2005.
Feeding
pump
Filterate

Recirculation pump helps increase the tangential flow of the material through
the membrane 43
II. Procédés alimentaires non thermiques
b. Separation and concentration operations: filtration
Properties of Type of Filtration Pore size Retented molecules
different membrane pressure (bar) (mm) or microorganisms
membrane filtration
separation
techniques Microfiltration <1 10-1 - 101 Proteins and bacteria
Ultrafiltration 1 – 10 10-2 – 10-1 Protein
Nanofiltration 20 - 40 10-3 – 10-2 Peptides, salts,
viruses, lactose
Reverse osmosis 30 - 60 10-4 – 10-3 Peptides and salts
Reference: P. Gaborit. ITPLC. Cours pour l’atelier
international sur les produits laitiers – CIHEAM,
Pamplune 2005. 44
II. Non-thermal food processes

b. Separation and concentration operations: filtration

Structure of a ceramic filter layer - MembraloxTM-

SCT mineral membrane

Tangential filtration module Reference: P. Gaborit. ITPLC. Cours pour l’atelier

international sur les produits laitiers – CIHEAM,
Pamplune 2005. 45
II. Non-thermal food processes

b. Separation and concentration: Solvent extraction

• This is a unit operation that allows the separation of a component of interest

from a solid mixture by extraction (solid/liquid).

• The liquid used in this case could be an organic solvent or even water and the
solid is usually a pre-treated mixture (by size reduction,...).

• This unit operation of separation and extraction is used for the production of
vegetable oils, beet sugars, essential oils and flavorings, decaffeinate coffee,...

46
II. Procédés alimentaires non thermiques
b. Separation and concentration: solvent extraction
• The solubility of the substance of interest in the solvent used which allows its
extraction and separation: the applicable principle for this operation is that of
material transfer.

• The substance of interest in solution in the solvent is then further

concentrated and purified in order to produce it in a pure form.

• When an organic solvent is used (i.e. in the case of non-cold-pressed

vegetable oils), additional solvent removal operations are then applied in
order to remove 100% all traces of solvent..

47
II. Non-thermal food processes

Examples of
solid/liquid
extraction in
food processing

Reference:
Food Processing
Technology, Second
Edition, CRC Press,
WoodHead
publishing limited,
2000 48
II. Non-thermal food processes

b. Separation and concentration: solvent extraction

Multi-effect
extraction of
vegetable oils –
percolation extractor

Référence:
Food Lipids, Chemistry, Nutrition and
Biotechnology, 4th. Ed. Casimir C. Akoh.
CRC Press, Taylor and Francis, 2017 49
Food Processing – NUT 3141 – Course syllabus

II. Non-Thermal Food processes

a. Preparation of raw materials
b. Size reduction, mixing, separation and concentration of food components
c. Food biotechnology
d. Food irradiation
e. High hydrostatic pressure process
f. Mixing and encapsulation
g. Minimal food processing

50
II. Non-thermal food processes

b. Food biotechnology- Fermentation

• Biotechnology has long been used to process and produce food without the
use of heat treatment..

• Fermented products have been developed, historically, in order not to lose a

raw material and avoid its deterioration (i.e. case of fermented dairy
products).

• Microorganisms are thus used to preserve food by fermentation and modify it

by the action of enzymes..
51
II. Non-thermal food processes

b. Food biotechnology

The advantages of fermentation processing are:

1. Use of mild pH and temperature conditions which can retain the

nutritional properties of the fermented food and improve its flavor.
2. Produce a variety of foods that cannot be produced by other methods.
3. Are not expensive and consume little energy.
4. Easy to implement by small processors.

52
II. Non-thermal food processes

b. Food biotechnology

Fermentation technology has evolved historically, and it has moved to stages

for which:

1. Ferments (bacteria and yeasts) are produced as ingredients for use in

different sectors of the food industry.
2. Enzymes are purified and produced from microorganisms, animal cells
and plant cells for use for a specific purpose during certain food
processing.

53
II. Procédés alimentaires non thermiques
b. Food biotechnology

In the fermentation industry, the microorganism used is directly affected by

various factors such as:
• Availability of nutrients necessary for its growth (source of nitrogen,
carbon, ...).
• The pH, the water content of the food.
• The incubation temperature.
• The redox potential that reigns in the field.
• Presence or absence of other microbes (symbiosis, antagonism,
synergy).
54
II. Procédés alimentaires non thermiques
b. Food biotechnology
Growth profile of
microorganisms

LnCf = LnCi + mxt

mmax

Cf: Final cell concentration

Ci: Initial concentration of cells
m: Specific growth rate h-1 Reference:
Food Processing
t: fermentation time (h) Technology, Second
Edition, CRC Press,
WoodHead
publishing limited,
2000 55
II. Non-thermal food processes

b. Food biotechnology
Ln C
• The reduction in growth rate is related to the
residual substrate concentration by
Monod’s equation: m = (mmaxx S)/(S + Ks)
m

m: Microbial growth rate h-1

m max: Maximum microbial growth rate h-1
S: Limiting substrate concentration mg L-1
Ks: (mg L-1) substrate utilisation constant. Ks
is a measure of the affinity of a micro-
organism for a particular substrate (a high
affinity produces a low value of Ks) 56 t
II. Procédés alimentaires non thermiques
b. Food biotechnology

V = DY/Dt = m x Y = [(mmaxx S)/(S + Ks)] x Y

V: the growth rate of the fermenter in mg.L-1.h-1

DY: Change in in biomass cell concentration mg.L-1
Dt: Change in the time of growth (fermentation) h-1
m: Cell growth rate h-1
Y: cell concentration mg. L-1
57
II. Procédés alimentaires non thermiques
b. Food biotechnology

Metabolite yield during fermentation

Rp = Pm x m

Rp: production rate of a metabolite product during fermentation (i.e. lactic

acid).
Pm: production yield of the metabolite relative to the substrate consumed (i.e.
Lactose).
58
II. Procédés alimentaires non thermiques
b. Food biotechnology
Biomass productivity during fermentation
• The productivity of a culture is the amount of biomass produced in unit time (usually
per hour) and is found using:
P = (Cmax– Ci)/(t1+t2)

P: Biomass productivity in g.L-1.h-1

Cmax: Maximum concentration of cells during fermentation.
Ci: Initial concentration of cells during fermentation.
t1: duration of cell growth at mmax in h.
t2: duration of cell growth when the rate is not at mmax including the time spent in the
preparation of the crop and its recovery, in h.
59
II. Procédés alimentaires non thermiques
b. Food biotechnology
Exercise

An inoculum containing 5 x 104 Cells ml-1 of yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae is grown

in a batch (discontinuous) fermenter (stirring) in the presence of glucose for 24 hours
starting 12 AM.
Cell concentrations are then measured every 4 hours and the final yeast
concentration was 9 x108 Cells ml-1 reached after 2pm. The latency phase was 4
hours.

The total time taken for the preparation of the culture was 2h.

Calculate the maximum growth rate and productivity of fermentation.

60
II. Procédés alimentaires non thermiques
b. Food biotechnology
Correction of the exercise

From the equation: LnCf = LnCi + m x t

Ln9x108 = Ln5x104 + mmax x (14 – 4)

The rate in this phase is considered at its maximum (after 4 hours of latency and up to 14 hours).

mmax = (Ln9x108 – Ln5x104)/10 = 0.98 h-1

The productivity of fermentation: P = (Cmax – Ci)/(t1+t2)

P = (9x108 – 5x104)/(10 + [(24-10) + 2])

P = 3.4 x 107 cellules h-1

61
 b. Food biotechnology
The industrial fermenter

• Reference:
Food Processing Technology, Second Edition, CRC
Press, WoodHead publishing limited, 2000 62
II. Non-thermal food processes

b. Food biotechnology
The different stages
of production using
microbial
biotechnology

Référence: Éditions techniques de

l’ingénieur. Fabrication de produits
alimentaire par fermentation:
l’ingéniérie. Alain Branger, 2005 63
II. Procédés alimentaires non thermiques
Criterion Lactic acid bacteria Yeast Mold
Selection criteria for the
main microorganisms
used in processing Growing Optimal temperature, Adaptation to Optimum
conditions synergy, symbiosis, different temperature for
antagonism temperatures, germination,
low nutrient tolerance to other
requirements, microbes
tolerance to
lactic acid
bacteria
Properties Acidifiers (lactic acid), Production of Proteolysis and
dextranes, flavourings, ethanol and lipolysis,
bacteriocins, glycerol, malic morphology to
proteolysis, salt acid degradation, products, desired
tolerance proteolysis sporulation
Référence: Éditions techniques de
l’ingénieur. Fabrication de produits
alimentaire par fermentation: Fabricant Production yield, resistance to freezing, freeze-drying, drying,
l’ingéniérie. Alain Branger, 2005 high shelf life
64
II. Procédés alimentaires non thermiques

b. Food biotechnology Effects on sensory Examples of actions Microbe used

properties
Examples of effects of the
use of certain Changing the texture Coagulation of milk, Various lactic acid
fermentations on the stringy texture of bacteria, Saccharomyces
sensory properties of fermented milk cerevisiae, propionic
processed foods products, honeycomb bacteria
texture, the "eyes" of
cheeses
Flavouring Diacetyl, taste of Saccharomyces
acetaldehyde and cerevisiae, Lactococcus
lactic acid, taste of lactis diacetylactis,
cocoa Lactococcus
delbrueckii,…
Référence: Éditions techniques de Colouring Calcium propionate Propionic bacteria
l’ingénieur. Fabrication de produits browning
alimentaire par fermentation:
l’ingéniérie. Alain Branger, 2005 65
II. Non-thermal food processes

b. Food biotechnology

• Enzymes are used to produce or modify food.

• They can be added directly or produced by the different ferments that are
added to produce a food.

• They have the advantage of being used in non-extreme temperature and pH

conditions for food.

66
II. Procédés alimentaires non thermiques
b. Food biotechnology

Enzymes are used for different technological reasons:

1. Improve or modify nutritional properties.

2. Improve or modify sensory properties.
3. Increase the shelf life of a food.

67
II. Procédés alimentaires non thermiques
b. Biotechnologie alimentaire
Examples of Enzyme Sources pH T °C Type of Application
optimum optimale
enzymes used in
a-amylase Aspergillus oryzae, 4–5 50 -70 Surface culture,
processing B. subtilis. 6–7 80-90 Discontinuous, submerged,
B. licheniformis 6-7 95-105 immobilized production
Bromelaine Pineapple 4–9 20 – 65 Surface
Catalase Bovine liver 6.5 – 7.5 5 – 45 -
Lactase K. fragilis 7 40 Submerged, discontinuous,
Aspergillus ssp. 4.5 – 5 50 – 60 immobilized
Reference: Lactococcus lactis
Food Processing Papain Papaya (Carica papaya) 6 – 8 20 – 75 Discontinuous, surface
Technology, Second Rennet Bovine stomach 3.5 – 4 40 Discontinuous
Edition, CRC Press, (chymosine)
WoodHead
publishing limited, Hemicellulase Mushrooms 3.5 – 6 30 – 65 Submerged
2000 68
II. Procédés alimentaires non thermiques
b. Food biotechnology: use of genetic engineering

• Modification of one or more genes of a cell in order to modify a

property: DNA techniques.

• With this principle it is possible to genetically manipulate yeasts and

lactic acid bacteria to target a change in the production of
metabolites (enzymes, and others) for industrial processing
applications..

69
FOOD PROCESSING - NUT 3141
By Walid Mottawea (Ph.D.)

School of Nutritional Sciences – Faculty of

Health Sciences – University of Ottawa

1
Food Processing – NUT 3141 – Course syllabus
II. Food processes
a. Preparation of raw materials
b.Size reduction, mixing, separation and concentration of food components
c. Food biotechnology
d.Food irradiation
e. High hydrostatic pressure process
f. Mixing and encapsulation
g. Minimal food processing

2
II. Non-thermal food processes.

d. Food irradiation

• Is a method of food preservation.

• Bactericidal, insecticide, antiparasitic and anti-germination effects
(potato, onions,…).
• The energy emitted by irradiation is expressed in Gray.

1 Gray (Gy) = 1 J/Kg and 1 Kilogray (kGy) = 1000 Gy

3
II. Non-thermal food processes

d. Food irradiation

Food can receive ionization treatment by:

•  Radiation (from Cobalt 60 or Cesium 137).
• X-rays energy less than 5 MeV.
• Electron beam accelerated to less than 10 MeV.
• All these methods have no nuclear risk on food (no radioactive
contamination)).

4
II. Procédés alimentaires non thermiques

d. Food irradiation
Low dose 1 kGy Insect removal.

Doses of 1 – 5 kGy Reduction of microbial load and

food preservation.

Doses of 5 – 10 kGy Elimination of pathogens.

Doses of 15 - 50 kGy Sterilization (without heating).

5
 II. Procédés alimentaires non thermiques
d. Food irradiation
In foods with a high water content, irradiation ionizes water and contributes to
the formation of free radicals.

H2O H2O+ + e- H. + H. H2
e- + H2O H2O- Several OH- + OH- H2O2
possibilities of
H2O+ H+ + OH. reactions H. + OH. H2O
H2O- H. +OH- H. + H2O H2 + OH.
Reference: OH. + H2O2 H2O + HO2.
Food Processing Technology, Second Edition, Part
II, Chapter 8: Food Irradiation. CRC Press,
WoodHead publishing limited, 2000 6
II. Non-thermal food processes

d. Food irradiation

• Irradiation may not be uniform throughout the food as the surface

is more exposed.
• The intensity of ionization inside the food directly depends on its
density and thickness.
• It is then fundamental to irradiate a food from its different sides to
reach a uniform lethal dose.

7
II. Non-thermal food processes

d. Food irradiation
Dmax: Maximum dose rate (at the surface).
Dmin: Minimum dose rate (inside).

The Dmax/Dmin ratio should then be estimated for each food.

• Foods sensitive to irradiation (i.e. chicken): Dmax/Dmin ≤ 1.5.

• Other foods Dmax/Dmin ~ 3.

8
II. Non-thermal food processes

Ionization: Ionized products Doses (kGy) Technology

desired effects Objectives
Potato 0.075 – 0.15 Inhibition germination
Onion, garlic, shallot 0.07 –0.15 Inhibition germination
Cereals, dehydrated
vegetables <10 Decontamination
Pulses and dried fruits 1 Disinsection
Strawberry <3 Increased conservation

Dried fruits <6 Decontaminationon

Frozen aromatic herbs <10 Decontamination

9
II. Non-thermal food processes

d. Food irradiation
Microorganism Decimal reduction
Decimal reduction doses dose (kGy)
(dose to reduce viable Gram+ bacteria

bacteria by 90%) of certain Microccus 1.4 - 6

Staphylococcus aureus 0.8 to 2
microorganisms and toxins
Streptococcus faecalis 0.2 to 1.5
Gram + spore-forming bacteria
Bacillus subtilis 0.6 to 3.25
Spores of Clostridium botulinum 1.1 to 4
Gram- bacteria
Reference: Éditions techniques de Escherichia Coli 0.02 to 0.65
l’ingénieur. Traitement des denrées
alimentaires par rayonnements Coliformes 0.1 to 0.35
ionisants. Michel Gominet, 2005 Salmonella 0.13 to 1.92
10
II. Non-thermal food processes

d. Food irradiation
Microorganism Decimal reduction
Decimal reduction doses of dose (kGy)
certain microorganisms and Gram- bacteria

toxins - continued Vibrio 0.1 to 0.2

Pseudomonas 0.03 to 0.30
Corynebacteria 0.3 to 8
Yeast 0.5 to 1.5
Molds
Penicillium 1.4 to 3.8
Aspergillus 1.4 to 3.8
Référence: Éditions techniques de Virus 3 to 6
l’ingénieur. Traitement des denrées
alimentaires par rayonnements Clostridium botulinum toxins 17 to 60
ionisants. Michel Gominet, 2005 Staphylococcal toxins 27 to 95
11
II. Non-thermal food processes
d. Food irradiation
Protective enclosure Irradiation Source
Diagram of a food treatment
facility by irradiation Conveyer
Unloading

Pool

Reference: Éditions techniques de Command Post

l’ingénieur. Traitement des denrées
alimentaires par rayonnements
ionisants. Michel Gominet, 2005
Loading
12
II. Non-thermal food processes

d. Food irradiation
Food Type of ionizing Purpose of irradiation Maximum
Examples of Permitted radiation source absorbed
Food Irradiation in dose (kGy)
Canada (Ref. Food and
Drug Regulations – Potatoes (Solanum Gamma rays from Inhibition of 0.15
tuberosum L.) cobalt-60 germination during
Division 26 storage

Onions (Allium cepa) Gamma rays from Inhibition of 0.15

cobalt-60 germination during
storage

Wheat, flour, whole Gamma rays from Prevention of insect 0.75

wheat flour cobalt-60 infestation in stored
(Triticum spp.) food

13
II. Non-thermal food processes

d. Food irradiation
Examples of Permitted Food Type of ionizing radiation Purpose of Maximum
source irradiation absorbed
Food Irradiation in dose (kGy)
Canada (Ref. Food and
Drug Regulations – Whole or ground Gamma rays from cobalt- Reduction of 10
Division 26 spices and dehydrated 60 microbial
seasonings burden

Gamma rays from cesium- Reduction of 10

137 microbial
burden

Electrons from X-ray Reduction of 10

equipment operating at no microbial
more than 3 MeV burden
14
II. Non-thermal food processes

d. Food irradiation

• In Canada: All irradiated foods are required to have on their

labels the indication that they were irradiated with the
irradiation logo displayed.

• An irradiated ingredient that constitutes 10% or more of the

composition of a prepackaged food must be labelled
"irradiated" on the label of the food containing it.

15
Food Processing – NUT 3141 – Course syllabus

II. Food processes

a. Preparation of raw materials
b.Size reduction, mixing, separation and concentration of food components
c. Food biotechnology
d.Food irradiation
e. High hydrostatic pressure process
f. Mixing and encapsulation
g. Minimal food processing

16
II. Non-thermal food processes

e. High Hydrostatic Pressure (HHP) Process

A treatment that can have the same effects as that of pasteurization, but it is
conducted at temperatures < 40 ° C.

A food preservation process that preserves nutritional and sensory properties

without the need for heating.

Foods treated with HHP are significantly characterized by the preservation of

their qualities compared to other methods.

17
II. Non-thermal food processes

e. High Hydrostatic Pressure (HHP) Process

• HHP technology was used to preserve processed products (100 to
700 Mpa).

• Pressure applies to the packaged product* via an inert liquid placed

in a hermetic (airtight) enclosure.

• The pressure is then generated by a hydraulic pump that generates

high pressures.

18
II. Non-thermal food processes

e. High Hydrostatic Pressure (HHP) Process

HP circle

Principle of HHP
HP
treatment HP
Hermetic
Food
enclosure

High
Water or other liquids pressure
pump

19
II. Non-thermal food processes

e. High Hydrostatic Pressure (HHP) Process

Classical HHP or single-pulsed HHP may be also possible to apply

HHP (spHHP) treatment can be successive application of HHP in
applied as: compression to target which more than one
pressure, holding for a certain compression, holding, and
period of time at the target decompression periods exist. This
pressure, and decompression to type of treatment is called multi-
atmospheric pressure. pulsed HHP (mpHHP)

20
II. Non-thermal food processes

e. High Hydrostatic Pressure (HHP) Process

Action on microorganisms

• Leakage of cellular proteins by increasing membrane permeability.

• Inactivation of cellular enzymes necessary for their vitality.
• Morphological modification leading to bursting.
• Disturbance on ionic movements (internal pH)).

21
II. Non-thermal food processes

e. High Hydrostatic Pressure (HHP) Process

Action on bacterial spores

• The spores are naturally resistant to chemical and physical stress,

including that of pressure..

• It is necessary to combine the effect of heat with that of pressure to

achieve significant reductions.

• The cortex of the spores, their wall proteins and dipicolinic acid are
the main reasons of pressure resistance. 22
II. Non-thermal food processes

e. High Hydrostatic Pressure (HHP) Process

Effects of HHP on Bacterium Food HHP treatment Logarithmic
vegetative bacteria reduction
Campilobacter jejuni Chicken meat 300 MPa, 10 min, 35 °C 6
Salmonella enteriditis Broth 345 MPa, 10 min, 35 °C 8
Salmonella enterica Fermented sausages 400 MPa, 10 min, 17 °C 6
Escherichia coli Poultry meat 600 MPa, 15 min, 20 °C 3
O157:H7
Escherichia coli Red meats 400 MPa, 30 min, 20 °C 3
Staphylococcus Broth 345 MPa, 10 min, 35 °C 4
aureus
Listeria Poultry meat 600 MPa, 15 min, 20 °C 2
Reference: Lerasle et monocytogenes
al. (2012). Revue Vibrio Whole milk 300 MPa, 10 min, 21.5°C 7.5
Méd. Vét., 163, 12, parahaemolyticus
23
595-614.
II. Non-thermal food processes

e. High Hydrostatic Pressure (HHP) Process

Effects of HHP on
spore-forming Bacterium Food / Medium HHP treatment Logarithmic
bacteria reduction
Clostridium Phosphate buffer 827 MPa, 5 min, 50 °C 5
botulinum
Spores: the effect is
Clostridium Chicken 680 MPa, 20 min, 80 °C 2
combined with heat, sporogenes
therefore not considered Bacillus Broth 600 MPa, 60 min, 70 °C 4
a non-thermal stearothermophilus
treatment Bacillus cereus Milk 600 MPa, 12 min, 70 °C 6

Bacillus subtilis Distilled water 200 MPa, 60 min, 75 °C 3

Reference: Lerasle et Bacillus Carrot puree 900 MPa, 4 min, 100 °C 3.5
al. (2012). Revue amyloliquefaciens
Méd. Vét., 163, 12, 24
595-614.
II. Non-thermal food processes

e. High Hydrostatic Pressure (HHP) Process

Effects of HHP Microorganism Food/Medium HHP treatment Logarithmic
on yeasts and reduction
molds Yeasts and Molds
Saccharomyces Orange juice 400 MPa, 60 min, 20 °C 3
cerevisiae
Rhodotorula rubra Sucrose solution 500 MPa, 15 min, 25 °C 7
Candida utilis Red meat 400 MPa, 10 min, 25 °C 6
Byssochlamys fulva Buffer solution 700 MPa, 15 min, 70 °C 2.5

Virus
Hepatitis A Culture medium 450 MPa, 5 min, 21 °C 6
Reference: Lerasle et Poliovirus Culture medium 450 MPa, 5 min, 21 °C 0
al. (2012). Revue
Méd. Vét., 163, 12, 25
595-614.
II. Non-thermal food processes

e. High Hydrostatic Pressure (HHP) Process

Application of HHP in
food industries Sterilization

Protein and polysaccharides

modification

salting
confectionery

Defrosting
conservation
Reference: Éditions techniques de
l’ingénieur. Application des hautes Ultrarapid Freezing
pressions en agroalimentaire. Carole
Tonello, 2005
Pressure 26
II. Non-thermal food processes

e. High hydrostatic pressure (HHP) process: action on constituents

Pressure < 200 MPa Reversible protein denaturation

Pressure > 700 Mpa Irreversible protein denaturation

Lipids Reversible phase transition from liquid to

solid
Polysaccharides Gelling and thickening

Vitamins and No action

Simple sugars
27
II. Non-thermal food processes

e. High Hydrostatic Pressure (HHP) Process

Source: High
pressure processing.
Chap 23. Mor-Mur
& Saldo. In:
Handbook of Food
Safety Engineering.
Ed. Da-Wen Sun.
Wiley-Blackwell,
2012

Source: https://www.refrigeratedfrozenfood.com/ 28
 II. Non-thermal food processes

e. High hydrostatic pressure (HHP) process:

effects of treatment parameters

Duration of treatment Direct effect (effectiveness increases with

duration).
Treatment temperature Direct effect (i.e. treatment at 50°C plus
effective than that leads to 20°C)
Water activity of food Higher Aw: HHP efficiency increases

Composition of the food Sugar, salt, certain cations (Ca2+ and

Mg2+) exert a protective effect
pH Efficiency increases when the pH of the food is
far from the optimum of the targeted microbes
29
Food Processing – NUT 3141 – Course syllabus
II. Food processes
a. Preparation of raw materials
b. Size reduction, mixing, separation and concentration of food components
c. Food biotechnology
d. Food irradiation
e. High hydrostatic pressure process
f. Mixing and encapsulation
g. Minimal food processing

30
II. Non-thermal food processes
f. Mixing and encapsulation: microencapsulation

• Microencapsulation is a technique used to protect and stabilize food

ingredients of interest by coating with a polymer.

• Macromolecules such as proteins, starch, various gums or lipids are

used as materials to coat the ingredients of interest.

• Various methods are implemented in order to microencapsulate

ingredients: spray drying, fluidized bed, extrusion, …
31
II. Non-thermal food processes
f. Mixing and encapsulation: microencapsulation

Microencapsulate (coat) an ingredient will be used to:

• Protect it from the effects of the surrounding environment

(i.e. water or oxygen and light that can trigger its oxidation).
• Reduce evaporation to the surrounding environment.
• Prevent its agglutination (making it non-functional).
• Keep the taste of the ingredient of interest intact until it is
included in the food to be formulated.
• Improve nutritional absorption. 32
 II. Non-thermal food processes
f. Mixing and encapsulation: microencapsulation

Microcapsules can be:

• Simple spherical structures surrounding an active ingredient:
single particle simple structure.
• Structures with multiple compartments for different
ingredients: aggregated structure.
Structure of different microcapsules (photo
reference): Functional food ingredients and
Nutraceuticals. Processing Technologies. Ed.
John Shi. CRC Press – Taylor & Francis Group. Simple Multi-core Matrix Multi- Irregular
2016) membranes
33
II. Non-thermal food processes
f. Mixing and encapsulation: microencapsulation
The selection of the coating polymer is carried out according to criteria:

1. Stability with respect to food and process conditions (pH,

temperature,…).
2. Solubility/insolubility in the medium where it would be added.
3. Quite considerable protective coating property (i.e.
impermeability to oxygen, light).
4. Rheological properties that are suitable for the formulated
product and the process applied (i.e. low viscosity polymer for
operations such as atomization).
34
II. Non-thermal food processes
f. Mixing and encapsulation: microencapsulation

5. Interaction properties with the active ingredient promoting

microcapsule stability.
6. Sensory properties (i.e. neutral properties are generally
favored).
(System Reservoir or
Structure of a microcapsule and a Core Membrane) (Matrix System)
microsphere (photo reference: La
microencapsulation, une technologie de Encapsulated
Dispersed
Substance
choix pour la formulation d’actifs. Substance
L’actualité chimique – mai 2011, n# 352)
Polymer
Polymer Matrix
membrane 35
II. Non-thermal food processes
f. Mixing and encapsulation: microencapsulation

The active ingredient can be released from the microcapsule in

several ways following the rupture of the coating by the application:

• Physical strength (i.e. chewing a chewing gum).

• A transformation / preparation process (i.e. release of a flavor
only after heating).
• A biochemical reaction (i.e. in the intestines by enzymatic
degradation of the coating).
36
II. Non-thermal food processes
f. Mixing and encapsulation: microencapsulation
Examples of materials Encapsulating agent Examples and properties
used for coating active
Carbohydrates Alginates - Variable water solubility.
ingredients by
microencapsulation Agar – water-soluble, gelling agent.

Gum arabic – Powerful coating layer formation, low viscosity in

water, soluble.
Dextrine – emulsifier, powerful coating layer formation, soluble in
Reference: water.
Functional food
ingredientes and Maltodextrine – not sweet, protective role against oxidation,
Nutraceuticals. soluble in water.
Processing Cyclodextrine – ability to form complexes with stable inclusion,
Technologies. Ed. low water solubility.
John Shi. CRC Press – Cellulose – widespread, insoluble in water.
Taylor & Francis
Group. 2016. 37
II. Non-thermal food processes

Examples of Encapsulating agent Examples and properties

materials used for Chitosan – gelling agent, emulsifier, strong coating layer
coating active Carbohydrates
formation, insoluble in water.
ingredients by
Inulin – prebiotic, poorly soluble in water.
microencapsulation -
continued Proteins Gelatin – gelling agent, water soluble, cheap.

Whey protein (bovine) – gelling agents, emulsifiers, soluble in

water.
Reference: Soy protein
Functional food
ingreientes and Caseinates – emulsifiers, powerful coating layer formation,
Nutraceuticals. water-soluble.
Processing Vegetable oils – low boiling point, insoluble in water.
Technologies. Ed. Lipids
John Shi. CRC Press – Waxes – waterproof, insoluble in water.
Taylor & Francis
Group. 2016. Phospholipids – formation of liposomes, insoluble in water
38
II. Non-thermal food processes
f. Mixing and encapsulation: microencapsulation

Encapsulation techniques depend on several factors such as:

• Price of the technology to be applied.

• Sensitivity and properties of the active ingredient and
coating agents.
• Properties sought for the release of the active ingredient.
• The formulated food in which the microcapsules will be
incorporated.
39
II. Non-thermal food processes
f. Mixing and encapsulation: microencapsulation

Microencapsulation methods for solid systems are variables.

Atomization is a drying technique that transforms a liquid mixture

into powders by vaporizing into a container with hot air circulating.

This method could also be used for microencapsulation.

40
II. Procédés alimentaires non thermiques
f. Mixing and encapsulation: microencapsulation
Liquid vaporization – contact with air (co-
Atomizer – current, counter-current or mixed mode)
principle of
operation

Reference:
Application of
encapsulation and
controlled release.
Ed. Munmaya K. Entrée d’air chaud
Mishra. CRC Press –
Taylor & Francis
Group. 2020.
41
II. Non-thermal food processes
f. Mixing and encapsulation: microencapsulation

Other methods are also used such as:

• Extrusion
• Molecular inclusion
• Coating by impregnation
• Fluidized bed coating
• Coacervation

42
II. Non-thermal food processes
f. Mixing and encapsulation: microencapsulation

Extrusion for
encapsulation

Reference:
Application of
encapsulation and
controlled release.
Ed. Munmaya K.
Mishra. CRC Press –
Taylor & Francis
Group. 2020.
43
II. Non-thermal food processes
f. Mixing and encapsulation: microencapsulation

Molecular inclusion

The encapsulating agent in this case is usually cyclodextrin, of conical

structure formed by seven units of glucopyranose.

Drip addition of the active ingredient to a pasty cyclodextrin solution

and spray drying.

44
II. Non-thermal food processes
f. Mixing and encapsulation: microencapsulation

Molecular inclusion
with -cyclodextrin

Photo reference:
Functional food
ingredients and
Nutraceuticals.
Processing
Technologies. Ed. John
Shi. CRC Press – Taylor
& Francis Group. 2016 45
Feasible and restricted inclusion of the guest into the host
molecule.

46
II. Non-thermal food processes
f. Mixing and encapsulation: microencapsulation

Coating by impregnation

• The active ingredient is dispersed on the surface of the mixture

containing the coating agent and then mixed.
• The homogeneous mixture then contains the ingredient encapsulated
by the coating agent.
• Simple and economical process, but of poor quality.
47
II. Non-thermal food processes
f. Mixing and encapsulation: microencapsulation
Fluidized bed
coating

Reference:
Application of
encapsulation and
controlled release.
Ed. Munmaya K.
Mishra. CRC Press –
Taylor & Francis
Group. 2020.
48
II. Non-thermal food processes
f. Mixing and encapsulation: microencapsulation

Coacervation coating

Coacervation can be defined as the

separation of a macromolecular
solution into two immiscible liquid
phases

Photo source: Choudhury et al.

Food Frontiers, 2021, 2: 426-
442.
49
II. Non-thermal food processes
f. Mixing and encapsulation: microencapsulation

Microencapsulation methods for liquid systems are also varied.

The generation of liposomal systems could be used to encapsulate

liquid active ingredients.

A liposome is a colloidal (suspended) particle in which a nucleus is

coated with a layer of phospholipids in double membrane..

50
II. Non-thermal food processes
f. Mixing and encapsulation: microencapsulation
• Liposomes can include water-soluble
molecules in their nuclei, thus ensuring
their microencapsulation.

• Liposomes can also microencapsulate

water-insoluble molecules in their
phospholipid membranes.. Liposome
Aquous
exterior
Photo source: Application of encapsulation and
controlled release. Ed. Munmaya K. Mishra. CRC
Press – Taylor & Francis Group. 2020.
51
II. Non-thermal food processes
f. Mixing and encapsulation: microencapsulation
Examples of Methods Active ingredient Coating agent Method
Used for Ingredient
Category Examples
Encapsulation
Acidulants Ascorbic acid Gelatin, Ethylcellulose,
Maltodextrin, Soy Lecithin
Extrusion,
Reference: Calcium Glycerol monostearate Fluidized bed
Functional food propionate
ingredients and
Flavors Mint oil Modified starch, hydrolyzed Inclusion,
Nutraceuticals.
Processing starch extrusion,
Technologies. Ed. atomisation
John Shi. CRC Press – Sweeteners Aspartame Gum arabic, Glucose syrup, Fluidized bed
Taylor & Francis monoglycerides/diglycerides
Group. 2016 52
II. Non-thermal food processes
Examples of Methods Active ingredient Coating agent Method
Used for Ingredient Catégorie Exemples
Encapsulation
Vitamins Fat-soluble Gelatin, acacia, b- Coacervation
(continued) vitamins cyclodextrin, proliposome, inclusion,
CMC/chitosan atomization,
Liposomal
Water-soluble Gum arabic, maltodextrin, trapping
Référence: vitamins PEG/phospholipids
Functional food
ingredients and
Nutraceuticals. Probiotics L. acidophilus, L. Maltodextrin Atomisation
Processing rhamnosus, Whey isolate
Technologies. Ed. L. reuteri, L. Sodium alginates and
John Shi. CRC Press – plantarum, chitosan Extrusion
Taylor & Francis Bifidobacterium and freeze-
Group. 2016 bifidum drying 53
II. Non-thermal food processes
f. Mixing and encapsulation: microencapsulation
Example microencapsulation of flavors

Aroma Encapsulation agent Emulsion formed Drying

conditions
Molecule Properties Product Properties Composition Size

Reference: Linalyl 30 mg/L Acacia Coating 10% (weight) 5 m Atomization

Application of acétate gum Aroma/solid with two
encapsulation and 1:4 nozzles
controlled release.
Ed. Munmaya K. Orange oil 0.83 mg/L Modified Coating Aroma/solid 4 m Atomization
Mishra. CRC Press – starch 1:4 100 °C
Taylor & Francis
Group. 2020.
54
 II. Non-thermal food processes
f. Mixing and encapsulation: microencapsulation
Ingredient Example Functions Objective of Applications
Examples of encapsulation
applications
Acidulants Adipic, Flavour modifiers, Prevent Breads, tea,
fumaric, preservatives interaction cold cuts,
citric, lactic, with other cereal mixes,
ascorbic ac. constituents animal feeds
Référence: and
Functional food degradation.
ingredients and
Nutraceuticals. Flavors Lemon, Volatile, reactive, Stability, Extruded food,
Processing mint, onion, sensitive to heat convert to chewing gum,
Technologies. Ed. garlic, and moisture flowing instant drinks
John Shi. CRC Press – spices, powder,
Taylor & Francis menthol controlled
Group. 2016 release 55
 II. Non-thermal food processes
f. Mixing and encapsulation: microencapsulation
Examples of Ingredient Example Functions Objective of Applications
applications encapsulation
(continued) Dyes -carotene, Poorly soluble in Improve Any type of
turmeric, water, sensitive to stability and processed
annato, oxidation solubility, food
natural convert to
Référence: colors flowing form
Functional food
ingredients and
Nutraceuticals. Enzymes Neutrase, Taste modifiers, Controlled Cheeses,
Processing and lipase, texture control, release, fermented
Technologies. Ed. microbes lysozyme, aroma formation, increases foods
John Shi. CRC Press – pepsine, prevention of stability and
Taylor & Francis amylases spoilage yield
Group. 2016 56
 II. Non-thermal food processes
f. Mixing and encapsulation: microencapsulation
Examples of Ingredient Example Functions Objective of Applications
applications encapsulation
(continued) Nutritious Vitamins, Unstable, reactive, Improve Fortified foods,
ingredients minerals, cause bad tastes stability, mask breakfast
amino acids, and discoloration bad tastes, cereals, dairy
essential oils prevent products, baby
Reference: interactions and children's
Functional food with other food.
ingredients and
constituents,
Nutraceuticals.
Processing
controlled flow
Technologies. Ed. release
John Shi. CRC Press –
Taylor & Francis
Group. 2016 57
Food Processing – NUT 3141 – Course syllabus
II. Food processes
a. Preparation of raw materials
b. Size reduction, mixing, separation and concentration of food components
c. Food biotechnology
d. Food irradiation
e. High hydrostatic pressure process
f. Mixing and encapsulation
g. Minimal food processing

58
II. Non-thermal food processes
g. Minimal food processing

• Application of non-thermal methods with minimal treatment to stop

deterioration processes and inactivate microorganisms.

• The minimal treatment aims to preserve the food and extend its
shelf life while avoiding thermal processes (i.e. pasteurization,
sterilization)).

59
II. Non-thermal food processes
g. Minimal food processing

The concept of minimal food processing has evolved since its

introduction:

• At first, it corresponded to the basic treatments of food after

harvest or slaughter, in order to have it fresh and healthy
(work of Rolle and Chism).

• Then, low-level irradiation and packaging were added to

preserve the quality of a fresh food. (Works by Shewfelt).
60
II. Non-thermal food processes
g. Minimal food processing

Minimal food processing is currently considered to be a set of methods

applied to foods that contribute to increasing their shelf life while
maintaining their natural sensory and nutritional properties as much
as possible through the non-application of heat treatments and
preservation methods involving the addition of chemical additives..

61
II. Non-thermal food processes
g. Minimal food processing

Treatment with ozone (O3)

- Applied to some fruits and vegetables.

- O3 is a very powerful oxidizing agent that has disinfectant properties
against microbes.
- O3 can also act against excess pesticides by oxidizing them and
making them safe for health.

62
II. Non-thermal food processes
g. Minimal food processing
Treatment by application of an electrically pulsed field (EPF)

• EPF is a conservation technique that can be used alone or in

combination with other techniques.

• The EPF technique makes it possible to have products with

appreciated nutritional and sensory properties.

• The EPF technique is designed for the preservation of liquid and

semi-liquid foods.
63
II. Non-thermal food processes
g. Minimal food processing
The principle of the EPF

• Application of pulses of a pulsed electric field between two

electrodes with a voltage intensity of 10 to 80 kV/cm for a very short
time (<1s - a few seconds).

• The food is placed between the two electrodes and the pulsed field
deactivates microorganisms.

64
II. Non-thermal food processes
g. Minimum food processing: EPF principle

EPF treatment
facility

Reference: Food
Processing.
Advances in Non-
Thermal
Technologies. Ed. K.
K. Dash & S.
Chakraborty. Edition
CRC Press – Taylor &
Francis Group, 2021 65
 II. Non-thermal food processes
g. Minimum food processing: EPF principle

Mechanism of
microbial
inactivation of EPF

Reference: Food
Processing.
Advances in Non-
Thermal
Technologies. Ed. K.
K. Dash & S.
Chakraborty. Edition
CRC Press – Taylor &
Francis Group, 2021 66
II. Non-thermal food processes
g. Minimum food processing: EPF principle
Effects of EPF in Food Cycles Targeted microbe Process conditions
microbial
inactivation Skimmed 2.6 Listeria innocua T: 15 – 28°C
whole milk 50 kV/cm, t: 2 s
Pasteurized 3–4 Listeria T: 10 – 50°C
Référence: Food
Processing.
whole milk monocytogenes 30 kV/cm, t: 1.5 s
Advances in Non- Yoghurt 2 Lactobacillus brevis T: 50°C
Thermal 1.8 kV/m, t: 2s
Technologies. Ed. K.
K. Dash & S. Pea soup 5.3 Spores OF bacillus T < 5.5°C
Chakraborty. Edition subtilis 3.3 V/m, t: 2s
CRC Press – Taylor & Frequency: 4.3 Hz,
Francis Group, 2021 30 pulsations 67
II. Non-thermal food processes
g. Minimal food processing

Pulsed Light (PL) Technology

• Using a spectrum of light ranging from infrared (700-1100 nm), visible

(380-700 nm) and ultraviolet (200-380 nm) to reduce the microbial
load of a food and thus extend its shelf life.

• UV in combination with applied high intensity (1013 wats / a few

milliseconds) inactivates microbes.
68
II. Non-thermal food processes
g. Minimal food processing

Pulsed Light Technology (PL)

The antimicrobial effect of light in the UV range comes from the

absorption of emitted energy by carbon double bonds located in
proteins and nucleic acids which interrupts cellular metabolism.

69
II. Non-thermal food processes
g. Minimal food processing

UV light technology

It is an PL technology specific to the UV zone of light but without

pulsations and with a smaller applied energy.

UV-A: 320 – 400 nm

UV-B: 280 - 320 nm
UV-C: 200 - 80 nm
70
II. Non-thermal food processes
g. Minimal food processing

Cold plasma technology

It is the application of (electrical) energy to a given gas which will

decompose into its constituent elements by giving ions and electrons:
cold plasma.

Cold plasma has a powerful disinfectant effect on microbes.

71
II. Non-thermal food processes
g. Minimal food processing

Arc flash discharge technology

The discharged electric arc causes a dynamic wave that contributes to

microbial inactivation (loss of membrane structure)).
Free radicals also contribute to the inactivation of microbial
metabolism.
• Disadvantage
Processed foods are structurally disintegrated and contaminated with
electrolysis products (future challenge to be addressed). 72
II. Non-thermal food processes
g. Minimal food processing

Ultrasound Technology
The application of ultrasound has been shown to be effective in
treating liquid foods and extending their shelf life.

• Ultrasound contributes to the partial inactivation of microbes

depending on the food matrix processed.

• It is believed that this technology should be used in combination with

other processes to achieve better results. 73
Next Week in-lab teaching

• Multi-Pulsed High Hydrostatic Pressure Treatment of Foods

74
FOOD Transformation - NUT 3141
Walid Mottawea (Ph.D.)

School of Nutritional Sciences – Faculty of

Health Sciences – University of Ottawa

1
Food Processing – NUT 3141 – Course syllabus
III. Heat treatment
a. General introduction
b. Steam thermal processes
i. Bleaching, pasteurization and sterilization
ii.Evaporation and distillation.
c. Extrusion
d. Thermal processes using hot air
i. Dehydration, smoking
ii.Cooking and roasting.
e. Thermal processes using heated oil
i. Frying.
f. Processes using radiant thermal energy
i. Ohmic, dielectric and IR heating 2
Food Processing – NUT 3141 – Course syllabus
III. Heat treatment
a. General introduction
b. Steam thermal processes
i. Bleaching, pasteurization and sterilization
ii.Evaporation and distillation.
c. Extrusion
d. Thermal processes using hot air
i. Dehydration, smoking
ii.Cooking and roasting.
e. Thermal processes using heated oil
i. Frying.
f. Processes using radiant thermal energy
i. Ohmic, dielectric and IR heating 3
III. Heat treatment

a. General introduction

A heat treatment applied to food is intended to:

• The destruction of undesirable microorganisms.

• The inactivation of enzymes that can affect their quality.
• Provide certain features that are requested by consumers
(i.e. sensory and textural properties achieved only after
cooking).
4
III. Heat treatment
a. General introduction
Examples of the Product Target microorganisms Enzymes Effects on quality
desired positive (+) and Canned green beans (+) Spores of C. (+) Pectine (-) Texture
Botulinum methylesterase (-) Vitamin content
undesirable negative (-
) effects of heat Baked bakery (+) Crust/crumb
treatment products texture
(+) Colour

Pasteurized milk (+) Coxelliae burnettii

(+) altered Microbes

Reference: Handbook of Food Ready-to-eat meat (+) Salmonella (+) Flavor

Science, Technology, and products (+) E. coli O157:H7 (+) Texture
Engineering. Ed. Y.H. Hui, CRC (+) Listéria (+) Colour
– Taylor & Francis Group, 2005 monocytogenes
5
III. Heat treatment
a. General introduction

Conduction
Heat
Convection
transfer
Theoretical
principles of heat Radiation
treatment
Diffusion
Material
transfer
Convection
6
III. Heat treatment
Conductive heat transfer
Fourier's law:

Q = -kxAx(DT/DX)
T1
Q: heat transfer flow (W).
A: Area available for heat transfer in m2
k : thermal conductivity in W/m °C (or °K)
T2 Q
DT = T1-T2 : Temperature deviation (°C)
DX: Distance in the direction of heat flow in
m.

DX 7
III. Traitement thermique
a. General introduction
Fourier's law Q = -k A DT/DX = [(T1-T2)]/[(X2-X1)/kA]

Q = (T1 – T2) / Rt Rt = (X2-X1)/kA thermal resistance

to the transfer in °C.W

Rt represents the resistance throughout the direction of conductive

heat transfer and is internal to the solid and depends on its
properties (i.e. density, composition,…).

8
III. Heat treatment
a. General introduction

T1 T2 T3 T4 The temperature decreases in the direction

Q of the transfer flow.
DTA DTB DTC
The first layer is the most exposed.
k1 k2 k3 T1 >T2>T3>T4
A B C DT = T4 – T1 = DTA + DTB + DTC

DX1 DX2 DX3 Q = DT /Σ Rt = DT / (RtA + RtB + RtC)

9
III. Heat treatment
a. General introduction: conductive heat transfer

Examples of thermal
conductivity values Matériel K (W/m °K)
of some materials Aluminium 200
Stainless steel 16
Plywood 0.12
Polyurethane 0.02
Chicken breast (not frozen)) 0.41
Reference: Handbook of Food Chicken breast (frozen) 1.5
Science, Technology, and Butter 0.2
Engineering. Ed. Y.H. Hui, CRC
– Taylor & Francis Group, 2005
10
III. Traitement thermique
a. General introduction: conductive heat transfer
Examples of thermal Food K (W/m °K) T (°C)
conductivity values
Olive oil 0.17 20
of some foods
Whole milk 0.56 20
Freeze-dried foods 0.01 – 0.04 0
Frozen beef 1.3 - 10
Apple juice 0.56 20
Eggs 0.96 -8
Orange 0.41 0 - 15
Reference: Food Processing
Technology, Second Edition, Water 0.57 0
CRC Press, WoodHead
publishing limited, 2000
Ice 2.25 0
11
III. Heat treatment

a. General introduction
A material is also characterized by its thermal diffusivity α, a quantity
reflecting the ability to diffuse heat:

𝜶 = 𝒌ൗ𝝆𝑪
𝒑

k: thermal conductivity of the material W m-1°C-1 (or J.s-1.m-1.°C-1)

ρ: Material density Kg.m-3
Cp: Specific heat of the material at constant pressure in J.Kg-1.°C-1
12
III. Traitement thermique
a. General introduction: conductive heat transfer
Exercise
A plate of 2m by 1m and a thickness of 0.02m. On both sides it has
two different temperatures, 130°C and 80°C. The plate is formed of a
material having a conductivity of 18W/m°C. Using Fourier's Law,
calculate in kW the heat transfer flow towards its thickness.

Q = -k A (Dt/Dx)
= - 18 W/ (m°C)  2m2  [(130 – 80)°C/(0-0.02)m] = 90000 W = 90 kW

13
III. Heat treatment
a. General introduction: conductive heat transfer
Exercice
A wall of a cold room (4m x 7m) is constructed of concrete 20cm
thickness (thermal conductivity) = 1.5 W/m°C). Insulation must be
provided to maintain a rate of heat transfer through the wall equal to
or less than 300 W.

If the thermal conductivity of the insulation is 0.06 W/m°C, Calculate

the required thickness of the insulation.
The temperature of the outer surface of the wall is 35 °C and the
temperature of the interior wall is 5 °C. 14
III. Traitement thermique
a. Introduction générale: transfert de chaleur par conduction
Q = (T2 – T1)/ Rt1 + Rt2

Q = (35-5)/Rt1 + Rt2 Equation 1

Rt2 = DX2/k2A = 0.20 m /(1.5 W/m °C x 28 m2) = 0.0047 °C/W

Equation 1: Q = (35-5)C/(Rt1 + 0.0047 W.°C.m-1)= 300 W

Rt1 = (35-5)/300 - 0.0047= 0.0619 °C/W

DxI = Rt1 k1A = 0.0619°C/W  0.06 W/m°C  28 m2 = 0.10 m = 10 cm

15
III. Heat treatment
a. General introduction: conductive heat transfer
Tubular pipes T2
Qr = -kADT/Dr
Qr = -k2πrLDT/Dr Integral calculus

Final formula Qr T1

Qr = 2πkL(T1-T2)/Ln(r2/r1) = L (m)
r2
Qr = (T1-T2)/[Ln(r2/r1)/2πkL] r1 k: Conductivity of
cylinder material

Qr = (T1-T2)/Rt and Rt = Ln(r2/r1)/2πkL r

16
III. Traitement thermique
a. General introduction: conductive heat transfer
Tubular pipes T2
T3
Composite cylinder
B

A
Qr = (T1-T3)/(RtA+RtB)
Qr T1
And
L (m)
r3
RtA = Ln(r2/r1)/2πLkA r1 kA: conductivity of A
kB: conductivity of B
RtB = Ln(r3/r2)/2πLkB
r2
17
III. Heat treatment
a. General introduction: conductive heat transfer
Exercise

A steel pipe of 4 cm thickness (k= 50 W/m°C) and 7 cm from Inner

diameter is used to transport steam from a boiler to heat
treatment equipment for a food located over a distance of 50 m.

The inside surface temperature of the pipe is 120 °C and the

outside surface temperature of the pipe is 85 °C.
Calculate total heat loss to the environment. 18
III. Heat treatment
a. General introduction: conductive heat transfer
Solution r2 = (7 +4x2)/2 = 7.5 cm = 0.075 m
r1 = 7/2 = 3.5 cm = 0.035 m
7 cm

Resistance to heat transfer Rt = Ln (r2/r1)/2Lk

4 cm
Rt = Ln (r2/r1)/2Lk = Ln(0.075/0.035)/2x50x50
Rt = 4.85 10-5°C/W

Qr = (T1-T2)/Rt = (120 – 85)/ 4.85 10-5 = 7.21 105 W = 721 kW

19
III. Heat treatment
a. General introduction: convective heat transfer

Newton's law
Q = hxAx(Tsurface - T∞)
Heat transfer
fluid in motion
Tsurface Q: heat transfer flow (W).
A: area available for heat transfer in m2
h : Convection coefficient in W/m2 °C
Q T∞
Tsurface: Temperature at the surface of the
solid (C)

T: fluid temperature away from solid (C)

20
III. Traitement thermique
a. General introduction: convective heat transfer

Q = hxAxDT = DT/R R = 1/hxA

R: Resistance to convective heat transfer

By analogy with resistance during conductive heat transfer,

convection resistance tends to slow down heat transmission and
depends on the nature of the fluid in motion..

21
III. Traitement thermique
a. General introduction: convective heat transfer

Examples of values of
the thermal Type of flow h (W/m2 °K)
convection constant of Natural air 10
some flows Ventilation air 30
Dry air impact > 100
Circulating water ~ 1000

Reference: Handbook of Food

Science, Technology, and
Engineering. Ed. Y.H. Hui, CRC
– Taylor & Francis Group, 2005 22
III. Traitement thermique
a. General introduction: convective heat transfer

Global heat transfer in a pipe hi

Q = (Ti - T∞) / Rt
Rt: Total transfer resistance

Rt = (Rt ) internal convection + (Rt ) conduction + (Rt) external Ti °C

convection

Rt = 1/hiAi + Ln(r0/ri)/2πLk + 1/h0A0 e

Text °C h0
di 23
III. Traitement thermique
a. General introduction: global heat transfer
Q = (Ti - T∞) / Rt = (Ti - T∞) / [1/hiAi + Ln(r0/ri)/2πLk + 1/h0A0]

Q = UiAi (Ti – T)

Ui: Global heat transfer coeffficient

Q = (Ti – T)/ (1/UiAi) (1/UiAi) is the overall transfer resistance

1/UiAi = 1/hiAi + Ln(r0/ri)/2πLk + 1/h0A0

24
III. Traitement thermique
a. General introduction: global heat transfer
A pipe with 3cm internal diameter is used to
convey a liquid food at 90 ° C, the internal hi = 15 W/m2 °C
transfer is convective with a coefficient hi.
The pipe is made of a metal having a
conductivity k of 43 W/m°C.
The outside temperature is 20 °C and the 90 °C
convection coefficient is h0.
Calculate the overall heat transfer coefficient 0,5 h0 = 150 W/m2 °C
cm 20 °C
and heat loss of one metre (1 m) of the length of 3 cm
the pipe.
25
III. Traitement thermique
a. General introduction: global heat transfer
Based on the inside of the pipe:
1/UiAi = 1/hiAi + Ln(r0/ri)/2πLk + 1/h0A0 Equation (E)

Ai = 2 πriL
1 1 ri ln (r o /ri ) ri
We multiply the equation (E) by Ai, we will have: = + +
Ui h i k h o ro
1/Ui = 1/15 + 0.015 Ln(0.02/0.015) / 43 + 0.015/150x0.02

1/Ui = 0.075 m2°C W-1 Ui = 13.33 W/m2°C

Heat loss: Q = UiAi(90 – 20) = 13.33 x 2π(0.015) (1)x70 = 87.89 W 26

III. Heat treatment
a. General introduction: radiation heat transfer
Stefan–Bolzeman law
• Thermal energy emission without 4
direct contact. Q = εxσxAxT
• Emission by electromagnetic Q: heat transfer flow (W).
waves of thermal energy. ε: emissivity of an object between 0 and
1.
Example: thermal energy σ: Stefan–Bolzeman constant, 5.676 10-9
transmitted by the sun. Wm-2°K4
A: Area available for heat transfer in m2
T: Object temperature (K)

27
III. Heat treatment
a. General introduction: radiation heat transfer

T When the object receiving the

Q radiation is contained in another
object of temperature T (i.e. a food
processed in an infrared radiation
T0 tunnel):

Q = A0xε0xσx(T04 – T4)

28
III. Heat treatment
a. General introduction

Conduction
Heat
Convection
transfer
Theoretical
principles of heat Radiation
treatment
Diffusion
Material
transfer
Convection
29
III. Heat treatment
a. General introduction: principle of material transfer
Two modes of material transfer:

1. Diffusion: In a solid, liquid or gaseous system immobile or in so-called laminar flow,

the molecules migrate from the most concentrated medium to the least concentrated
medium.

Fick's law describes the diffusion of a species A in medium B by the equation:

JA = -DAB (DCA/DX)

JA: diffusion flux (kg/m2s) (amount of A diffuse through a unit area per unit time) ;
DAB: diffusivity coefficient of A in B (m2/s); CA: concentration of A in B (Kg/m3); X:
Diffusion transfer distance (m)
30
III. Heat treatment
a. General introduction: principle of material transfer
Example of a diffusion of a gas B in a closed system
containing a gas E (source photo: Introduction to Food
Engineering, 4th edition, Elsevier, AP, 2009).

By applying Fick's law and the law of perfect gases

JB = - DBE (MB/RT)(DPB/Dx)

DBE: diffusivity coefficient of B in E

R: Perfect gas constant 8314.41 m3Pa/Kg.mole.K
MB: molar mass of gas B
(a) Gas B is separated from E by a
PB: pressure of gas B in Pa
bulkhead
X: Transfer distance in m (b) The partition is removed 31
III. Heat treatment
a. General introduction: material transfer

Examples of diffusion
coefficient values for Gaz D (x 10-9 m/s2)
certain gases in water
Ammonia 1.8
Carbon dioxide 1.8
Hydrogen 5.3
Nitrogen 1.9
Oxygen 2.1
Reference: Introduction to Chlorine 1.6
Food Engineering, 4th edition,
Ed. R. Paul Singh & Dennis R.
Heldman, Elsevier, AP, 2009
32
III. Heat treatment
a. General introduction: principle of material transfer

2. Convection: In a multi-phase system (immiscible liquids, solid/liquid),

molecules are transported in a convective moving fluid stream.

JA = hxAx(DCA)

JA: diffusion flux(kg/m2s); A: Area of the interface between the two phases
(m2); h: convection coefficient (m/s); DCA: difference in concentration of
molecule A between the two phases (Kg/m3).

33
Food Processing – NUT 3141 – Course syllabus
III. Heat treatment
a. General introduction
b. Steam thermal processes
i. Bleaching, pasteurization and sterilization
ii.Evaporation and distillation.
c. Extrusion
d. Thermal processes using hot air
i. Dehydration, smoking
ii.Cooking and roasting.
e. Thermal processes using heated oil
i. Frying.
f. Processes using radiant thermal energy
i. Ohmic, dielectric and IR heating 34
III. Heat treatment
b. Thermal processes
Heat treatments applied to food are performed in heat exchangers that can
operate in two ways:

1. Continuous mode: process directly connected to the production line and

heat treatment is a step between several other unit operations that the
product undergoes.

2. Discontinuous mode: Also called "Batch", not connected to the production

line, the products then undergo heat treatment and empty to follow the
transformation as part of another operation.
35
III. Heat treatment
b. Thermal processes
Reminder on the objectives of conservation:

• The main objective of heat and non-thermal treatments applied to

foods is their preservation and increase their shelf life..

• A preserved food must be sufficiently safe not to cause poisoning,

contamination, or toxi-infections to the consumer.

• A preserved food must have all deterioration processes stopped and

controlled.
36
III. Heat treatment
b. Thermal processes
Barrier theory:

• Create a lot of barriers for microbes to inactivate them.

• Intervention at the level of several microbial growth factors or
enzymatic activity by several methods to stabilize and preserve the
food.

Factors can be:

pH, Aw, temperature, redox potential, non-thermal methods, mild heat
treatment, effects of natural preservatives…
37
III. Heat treatment
b. Thermal processes
Main thermal Thermal process Temperature Objectives
processes used in Cooking  100 °C  Improve digestibility
food processing Improve flavor
Destruction of pathogenic microbes

bleaching < 100 °C  Inactivation of enzymes

 Expulsion of oxygen from tissues.

Drying/Concentrating < 100 °C  Remove free water and decrease Aw to

keep/improve quality.

Pasteurization 60-80 °C  Elimination of certain pathogens and

spoilage microbes

Sterilization > 100 °C  Elimination of microorganisms to have

"commercial sterility"" 38
Food Processing – NUT 3141 – Course syllabus
III. Heat treatment
a. General introduction
b. Steam thermal processes
i. Bleaching, pasteurization and sterilization
ii.Evaporation and distillation.
c. Extrusion
d. Thermal processes using hot air
i. Dehydration, smoking
ii.Cooking and roasting.
e. Thermal processes using heated oil
i. Frying.
f. Processes using radiant thermal energy
i. Ohmic, dielectric and IR heating 39
III. Heat treatment
b. Thermal processes
Heat
Classification of heat exchangers
exchangers by R. Paul
Singh and Dennis R.
Heldman Contactless Type with
type contact

Scraped Shell and Steam steam

Tubular Plate
surface tube infusion injection

Reference: Introduction to Food Engineering, 4th edition,

40
Ed. R. Paul Singh & Dennis R. Heldman, Elsevier, AP, 2009
III. Heat treatment
b. Thermal processes Photo reference: Introduction to Food Engineering, 4th edition, Ed. R.
Paul Singh & Dennis R. Heldman, Elsevier, AP, 2009

Plate heat exchanger

• Widely used in the dairy and beverage

industries.
• Composed of a series of parallel stainless-steel
plates.
• The direction of circulation of the treated
product and the heating fluid can be in the same
direction (co-current) or in the opposite
direction (counter-current).
• Equipment suitable for liquids with a viscosity of
less than 5 Pa.s.
41
 III. Traitement thermique
b. Thermal processes
Reference photos and
examples: Introduction
to Food Engineering, 4th
edition, Ed. R. Paul Singh
& Dennis R. Heldman,
Elsevier, AP, 2009

Fruit juice

Reservoir
Weighing
42
III. Heat treatment
b. Thermal processes Reference photo: Introduction to Food Engineering, 4th edition, Ed. R.
Paul Singh & Dennis R. Heldman, Elsevier, AP, 2009

Tubular heat exchanger

• Consists of concentric tubular pipes.

• The liquid product to be treated and the
heating (or cooling) fluid circulate in the
annular space (cylindrical ring).
• The direction of traffic can be co-current
or counter-current.
• It can have three concentric tubes whose
heating fluid circulates at once in two
annular spaces.
43
III. Heat treatment
b. Thermal processes Photo reference: Introduction to Food Engineering, 4th edition, Ed. R.
Paul Singh & Dennis R. Heldman, Elsevier, AP, 2009

Scraped surface heat exchanger

• Designed to cope with the formation of

layers of the treated product in
ordinary tubes that slow down heat
transfer.
Isolant

• Scrapers are added to continuously

remove unwanted deposits forming
layers resistant to transfer.
44
III. Traitement thermique
b. Thermal processes Photo reference: Introduction
to Food Engineering, 4th
edition, Ed. R. Paul Singh &
Steam infusion heat exchanger Dennis R. Heldman, Elsevier,
AP, 2009

• Direct contact of the product to be

treated and the heating fluid (hot
water vapour)).

• Depending on the properties of the

products, the input distributor may be
different.

45
III. Heat treatment
b. Thermal processes: bleaching

• Heat treatment aimed at inactivating spoilage enzymes in fruits

and vegetables.
• Helps preserve some of the sensory properties of food, but it also
helps to change the taste.
• Helps limit the loss of some nutrients, but it also causes other
losses.
• May decrease the microbial load of the processed food and thus
decrease the intensity of the main heat treatment.
46
III. Heat treatment
b. Thermal processes: bleaching

The bleaching scale (temperature/time) is not a constant and depends on

several factors:

• Type of fruit and vegetable.

• Heat treatment method to be carried out.
• Size of fruit and vegetables to be processed.

The majority of scales are of the order of 70 ° C to 100 ° C / a few

minutes.
47
III. Heat treatment
b. Thermal processes: bleaching Photo reference: Introduction
to Food Engineering, 4th
edition, Ed. R. Paul Singh &
Steam bleaching Dennis R. Heldman, Elsevier,
AP, 2009
equipment

48,
III. Heat treatment
b. Thermal processes: bleaching
Advantages and Equipment Advantages Disadvantages
disadvantages of Steam Limited losses of water-soluble Small ability to wash processed food
bleaching bleaching substances. which requires adding washing
equipment system (before blanching).
running on steam Reduced waste volume,
or hot water especially those with an air Inability to bleach the feed if a stack is
cooling system. made at the conveyor (additional
obstacle and resistance to heat
Easy to clean and sterilize. transfer).

Reference: Food Weight loss of the food.

Processing
Technology, Second Hot water Inexpensive. Risk of contamination by thermophilic
Edition, CRC Press, bleaching bacteria.
WoodHead system Lower power consumption. Liquid effluents to be treated.
publishing limited,
2000 49
III. Heat treatment
b. Thermal processes: bleaching

Loss of minerals, water-

Effect of
bleaching on soluble vitamins, and
nutritional other water-soluble
properties compounds.

50
III. Heat treatment
b. Thermal processes: bleaching
The degree of losses depends on:

• The ripeness of the treated fruits and vegetables.

• From previous operations to bleaching.
• The bleaching technique used and its scale (T, t).
• Proportion of process water / feed.
• The cooling method.

51
III. Heat treatment
b. Thermal processes: bleaching
Example of the Loss of ascorbic acid (%)
effect of the Type of bleaching
Pea Broccoli Green beans
bleaching Hot water bleaching - cold
technique on water cooling
29.1 38.7 15.1
ascorbic acid loss Hot water bleaching -
25.0 30.6 19.5
cooling with air
Steam bleaching – water
24.2 22.2 17.7
cooling
steam bleaching – cooling
14.0 9.0 18.6
Reference: Food Processing
with air
Technology, Second Edition,
CRC Press, WoodHead
publishing limited, 2000 52
III. Heat treatment
b. Thermal processes: effect on microorganisms
The effect of heating on microorganisms :
• Alteration of metabolism, in particular by denaturation of the
responsible enzymes.

Thermal inactivation is said to be first-order:

• The same percentage of microbes is inactivated at each time
interval regardless of the initial number: logarithmic order of cell
death.

53
III. Heat treatment
b. Thermal processes: effect on microorganisms
Microbial mortality following lethal heat treatment follows kinetics of a first-order reaction:

N
dN
= − KN 
dN
= − Kdt  
dN
= − K  dt  ln = −kt
dt N N N0
N/N0 = e-kt

N0 = Initial number (count) of microorganisms.

t = Exposure time to heat treatment.
N = Number of microorganisms after a time t.
k = Constant reaction that depends on the microbial species and the conditions of treatment.
54
III. Heat treatment
b. Thermal processes: effect on microorganisms

N0

Microbial population N T2

T1 > T2

Time, t

53
III. Heat treatment
b. Thermal processes: effect on microorganisms
Log N Value of N

Log N0

T2

T1 > T2

Time (multiple of t) 56
III. Heat treatment
b. Thermal processes: effect on microorganisms
Value D:
Decimal reduction time, or time required to destroy 90% of the initial
number of microbes.

The D value is not a constant and depends on each microorganism,

reflecting the difference in "heat resistance" between microbes.

57
III. Heat treatment
b. Thermal processes: effect on microorganisms
Heat treatment
survival curve

Photo reference: Food

Processing Technology,
Second Edition, CRC Press,
WoodHead publishing limited, 58
2000
III. Heat treatment
b. Thermal processes: effect on microorganisms

Photo reference: Introduction

to Food Engineering, 4th
edition, Ed. R. Paul Singh &
Dennis R. Heldman, Elsevier,
AP, 2009 59
III. Heat treatment
b. Thermal processes: effect on microorganisms
Based on the first-order equation and the definition of the value of D:

Survival curve: log N0 – log N = t/D therefore: log(N0/N) = t/D Reminder

log N0 – log N = log(N0/N) = t/D
log (N/N0) = - log (N0/N) = -t/D Log or Log10 ≠ Ln

Therefore log(N/N0) = -t/D and N/N0 = 10-t/D

LnX = 2.303.log10X

Log a/b = log a – log b

But we had: Ln(N/N0) = -kt
Log(1/x) = -log(x)
And Ln(N/N0) = 2.303 log (N/N0)

Therefore –kt = 2.303 log(N/N0) = 2.303x(-t/D) And k = 2.303/D

60
III. Heat treatment
b. Thermal processes: effect on microorganisms
Ln(N/N0) = 2.303 log (N/N0) = -kt

log (N/N0) = - (k/2.303) x t

log (N/N0) = -D x t

t = D x log (N0/N)

Determination of heat treatment time as a function of N0/N knowing D.

61
III. Heat treatment
b. Thermal processes: effect on microorganisms
Lethal thermal Z: Decimal reduction
duration curve factor:
the temperature
required to reduce the
decimal reduction time
by 90%

Photo reference: Food

Processing Technology,
Second Edition, CRC Press,
WoodHead publishing limited, Z = (T2-T1)/(log DT1 – logDT2)
2000. 62
III. Heat treatment
b. Thermal processes: effect on microorganisms
Example of determination of D

Time Number of
(min) survivors / g
0 106
4 1.1 x 105
8 1.2 x 104
12 1.2 x 103 D = 4.1 minutes

Reference: Introduction to Food Engineering,

4th edition, Ed. R. Paul Singh & Dennis R.
63
Heldman, Elsevier, AP, 2009
III. Heat treatment
b. Thermal processes: effect on microorganisms
Example of determination of Z

Température (°C) D (min)

Decimal reduction time (min)

104 27.5
107 14.5
110 7.5
113 4.0
116 2.2
Temperature (°C)
Reference: Introduction to Food Engineering,
4th edition, Ed. R. Paul Singh & Dennis R.
64
Heldman, Elsevier, AP, 2009
III. Heat treatment
b. Thermal processes: effect on microorganisms
log t = a x T + b log t
for the point A (Tr, logtr): log tr = a x Tr + b

log t – log tr = a x (T - Tr ), a being the slope

Slope of log(t) = f(T) = -1/Z = (log t – log tr)/(T-Tr ) A

log tr

Log t - log tr = -(T - Tr )/Z -1/Z

T (°C)
t = tr x 10-(T-Tr)/Z Tr (°C)

Consequently D = Dr x 10-(T-Tr)/Z 65
III. Heat treatment
b. Thermal processes: effect on microorganisms
The sterilizing value F is defined: duration of the heat treatment at the heart of the product
at a given temperature which allows to have the same destruction as the treatment leads to
121.1 ° C

F = D log(N0/N)

FZTr = t x 10-(T-Tr)/Z

F: in minutes at 121.1 °C
T: Process temperature used
Tr: 121.1 °C
t: Processing time in minutes
66
III. Heat treatment
b. Thermal processes: effect on microorganisms
The F0 is the F having as reference temperature 121.1 °C (T0) and Z =10.

We will have F as a function of F0:

F0 = D0 x log (N0/N) and F = D x log (N0/N)

log (F/F0) = (T0-T)/Z

F = F0 x 10-(T-T0)/Z = F0 x 10(T0-T)/Z

T0 = Tr = 121.1 °C
67
III. Heat treatment
b. Thermal processes: effect on microorganisms
The pasteurizing value P is defined: duration of heat treatment at the core of
the product to achieve pasteurization.

P = D x log (N0/N)

The pasteurization time (t) of a liquid product is a parameter of great

importance in industry and it is determined from P and the reference
temperature* by the formula:

t = P/10 (T-Tr)/Z
68
III. Heat treatment
b. Thermal processes: effect on microorganisms

It is necessary to consider
the coldest point of the
Conduction product in order to apply
the heat treatment scale
Convection

69
III. Heat treatment
b. Thermal processes: effect on microorganisms
Compound / Source pH Z (°C) D121 (min) Temperature range (°C)
Thermal microbe
properties of Bacillus stéréo- Varied > 4.5 7 – 12 4–5 ≥ 110
certain microbes thermophilus
and nutritional Spores de Varied > 4.5 5.5 - 0.1 – 0.3 104
Clostridium B: marine 10
and sensory Botulinum (A et B) products
compounds Thiamine Carrot 5.9 25 158 109 - 149
puree
Lysine Soybeans - 21 786 100 - 127
Chlorophylle A Spinach 6.5 51 13 127 - 149
Reference: Food Processing Anthocyanes Grape juice - 23.2 17.8 20 - 121
Technology, Second Edition, Caroténoïdes Paprika - 18.9 0.038 52 - 65
CRC Press, WoodHead
publishing limited, 2000. Peroxydase Pea - 37.2 3 110 - 138
70
FOOD Transformation - NUT 3141
Walid Mottawea (Ph.D.)

School of Nutritional Sciences – Faculty of

Health Sciences – University of Ottawa

1
Food Processing – NUT 3141 – Course syllabus
III. Heat treatment
a. General introduction
b. Steam thermal processes
i. Bleaching, pasteurization and sterilization
ii.Evaporation and distillation.
c. Extrusion
d. Thermal processes using hot air
i. Dehydration, smoking
ii.Cooking and roasting.
e. Thermal processes using heated oil
i. Frying.
f. Processes using radiant thermal energy
i. Ohmic, dielectric and IR heating 2
III. Heat treatment
b. Thermal processes: pasteurization
Pasteurization is a gentle heat treatment: the processing temperature does not
exceed 100 °C.

Foods at pH > 4.5

Reduce the danger of
vegetative forms of
pathogenic bacteria STABILIZATION OF THE FOOD
AND INCREASING ITS SHELF
Foods at pH < 4.5 LIFE
Destruction of spoilage
microbes and inactivation
of enzymes
3
III. Heat treatment
b. Thermal processes: pasteurization
Pasteurization Food Purpose of processing Other Processing scale
Objectives for subsequent and conditions
objectives
Different Foods
Fruit juice Inactivation of enzymes: Destruction of 65 °C / 30 min
at pH < 4.5 Pectinesterase and deterioration 77 °C /1 min
polygalacturonase microbes 88 °C / 15 s

Milk (pH Pathogen destruction: Destruction of 63 °C / 30 min

6.6 > 4.5) Brucella abortis, spoilage 71.5 °C /15 s
Mycobacterium microbes and (HTST)
Reference: Food Processing
Technology, Second Edition, tuberculosis (Coxiella inactivation of
CRC Press, WoodHead burnettii) enzymes
publishing limited, 2000. 4
III. Heat treatment
b. Thermal processes: pasteurization
HTST pasteurization

Development of the pasteurization process HTST (high temperature, short time)

from 71.5 °C / 15 s or even 94 °C / 0.1 s which better safeguarded the
nutritional and sensory properties of the milk compared to 63 °C / 30 min.

The efficiency of milk pasteurization is often measured by the rapid

determination of enzyme activity of alkaline phosphatase*

5
III. Heat treatment
b. Thermal processes: sterilization

Thermal process that allows:

• The total destruction of microbes (vegetative forms and

spores).
• Inactivation of enzymes.
• To have a long shelf life at room temperature.

6
III. Heat treatment
b. Thermal processes: sterilization

Appertisation consists of sterilizing foods with a pH ≥ 4.5* in their

packaging (cans).

The sterilization temperatures applied are of the order of 110 to 135

°C.

This operation is carried out with hot steam under pressure in

industrial equipment called autoclaves.
7
III. Heat treatment
b. Thermal processes: sterilization

Typical curve of
temperature
variation as a
function of heat
treatment time.

Reference: Introduction to Food Engineering,

4th edition, Ed. R. Paul Singh & Dennis R.
Heldman, Elsevier, AP, 2009 8
III. Heat treatment
b. Thermal processes: sterilization
We saw:
F = F0 x 10-(T-T0)/Z = F0 x 10(T0-T)/Z
One could then determine F at any applied temperature, knowing F0 , T0 and Z, then we can
also calculate the case lethality rate L for each temperature

Lethal rate TL = F0/F = 10(T0-T)/Z

• Concept of lethal rate introduced by Ball in 1923: the proportion of the thermal death time
at temperature T to the thermal death time at a reference temperature T R.

9
III. Heat treatment
b. Thermal processes: sterilization
Example of a lethal rate curve
relative to a heat treatment
conducted for 37 minutes

The lethality (L) corresponds to the

area under the lethal rate curve which
is also the value of L L = 2.5

Reference: Introduction to Food Engineering,

4th edition, Ed. R. Paul Singh & Dennis R.
Heldman, Elsevier, AP, 2009
10
III. Heat treatment
b. Thermal processes: sterilization

t (min) T (°C) if the heat treatment D121 t (min) TL (min)

of 1.1 min and Z =11 °C 0 = 10 (75-121)/11 = 0
0 75
1 105 1 = 10 (105-121)/11 = 0.035
Determine lethality L121?
2 125 2 = 10 (125-121)/11 = 2.310
3 140 3 = 10 (140-121)/11 = 53.367
4 135 4 = 10 (135-121)/11 = 18.738
5 120 5 = 10 (120-121)/11 = 0.811
6 100 6 = 10 (100-121)/11 = 0.012
L121 = Sum of TL = 75.273 min
Reference: Introduction to Food Engineering,
4th edition, Ed. R. Paul Singh & Dennis R.
Heldman, Elsevier, AP, 2009
11
III. Heat treatment
b. Thermal processes: bleaching, pasteurization, sterilization

Exercise:
A heat treatment applied to a tomato sauce is carried out at 135 °C/5s followed
immediately by cooling. Calculate the sterilization value F at the reference
temperature 121 °C if the decimal reduction factor Z is equal to 10 °C.

FT = F0 x 10(T0-T)/Z
Z

F135/F121 = 10(121-135)/10 therefore F121 = F135 / 10(121-135)/10 = F135 x 10(135-121)/10

F121 = (5s) x 10(14/10) = 125 s

12
III. Heat treatment
b. Thermal processes: sterilization
Heat resistance of some Microorganism Z (°C) D121 Typical foods
spore-forming bacteria (min)
used to design sterilization Thermophiles (35 °C – 55°C)
processes Bacillus stearothermophilus 9 – 10 3–4 Milk, vegetables
Clostridium thermosaccharolyticum 7.2 - 10 3–4 Vegetables
Mesophiles (10 – 40 °C )
Clostridium sporogenes 8.8 – 11.1 0.7 1.5 Meat
Bacillus subtilis 4.1 – 7.2 0.3 – 0.76 Dairy products
C. Botulinum A et B 5.5 0.1 – 0.3 Low-acid foods
B. coagulans 6–9 0.01 – 0.07 Milk
Reference: Food Processing B. Cereus 36 3.8 Milk
Technology, Second Edition,
CRC Press, WoodHead Psychrophiles (-5 à -1.5 °C ) 10 3 Low-acid foods
publishing limited, 2000. C. Botulinum E 13
III. Heat treatment
b. Thermal processes: sterilization

Appertisation*: sterilization of the food in its container: concept of canned

food.

Disadvantages:
- Depending on the conductivity of the treated food, there are more effects of
the scale near the packaging.
- Triggering the NEB (Non-enzymatic browning)**.
- Losses of various vitamins, but more at the level of the vitamine B.

14
III. Heat treatment
b. Thermal processes: sterilization
Several methods of sterilizing cans:
• Static autoclave: treatment with steam or by total immersion in hot
water of metal cans, glass bottles, bottles, flexible bags, hermetically
packed dishes....

Ref. photo: https://www.econo-

Ref. photo: https://www.bi1.fr Ref. photo: https://www.tastingtable.com/ ecolo.org/appertisation 15
III. Heat treatment
b. Thermal processes: sterilization

Vertical static
autoclave (Batch)

Reference Schéma: A Complete Course in

Canning and Related Process. 14th edition,
Vol1: Fundamental Information on Canning.
Woodhead Publishing, Elsevier 2015.
16
III. Heat treatment
b. Procédés thermiques: la stérilisation

Water
immersion
autoclave
(batch)

Reference: A Complete Course in Canning and

Related Process. 14th edition, Vol1:
Fundamental Information on Canning.
Woodhead Publishing, Elsevier 2015.

17
III. Heat treatment
b. Thermal processes: sterilization
Autoclave
with
vaporization
of steam and
water (batch)

Reference : A Complete Course in Canning and

Related Process. 14th edition, Vol1:
Fundamental Information on Canning.
Woodhead Publishing, Elsevier 2015.
18
III. Heat treatment

b. Thermal processes: sterilization

Autoclave with
vaporization of
steam and water
(batch)

Reference : A Complete Course in Canning and

Related Process. 14th edition, Vol1: Fundamental
Information on Canning. Woodhead Publishing,
Elsevier 2015.
19
III. Heat treatment
b. Thermal processes: sterilization
Rotary autoclave
(batch)

Reference : A Complete Course in Canning and

Related Process. 14th edition, Vol1: Fundamental
Information on Canning. Woodhead Publishing,
Elsevier 2015. 20
III. Heat treatment
b. Thermal processes: sterilization
Sterilizer and
continuous rotary
cooker (batch)

Photo reference: A Complete Course in Canning

and Related Process. 14th edition, Vol1:
Fundamental Information on Canning. Woodhead
Publishing, Elsevier 2015.
21
III. Heat treatment
b. Thermal processes: sterilization
Sterilmatic hydrostatic autoclave (continuous))

Advantages :
- Less space in the factory.
- Reduced consumption of steam and water compared to other
systems.
- High operational capacity.
- Flexible to handle any type and shape of containers.
- Maintaining a constant temperature thanks to the water level
that controls the vapor pressure.
- Use of smaller amounts of cooling water.
- Least thermal shock.
- The containers circulate without high conveyor speeds, which
minimizes physical shocks.
- No high labor requirement.
- The absence of agitation can be advantageous for pickled
preparations. 22
III. Heat treatment
b. Thermal processes: sterilization
Autoclave sterilizer without boxes (continuous)

Photo reference: A Complete Course in Canning and Related Process. 14th edition, Vol1: Fundamental
Information on Canning. Woodhead Publishing, Elsevier 2015. 23
III. Heat treatment
b. Thermal processes: sterilization
Sterilization and aseptic packaging

• High temp short time (HTST), for maintaining distinguished nutritional and
sensory quality (including color of processed food).

• Application of scales of 138-149 °C / 1 – 30 sec. for low-acid foods and 93 -96

°C / 15 – 30 sec. for acidic foods.

• Filling of sterilized food in a sterile container without interrupting the aseptic

circuit from heat treatment to packaging.
24
III. Heat treatment
b. Thermal processes: sterilization
• Sterilizations and aseptic packaging are also done in UHT (i.e. UHT milk
treatment).

Reference photo: Tetrapack indirect

UHT unit DC.
https://www.tetrapak.com/

25
III. Heat treatment
b. Thermal processes: sterilization
Treatment methods
Méthode Avantages
used for
sterilization and Infusion in steam Rapid heating, more suitable for foods with
sensitive components, removes volatile
aseptic packaging compounds (effect on flavor)
Tubular heat exchanger Easy maintenance, fast heating compared
to scraped surface and plate exchangers
Tubular exchanger with Can process highly viscous liquid foods or
scraped surface foods composed of solid particles
Reference photo: A Complete Plate heat exchanger High efficiency, cheaper, operational at low
Course in Canning and Related pressures
Process. 14th edition, Vol1:
Fundamental Information on
Canning. Woodhead Publishing,
Elsevier 2015. 26
III. Heat treatment
b. Thermal processes: bleaching, pasteurization, sterilization
Shelf life and
Heat Treatment Milk Microbiological Sensory
storage Nutritional effects
treatment Conditions category effects effects
conditions
Pasteurisation 72°C/ 15s Pasteurized Refrigeration (3 – Inactivation of - Minor effect on the No flavors due
HTST (or 75°C/ milk 21 days pathogens structure of caseins and to heating
15s ) depending on raw (including M. soluble proteins.
milk quality) tuberculosis), - Loss of lysine.
moulds, yeasts, - No effects on the fatty
majority of bacteria acid profile.
(<100%) - Loss of the majority of
vitamins but little impact
on food intake.
- No effects on mineral
content and
bioavailability.

Reference: Melini et al. (2017), Beverages (MDPI), 3, 54

III. Heat treatment
b. Thermal processes: bleaching, pasteurization, sterilization
Shelf life and
Heat Treatment Milk Microbiological Sensory
storage Nutritional effects
treatment Conditions category effects effects
conditions
High ≥ 85°C/ 20s Highly Refrigeration (3 – - Inactivation of - Minor effect on the Cooking
temperature (even 115 – pasteurized 21 days depending pathogens and all structure of caseins. flavours
pasteurization 120 °C/ 2-5 milk on raw milk vegetative forms. - Denaturation of soluble
s) quality) - The spores are not proteins.
destroyed. - Loss of lysine.
- Enzymes are not - No effects on the fatty
completely acid profile.
denatured. - Loss of the majority of
vitamins but little impact
on food intake.
- No effects on mineral
content and bioavailability.

Reference: Melini et al. (2017), Beverages (MDPI), 3, 54

III. Heat treatment
b. Thermal processes: bleaching, pasteurization, sterilization
Shelf life and
Heat Treatment Milk Microbiological Sensory
storage Nutritional effects
treatment Conditions category effects effects
conditions

UHT sterilization 135°C – UHT milk Ambient - Destruction of - Denaturation of soluble Cooking flavors
150°C / 1-4s temperature pathogens, non- protein structures. and ketones.
(general. (<32°C / 3 – 12 pathogenic and all - Loss of lysine. Browning.
>140°C/ 5 s) months) spores. - No effects on the fatty
- Enzymes are acid profile.
inactivated. - Loss of the majority of
- Some bacterial vitamins but little impact
proteases and lipases on food intake.
are inactivated. - No effects on mineral
content and
bioavailability.

Reference: Melini et al. (2017), Beverages (MDPI), 3, 54

III. Heat treatment
b. Thermal processes: bleaching, pasteurization, sterilization
Shelf life and
Heat Treatment Milk Microbiological Sensory
storage Nutritional effects
treatment Conditions category effects effects
conditions

Sterilization in 105°C – Sterilized Ambient - Destruction of - Denaturation of soluble Caramelized

bottles 120°C / 20- milk temperature pathogens, non- protein structures. flavors.
40 min (<32°C / 8 – 12 pathogenic and all - Loss of lysine. Browning.
(general. months) spores. - No effects on the fatty
110°C / 30 - Enzymes are acid profile.
min) inactivated. - Loss of the majority of
- Some bacterial vitamins but little impact
proteases and on food intake.
lipases are - No effects on mineral
inactivated. content and
bioavailability.

Reference: Melini et al. (2017), Beverages (MDPI), 3, 54

III. Heat treatment
b. Thermal processes: sterilization
Vitamin Loss (%)
losses in Food Carotene Thiamine Riboflavine Niacine Vit C Pantothenic Vitamin Folic Ac. Biotin
canned Ac. B6

(sterilized Low-acid foods

canned)
Carrots 0-9 67 38-60 32 75 54 80 59 40
foods
Beef - 67 100 100 - - - - -

Green 22- 62 54-63 40 79 61 50 57 -

Reference:
Food Processing beans 52
Technology, Salmon 9 73 0 0 - 58 57 - -
Second Edition,
CRC Press,
WoodHead Milk 0 35 0 0 50 - 0 50 10-20 -
publishing
90 31
limited, 2000.
III. Heat treatment
b. Thermal processes: sterilization
Vitamin Perte (%)
losses in Food Carotène Thiamine Riboflavine Niacine Vit C Acide Vitamine Ac. Biotine
canned panthoténique B6 folique

foods Acidic foods

(sterilized Apples 0-4 31 48 - 74 15 0

in cans))
Peaches 65 49 39 39 56 71 21

Pears - 45 45 0 73 69 18
Reference:
Food Processing
Technology,
Pineapple 25 7 30 0 57 12 -
Second Edition,
CRC Press, Cherries 41 57 64 46 68 - 6
WoodHead
publishing
32
limited, 2000.
III. Heat treatment
b. Thermal processes: Cooking

• In many products a cooking treatment is practiced in order to obtain a food

with defined specificities.
• Cooking is a heat treatment that is sometimes done with scales close to those
of sterilization and pasteurization or intermediate.
• Cooking can have various effects on the nutritional and sensory qualities of a
product.

33
III. Heat treatment
b. Thermal processes: Cooking
Effect of Product Direct effects of cooking Effects on sensory
properties
cooking on
Meat products Protein gelling Improved texture (softer).
some food and fish Lipid oxidation Development of flavors and
components Maillard reaction aromas.
Nucleotide solubilization Color change
Myoglobin denaturation
Reference table: Starch-
Technologie de containing Gelatinization of starch and
transformation des Treading and gel formation.
foods (cereals, other polysaccharides
produits tubers, ...)
agroalimentaires.
Henry-Éric Spinnler, Fats Oxidation of unsaturated fatty Rancid odours, polymers of
Techniques de acids, sterols, carotenoids undesirable fatty acids
l’ingénieur 2005. 34
Food Processing – NUT 3141 – Course syllabus
III. Heat treatment
a. General introduction
b. Steam thermal processes
i. Bleaching, pasteurization and sterilization
ii.Evaporation and distillation.
c. Extrusion
d. Thermal processes using hot air
i. Dehydration, smoking
ii.Cooking and roasting.
e. Thermal processes using heated oil
i. Frying.
f. Processes using radiant thermal energy
i. Ohmic, dielectric and IR heating 35
III. Heat treatment
b. Thermal processes: evaporation and distillation
• Evaporation and distillation are two thermal separation techniques applied to
liquid foods.

• The principle is based on the difference in the vapour pressure of the

components by applying a heater which then targets their separation.

• Evaporation is a technique of concentration by partial removal of water

contained in a liquid food.

• It removes water from a food by its evaporation after reaching its boiling
temperature.
36
III. Heat treatment
b. Thermal processes: evaporation and distillation

• Distillation separates liquid compounds based on their volatility as a function

of heat applied.

• The volatility of a component is related to its vapour pressure.

• The volatility of a substance increases when its vapour pressure increases

and vice versa.

37
III. Heat treatment
b. Thermal processes: evaporation and distillation

Evaporation

• The main purpose of evaporation is to increase the solid content of a liquid

product, evaporating part of its water and concentrating it..

• The product to be evaporated is kept under vacuum, which reduces the

boiling temperature of the water.

• The water vapours evaporated from the product are then evacuated and
condensed into liquid water by an external condenser..
38
III. Heat treatment
b. Thermal processes: evaporation and distillation

Single-acting
evaporator

Reference: Introduction to Food Engineering,

4th edition, Ed. R. Paul Singh & Dennis R.
Heldman, Elsevier, AP, 2009
39
III. Heat treatment
b. Thermal processes: evaporation and distillation

Discontinuous evaporator
(concentration ball)

Reference: Introduction to Food Engineering,

4th edition, Ed. R. Paul Singh & Dennis R.
Heldman, Elsevier, AP, 2009
40
III. Heat treatment
b. Thermal processes: evaporation and distillation
Liquid product M1, X1, T1

Concentrated product
Hot M2, X2, Tebb
steam
Evaporator T ebb
Secondary steam
Mvc, Tvc Mv
(towards condenser)

Primary condensate Mc 41
III. Heat treatment
b. Thermal processes: evaporation and distillation
Material balance
For the evaporated product: the solid mass is preserved.
The rate of solid matter at the entrance is equal to the rate of solid matter at
the exit:
X1 x M1 = X2 x M2

For a total material balance (solid and water vapour of the product):
M1 = M2 + Mv

42
III. Heat treatment
b. Thermal processes: evaporation and distillation
Material balance
The mass of water is also conserved in relation to the inlet and outlet of the product:
(1-X1) x M1 = (1-X2)x M2 + Mv
Energy balance and assumptions:
1. Evaporator losses are neglected
2. It is assumed that the amount of heat of condensing hot steam is equal to the
amount of heat required to raise the temperature of the product from its
temperature Ti to the temperature Tebb so that its water evaporates.
3. Heat supplied = Sensible heat + Latent heat
hot steam of Vaporization
43
III. Heat treatment
b. Thermal processes: evaporation and distillation
Energy balance

M1H1 + MvcHvc = MvHv + M2H2 + McHc

H1 = Cp1(T1-0) in (kJ/kg)
Hvc = enthalpy of saturated steam at Tvc in (kJ/kg)
Hv = enthalpy of saturated steam at temperature Tebb (from a specific steam table)
H2 = Cp2 (Tebb – 0) in (kJ/kg)
Hc = enthalpy of saturated liquid at temperature Tvcin (kJ/kg) (from a specific steam table)
Cp1: Specific heat of the product to be evaporated and at constant pressure in J/ Kg.°C
Cp2: Specific heat of the concentrated product at constant pressure in J/ Kg.°C
44
III. Heat treatment
b. Thermal processes: evaporation and distillation

M1 x Cp1x(T1-0) + MvcHvc = MvHv + M2 x Cp2 x (Tebb - 0) + McHc

Generally for a lossless system Mvc = Mc

The heat transfer rate Q (W)

Q = UxAx(Tvc-Tebb) = MvcHvc – McHc = Mvcx (Hvc – Hc)

U: overall heat transfer coefficient in W/m2°K

A: area of the heat exchanger (evaporator) in m2
45
III. Heat treatment
b. Thermal processes: evaporation and distillation

Steam saving EV

EV = Mv/Mc

It is a parameter that makes it possible to evaluate the performance of an

evaporation system.

For single-acting evaporators, when the EV value approaches 1, means that

there is good performance

46
III. Heat treatment
b. Thermal processes: evaporation and distillation
Application exercise

A fruit juice with specific heat of 4 kJ/kg °C is concentrated in a single-acting evaporator. The
latter feeds at a mass flow rate of 0.8 Kg/s. The concentration of the juice at the inlet of the
evaporator is 13% Total solids.
The juice is concentrated until 66% of total solids and the concentrate has a specific heat of
2 kJ/kg °C.
The vapour pressure is 304.42 kPa and the temperature of the product at the inlet is 40°C.
The product evaporates at a temperature of 65°C.
The overall heat transfer coefficient is 1000 W/m2°C.

Calculate the mass flow of the concentrated product, the steam emitted by the product and
the condensed steam of the hot steam.
Calculate steam saving and evaporator area
47
III. Heat treatment
b. Thermal processes: evaporation and distillation
Data:

M1 = 0.8 kg/s
Initial solid matter concentration X1 = 13% = 0.13
Final solid material concentration X2 = 66% = 0.66
T1 = 40 °C
Tebb= 65 °C
Cp1 = 4 kJ/kg °C
Cp2 = 2 kJ/kg °C
U = 1000 W/m2°C
48
III. Heat treatment
b. Thermal processes: evaporation and distillation
1) Material balance (on total solids)
X1 x M 1 = X2 x M 2
(0.13)(0.8 kg/s) = (0.66) M2 therefore M2 = 0.157 kg/s

2) Material balance
M1 = M 2 + M v
Therefore Mv = M1 – M2 = 0.8 kg/s – 0.157 kg /s = 0.643 kg/s

3) Energy balance
H1 = Cp1(T1-0)
H1 = (4 kJ/kg °C) x (40 – 0) = 160 kJ/kg
49
III. Heat treatment
b. Thermal processes: evaporation and distillation
H2 = Cp2(Tebb-0)
H2 = (2 kJ/kg °C) x (65 – 0) = 130 kJ/kg

Specific table of steam properties* with pressure of 304.42 kPa, allows us to

determine the following missing data (example extrapolation in the comments)
Tvc = 134 °C
Hvc = 2725.9 kJ /kg
Hc = 563.41 at 134 °C
Hv = 2618.3 kJ /kg

We are looking for Mvc = Mc

50
III. Heat treatment
b. Thermal processes: evaporation and distillation

Application of the energy balance

M1 x H1+ MvcHvc = MvHv + M2 x H2+ McHc

(0.8 kg/s)(160 kJ/kg) + (Mvc kg/s)(2725.9 kJ/kg) = (0.643 kg/s)(2618.3 kJ/kg) +

(0.157 kg/s)(130 kJ/kg) + (Mvc kg/s)(563.41)kJ/kg)

(2725.9 – 563.41) Mvc = 1575.97

Mvc = 0.728 kg/s

51
III. Heat treatment
b. Thermal processes: evaporation and distillation

4) Steam saving (EV)

EV = Mv/Mc et Mc = Mvc = 0.728 kg/s

EV = (0.643 kg/s) / (0.728 kg/s) = 0.88 kg evaporated water / kg of steam

5) Heat transfer rate

Q = UxAx(Tvc-Tebb) = MvcHvc – McHc = Mvcx (Hvc – Hc)
A x (1000 W/m2°C) x (134 – 65) = 0.728 kg/s x (2725.9 kJ/kg – 563.41kJ/kg)
(1000 J/kJ)*
A = 22.8 m2
52
III. Heat treatment
b. Thermal processes: evaporation and distillation

Natural
circulation
evaporator

Reference: Introduction to Food Engineering,

4th edition, Ed. R. Paul Singh & Dennis R.
Heldman, Elsevier, AP, 2009
53
III. Heat treatment
b. Thermal processes: evaporation and distillation

Climbing evaporator
(ascending or
descending)

Reference: Introduction to Food Engineering,

4th edition, Ed. R. Paul Singh & Dennis R.
Heldman, Elsevier, AP, 2009
54
III. Heat treatment
b. Thermal processes: evaporation and distillation

Multi-effect
evaporators

Reference photo: Food

Processing Technology, Second
Edition, CRC Press, WoodHead
publishing limited, 2000. 55
III. Heat treatment
b. Thermal processes: evaporation and distillation
Vitamin losses Product Loss (%)
in condensed Thiamine Vitamine Vitamine Folic Ac. Ascorbice
milk by B6 B12 Ac.
evaporation
Evaporated 20 40 80 25 60
compared to milk
UHT milk
Sweetened 10 < 10 30 25 25
condensed
milk
Reference : Food
Processing Technology,
Second Edition, CRC UHT < 10 < 10 < 10 < 10 < 10
Press, WoodHead sterilized
publishing limited,
2000.
milk
56
III. Heat treatment
b. Thermal processes: evaporation and distillation

Distillation

• Distillation consists of the separation of compounds based on the difference

in their volatilities (transformation into gas or vapor) as a function of
temperature.
• A heated liquid food will first release molecules with high vapor pressure,
this component can condense when it passes through a column cooled with
water.
• Liquid condensate is called distillate.

57
III. Heat treatment
b. Thermal processes: evaporation and distillation
For a mixture: the total upward pressure of this mixture is equal to the sum of the
partial pressures of its constituents at the given temperature of this mixture.
For example, an ideal mixture having two compounds A and B. PA and PB are the
partial pressures of A and B.
a: P = PA + PB

If XA and XB are the mole fractions of A and B in the mixture and YA and YB are the
mole fractions in the gas (vapour) phase.

We will have:
PA = YAP and PB = YBP (Dalton's Law)

The volatility K is then defined as the ratio Y/X 58

III. Heat treatment
b. Thermal processes: evaporation and distillation
KA = YA/XA and KB = YB/XB

The relative volatility coefficient of A with respect to B is then defined as

aA/B = KA/KB

And as KA = YA/XA and KB = YB/XB

So aA/B = PA/PB for ideal mixtures,

and aA/B = γAPA/γBPB

γA and γBare two correction factors or activity factors between 0 and 1.

59
 III. Heat treatment
b. Thermal processes: evaporation and distillation

Holbec Still Distiller SRXC distillation column, source photo:

Source photo: https://holbec.qc.ca/ https://istsurface.com/fr/equipement/colonnes-de-
distillation/srxc-colonnes-de-distillation 63