 What are alkanes? Write their general formula.

Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons consisting only of single bonds between carbon atoms. They
follow the general formula CnH2n+2.

 How can alkanes be prepared from alkyl halides?

Alkanes can be prepared by reducing alkyl halides using zinc and acid or by catalytic
hydrogenation with H₂ in the presence of a metal catalyst like Ni or Pd.

 What is the Wurtz reaction? Give an example.

Wurtz reaction involves the coupling of two alkyl halides with sodium metal in dry ether to form
a higher alkane.
Example: 2CH₃Br + 2Na → C₂H₆ + 2NaBr

 Why are alkanes called saturated hydrocarbons?

Alkanes are called saturated because all carbon atoms are connected by single bonds, and each
carbon is fully "saturated" with hydrogen atoms.

 What happens when alkanes undergo combustion?

Alkanes burn in oxygen to produce carbon dioxide, water, and energy.
Example: CH₄ + 2O₂ → CO₂ + 2H₂O + heat

 Explain the halogenation reaction of alkanes.

Halogenation is a substitution reaction where hydrogen atoms in alkanes are replaced by
halogens (Cl, Br) under UV light.
Example: CH₄ + Cl₂ → CH₃Cl + HCl

 How can you prepare methane in the lab?

Methane is prepared by heating sodium acetate with soda lime (NaOH + CaO).
Reaction: CH₃COONa + NaOH → CH₄ + Na₂CO₃

 Why are alkanes less reactive than alkenes and alkynes?

Alkanes have strong C-C and C-H single bonds and no π-bonds, making them less reactive
compared to alkenes and alkynes that have double or triple bonds.

 What is isomerism in alkanes? Give an example.

Isomerism in alkanes is due to different branching of the carbon chain.
Example: Butane (C₄H₁₀) has two isomers – n-butane and isobutane.

 What is cracking of alkanes?

Cracking is the process of breaking long-chain alkanes into smaller, more useful hydrocarbons
(alkanes and alkenes) using heat or catalysts.

 What are alkenes? Write the general formula.

Alkenes are unsaturated hydrocarbons that contain at least one carbon–carbon double bond.
Their general formula is CnH2n.
 How can alkenes be prepared from alcohols?
Alkenes are prepared by dehydrating alcohols using concentrated sulfuric acid or alumina at high
temperature.
Example: C₂H₅OH → C₂H₄ + H₂O

 What is the addition reaction of alkenes? Give an example.

Alkenes undergo addition reactions where atoms add across the double bond.
Example: C₂H₄ + H₂ → C₂H₆ (in presence of Ni catalyst)

 Explain the test for unsaturation in alkenes using bromine water.

Alkenes decolorize reddish-brown bromine water due to the addition of bromine across the
double bond, indicating unsaturation.

 What is Markovnikov's rule?

Markovnikov's rule states that in the addition of HX to an alkene, the hydrogen attaches to the
carbon with more hydrogen atoms, and the halogen attaches to the carbon with fewer hydrogen
atoms.

 How are alkenes converted into alkanes?

Alkenes can be converted into alkanes by catalytic hydrogenation—adding hydrogen in the
presence of a metal catalyst like nickel or platinum.

 What is polymerization of alkenes?

Polymerization is the process where small alkene molecules (monomers) join to form a long-
chain polymer.
Example: Ethene → Polyethene

 Explain ozonolysis of alkenes briefly.

Ozonolysis involves breaking the double bond of alkenes using ozone (O₃), forming aldehydes
or ketones after further treatment with a reducing agent.

 What is isomerism in alkenes?

Alkenes show both chain isomerism and geometrical (cis-trans) isomerism due to restricted
rotation around the double bond.
Example: But-2-ene exists as cis and trans isomers.

 How is ethene prepared in the lab?

Ethene is prepared by dehydrating ethanol using concentrated sulfuric acid at about 170°C.
Reaction: C₂H₅OH → C₂H₄ + H₂O

 What are alkynes? Write the general formula.

Alkynes are unsaturated hydrocarbons containing at least one carbon–carbon triple bond. Their
general formula is CnH2n−2.
 How is ethyne prepared from calcium carbide?
Ethyne (acetylene) is prepared by reacting calcium carbide with water.
CaC₂ + 2H₂O → C₂H₂ + Ca(OH)₂

 What is the triple bond in alkynes made of?

The triple bond consists of one sigma (σ) bond and two pi (π) bonds between two carbon
atoms.

 How do alkynes react with hydrogen?

Alkynes undergo hydrogenation, adding hydrogen in the presence of a catalyst (like Ni or Pd) to
form alkenes or alkanes depending on the amount of hydrogen.

 What is the acidic nature of terminal alkynes?

Terminal alkynes have a slightly acidic hydrogen attached to the triple-bonded carbon, which can
react with strong bases like sodium amide (NaNH₂).

 Give one chemical test to identify an alkyne.

Terminal alkynes form a precipitate with ammoniacal silver nitrate (AgNO₃), indicating the
presence of a terminal triple bond.

 What happens when ethyne burns in air?

Ethyne burns with a sooty, luminous flame due to incomplete combustion, but in oxygen, it
gives a very hot flame used in welding.

 How can alkynes be prepared from vicinal dihalides?

Alkynes can be prepared by dehydrohalogenation of vicinal dihalides using alcoholic KOH or
NaNH₂, removing two HX molecules.

 What are the products when alkynes react with water?

Alkynes react with water in the presence of acid and Hg²⁺ catalyst to form ketones or aldehydes
via keto-enol tautomerism.
Example: C₂H₂ + H₂O → CH₃CHO (ethanal)

 What is the difference between ethene and ethyne?

Ethene (C₂H₄) has a double bond and is less reactive, while ethyne (C₂H₂) has a triple bond, is
more reactive, and shows acidic behavior.

1. What are haloalkanes? Give examples.

Haloalkanes, also known as alkyl halides, are organic compounds in which one or more
hydrogen atoms in an alkane are replaced by halogen atoms (F, Cl, Br, or I).
Examples: Methyl chloride (CH₃Cl), Ethyl bromide (C₂H₅Br).

2. How are haloalkanes prepared from alcohols?

Haloalkanes are prepared by reacting alcohols with halogenating agents like thionyl
chloride (SOCl₂), phosphorus trichloride (PCl₃), or concentrated hydrochloric acid (HCl).
Example: CH₃OH + SOCl₂ → CH₃Cl + SO₂ + HCl.
3. What is nucleophilic substitution? Give a simple example.
Nucleophilic substitution is a reaction where a nucleophile replaces a leaving group in a
molecule.
Example: CH₃Br + OH⁻ → CH₃OH + Br⁻.

4. Write one reaction to convert haloalkane to alcohol.

Haloalkanes can be converted to alcohols by nucleophilic substitution with hydroxide
ions.
Example: CH₃Cl + OH⁻ → CH₃OH + Cl⁻.

5. How can you classify haloalkanes into primary, secondary, and tertiary?
Haloalkanes are classified based on the number of carbon atoms attached to the carbon
bearing the halogen:
o Primary: One alkyl group attached to the carbon bearing the halogen.
o Secondary: Two alkyl groups attached.
o Tertiary: Three alkyl groups attached.

6. What is elimination reaction in haloalkanes?

An elimination reaction involves the removal of a hydrogen atom and a halogen atom
(HX) from adjacent carbon atoms, forming a double bond (alkene).
Example: CH₃CH₂Cl + KOH → CH₂=CH₂ + KCl.

7. How do alkyl halides react with ammonia?

Alkyl halides react with ammonia in a nucleophilic substitution reaction to form amines.
Example: CH₃Cl + NH₃ → CH₃NH₂ + HCl.

8. What happens when haloalkanes react with KCN?

When haloalkanes react with potassium cyanide (KCN), a nucleophilic substitution
occurs, forming nitriles.
Example: CH₃Cl + KCN → CH₃CN + KCl.

9. Write any two uses of haloalkanes.

o Used as solvents in cleaning and degreasing.
o Used in refrigeration as refrigerants.

10. What is the difference between alkyl and aryl halides?

 Alkyl halides have a halogen attached to a saturated carbon (sp³ hybridized).

 Aryl halides have a halogen attached to an aromatic ring (sp² hybridized).

1. What are alcohols? Give the general formula.

Alcohols are organic compounds containing a hydroxyl group (-OH) attached to a
saturated carbon atom. The general formula is CnH₂n+₁OH.
Example: Methanol (CH₃OH), Ethanol (C₂H₅OH).
2. How are alcohols prepared from alkenes?
Alcohols can be prepared from alkenes through hydration (adding water) in the presence
of an acid catalyst like H₂SO₄.
Example: Ethene (C₂H₄) + H₂O → Ethanol (C₂H₅OH) in the presence of H₂SO₄.

3. What is dehydration of alcohols?

Dehydration of alcohols is the process where water is removed from an alcohol, typically
in the presence of a strong acid like H₂SO₄, forming an alkene.
Example: C₂H₅OH → C₂H₄ + H₂O (with H₂SO₄).

4. How can alcohols be converted to alkyl halides?

Alcohols can be converted to alkyl halides by reacting with halogenating agents such as
PCl₃, SOCl₂, or HCl.
Example: CH₃OH + SOCl₂ → CH₃Cl + SO₂ + HCl.

5. How can you distinguish between primary, secondary, and tertiary alcohols?
Alcohols can be classified based on the number of carbon atoms attached to the carbon
bearing the hydroxyl group:
o Primary: One alkyl group attached.
o Secondary: Two alkyl groups attached.
o Tertiary: Three alkyl groups attached.

6. What is oxidation of alcohols?

Oxidation of alcohols involves the removal of hydrogen or the addition of oxygen,
resulting in the formation of aldehydes, ketones, or carboxylic acids.
Example: Primary alcohols are oxidized to aldehydes (e.g., CH₃CH₂OH → CH₃CHO).

7. What is esterification?
Esterification is a reaction between an alcohol and a carboxylic acid to form an ester and
water.
Example: CH₃OH + CH₃COOH → CH₃COOCH₃ + H₂O (forming methyl acetate).

8. Why do alcohols have high boiling points?

Alcohols have high boiling points due to hydrogen bonding between the -OH group of
one molecule and the oxygen atom of another molecule, which requires more energy to
break.

9. What happens when alcohols react with sodium metal?

Alcohols react with sodium metal to produce hydrogen gas and alkoxide (a salt of the
alcohol).
Example: 2CH₃OH + 2Na → 2CH₃O⁻Na⁺ + H₂↑.

10. What is Lucas test?

The Lucas test is used to distinguish between primary, secondary, and tertiary alcohols.
It involves the reaction of alcohol with Lucas reagent (ZnCl₂ in HCl).
 Tertiary alcohols react instantly, forming a turbidity.
 Secondary alcohols react slowly.
 Primary alcohols do not react at room temperature.

1. What are aldehydes and ketones? Give examples.

Aldehydes are organic compounds containing a carbonyl group (C=O) with at least one
hydrogen atom attached to the carbonyl carbon.
Example: Formaldehyde (CH₂O), Acetaldehyde (CH₃CHO).
Ketones have a carbonyl group bonded to two carbon atoms.
Example: Acetone (CH₃COCH₃), Butanone (CH₃COCH₂CH₃).

2. How are aldehydes prepared from alcohols?

Aldehydes can be prepared by the oxidation of primary alcohols using oxidizing agents
such as potassium dichromate (K₂Cr₂O₇) or PCC (Pyridinium chlorochromate).
Example: CH₃CH₂OH + [O] → CH₃CHO.

3. How are ketones prepared from secondary alcohols?

Ketones are prepared by oxidizing secondary alcohols using an oxidizing agent like
potassium dichromate. The oxidation removes two hydrogen atoms from the alcohol.
Example: CH₃CH(OH)CH₃ + [O] → CH₃COCH₃ (Acetone).

4. What is the difference between aldehydes and ketones?

o Aldehydes have at least one hydrogen atom attached to the carbonyl carbon,
making them more reactive.
o Ketones have two alkyl or aryl groups attached to the carbonyl carbon, making
them generally less reactive than aldehydes.

5. What is nucleophilic addition reaction?

Nucleophilic addition is a reaction where a nucleophile adds to a carbonyl carbon,
breaking the double bond and forming a new single bond.
Example: In the reaction of an aldehyde (e.g., acetaldehyde) with a nucleophile like
HCN, a new carbon-carbon bond is formed.

6. What is Tollen’s test? What does it detect?

Tollen’s test uses Tollen's reagent (Ag(NH₃)₂⁺) to detect aldehydes. Aldehydes reduce
silver ions (Ag⁺) to metallic silver, forming a silver mirror on the inner surface of the test
tube.
Positive result: Silver mirror indicates the presence of an aldehyde.

7. What is Fehling’s test used for?

Fehling’s test is used to detect reducing sugars and aldehydes. In the presence of an
aldehyde, the deep blue Fehling’s solution turns to a brick-red precipitate of copper(I)
oxide (Cu₂O).
Positive result: Brick-red precipitate indicates the presence of an aldehyde.
8. What happens when aldehydes are oxidized?
When aldehydes are oxidized, they are converted into carboxylic acids. The carbonyl
group (C=O) is further oxidized to a carboxyl group (-COOH).
Example: CH₃CHO + [O] → CH₃COOH (Acetic acid).

9. What is the product when aldehydes react with HCN?

When aldehydes react with hydrogen cyanide (HCN), a cyanohydrin is formed, where a
hydroxyl group (-OH) and a cyanide group (-CN) are added to the same carbon.
Example: CH₃CHO + HCN → CH₃CH(OH)CN (Cyanohydrin).

10. Write one use of formaldehyde.

Formaldehyde is widely used as a disinfectant and preservative in biological specimens
and is also used in the production of resins and plastics (e.g., Bakelite).

1. What are amines? How are they classified?

Amines are organic compounds that contain a nitrogen atom bonded to one or more alkyl
or aryl groups. They are classified as:
o Primary amines (one alkyl group attached to nitrogen),
o Secondary amines (two alkyl groups attached),
o Tertiary amines (three alkyl groups attached).

2. How are primary amines prepared from alkyl halides?

Primary amines can be prepared by reacting alkyl halides with ammonia (NH₃) in a
nucleophilic substitution reaction.
Example: CH₃Cl + NH₃ → CH₃NH₂ + HCl.

3. What is the basic nature of amines?

Amines are basic in nature because the nitrogen atom has a lone pair of electrons, which
it can donate to accept a proton (H⁺). This gives amines their characteristic basicity.
Example: CH₃NH₂ + H₂O → CH₃NH₃⁺ + OH⁻.

4. What happens when amines react with acids?

When amines react with acids, they form amine salts by accepting a proton (H⁺) from
the acid.
Example: CH₃NH₂ + HCl → CH₃NH₃Cl (methylamine hydrochloride).

5. Write a simple reaction of an amine with HNO₂.

Amines react with nitrous acid (HNO₂) to form diazonium salts. In the case of primary
amines, the reaction typically forms azo compounds or diazonium ions.
Example: C₆H₅NH₂ + HNO₂ → C₆H₅N₂⁺Cl⁻ + H₂O (benzenediazonium chloride).

6. What is Hofmann's bromamide reaction?

Hofmann's bromamide reaction is a method for the reduction of amides to amines. The
reaction involves treating an amide with bromine (Br₂) in the presence of a strong base
(NaOH).
Example: RCONH₂ + Br₂ + NaOH → RNH₂ + Na₂CO₃.
7. What is Gabriel phthalimide synthesis?
The Gabriel phthalimide synthesis is a method for preparing primary amines by reacting
phthalimide with an alkyl halide, followed by hydrolysis.
Example: Phthalimide + RCH₂Br → RNH₂ (after hydrolysis).

8. What is the difference between aliphatic and aromatic amines?

o Aliphatic amines have nitrogen attached to alkyl groups (e.g., methyl, ethyl).
o Aromatic amines have nitrogen attached to an aromatic ring (e.g., aniline,
C₆H₅NH₂).

9. How can you distinguish between primary, secondary, and tertiary amines?
Amines can be distinguished by their reactivity with reagents like nitrous acid (HNO₂):
o Primary amines form diazonium salts.
o Secondary amines do not react in the same way but form a stable intermediate.
o Tertiary amines show little or no reaction with HNO₂.

10. What are the uses of amines in daily life?

Amines are used in various applications such as:

 Medicines (e.g., antihistamines, anesthetics).

 Dyes and pigments (e.g., aniline dyes).
 Cleaning agents and pesticides.

1.  Name the following compound: CH₃CH₂CH₂CH₂OH.

Answer: Butanol (butyl alcohol).
2.  Provide the IUPAC name for the compound with the structure:
CH₃CH=CHCH₃.
Answer: But-2-ene.
3.  What is the IUPAC name of the compound CH₃COOH?
Answer: Acetic acid (ethanoic acid).
4.  Give the IUPAC name for the compound C₆H₅CH₂OH.
Answer: Phenylmethanol (benzyl alcohol).
5.  Name the compound: CH₃CH₂CH₂Cl.
Answer: 1-Chloropropane.
6.  Provide the IUPAC name for the compound with the structure:
CH₃CH₂COCH₃.
Answer: Propan-2-one (acetone).
7.  What is the IUPAC name for the compound C₅H₁₀O?
Answer: Pentan-1-ol (if it’s an alcohol) or Pentanal (if it’s an aldehyde).
8.  Name the following compound: CH₃CH₂CH=CH₂.
Answer: But-1-ene.
9.  Provide the IUPAC name for 2-bromo-4-methylpentane.
Answer: 2-Bromo-4-methylpentane (already in IUPAC name form).
10.  What is the IUPAC name of the compound C₄H₉N?
Answer: Butanamine (butylamine).