Unit–VI: Geography of Economic Activities and Regional Development

• Agricultural Geography
1. Land capability classification and Land Use Planning,
2. Cropping Pattern: Methods of delineating crop combination regions (Weaver, Doi and
Rafiullah),
3. Crop diversification,
4. Von Thunen’s Model of Land Use Planning.
5. Measurement and Determinants of Agricultural Productivity,
6. Regional variations in Agricultural Productivity,
7. Agricultural Systems of the World.

Important Agriculture Terms

• Cropping Intensity
• Cropping intensity refers to the frequency of occurrence in an agricultural area, that is, the number
of times crops (frequency of crops) are grown in a crop year (crop year) on a certain agricultural
area. This frequency of crops is called the crop intensity of that particular area. Crop sequence
refers to the success area on which many other fruits are grown in a year apart from one crop. In a
way, it is a proportional relationship between the net sown area and the total cropped area in a
region. Tyagi (B.S., 1972) has used the term agricultural intensity in place of crop intensity.
Tripathi (Tripathi, R.R., 1970) has also suggested the term agricultural intensity in place of crop
intensity. Singh (Singh Jasbir, 1974) has used the term “land use efficiency” in place of cropping
intensity.

• Crop Combination
• All the crops produced in a particular area are studied under crop combination. There is a specific
crop in a unit area and along with it many minor crops are also grown. Along with the main crop,
farmers cultivate some food grains, pulses, oilseeds, fiber, or vegetables. Often it is also seen that if
pulses or oilseeds or vegetables or fibrous crops are in the first priority order in a particular area, then
along with that the farmer definitely produces one or the other food grain crop. In this way, the group
of major crops produced in an area or region is called crop combination.

• Cropping Pattern
• In an agricultural year (July to June), the agricultural method that is followed in a field or place is
called Cropping pattern or cropping system. Cropping pattern or cropping system refers to the
agricultural practices used in the production of crops on a farm or field. All types of cropping
sequence or cropping patterns are included in the cropping system. Crop sequence is the annual
sequence of growing crops or the system of growing crops in a place or area.
• “Cropping pattern means proportion of area under various crops at a point of time.
“Cropping pattern shows the sequence in which various crops are grown in a locality or a zone which is
influenced by agro-climatic and socio-econmic factors prevailing in the zone."
• There are mainly four types of cropping system prevalent in India

1. एकल फसल शस्यन (Mono culture)

2. शस्य चक्र (Crop rotation)
3. बहफसली
ु शस्यन (Multiple cropping)
4. श्रित शस्यन (Mixed cropping)

• Companion Crops
• Such crops are included in this group, which do not present any kind of hindrance in each other's
growth. Their roots use food and moisture from different surfaces. Thus there is no competition
among themselves. The crops are often 'spreading' to different heights. This does not stop their
spread. For this reason one crop is going to grow up and the other one is going to spread down, they
are called companions because these crops grow and grow together. And in the end both give good
yield. For example groundnut with cotton, pigeon pea + groundnut, wheat + mustard.
• Augmenting Crops
• This group includes crops that are sown as a secondary crop to increase the yield of a main crop,
such as mustard with Varseem. In the first harvesting of Varseem, yield is less, but sowing of
mustard makes up for this deficiency.
• Mixed Crops
• In this class, the seeds of crops are mixed before sowing and sown in sprinkles or rows. Like- wheat
+ gram, wheat + barley.
• Crop Concentration
• By concentration is meant the concentration of an element due to which it can be identified well. To
find out the crop concentration, the areas of different crops are superimposed on each other, so that
their regional concentration can be easily identified. For example, at the national level, there is a
concentration of rice in the eastern part of the country and millet in the western part (western
Rajasthan), whose agricultural areas do not overlap each other. Through crop concentration,
accurate information about the synthetic agricultural landscape of an area can be obtained, which
helps in determining the policies of agricultural planning. Qualitative and quantitative approaches
are used to determine crop concentration.
• Crop Diversification
• Crop diversity refers to the number of crops sown in an area at a particular time. It is an indicator of
multiplication of agricultural activities, which shows the intense competition between different
crops. The more intense this competition, the greater is the magnitude of crop diversity. On the
contrary, less competition encourages specialization or monoculture.
Agricultural Geography
• To define present-day ‘agricultural geography’ is a matter of considerable debate among
professional geographers. Etymologically, agricultural geography deals with the art and science of
domestication of plants and animals.
• According to Johnston (1985) agricultural geography has been defined as the study of spatial
variations in agricultural activity, involving both the description of such variations and attempts to
explain them
• The word ‘Krishi’ in Hindi is derived from the Sanskrit root ‘Krish’; Which means ‘plow’ or ‘pull’. Its
English equivalent word ‘Agriculture’ is derived from two Latin words ‘Agre’ meaning land or field and ‘
Cultura’ meaning the care of or cultivation which means ‘cultivating the land and producing crops’.

Concept of Land use

• Land use is one of the basic concepts of geographical studies. ‘Land’ is the most fundamental
resource of man. However, the terms, ‘land use’, ‘land utilization’ and ‘land resource utilization’
need to be specified, for these terms are often ambiguously used.
• ‘Land’ in common usage denotes the solid surface of the earth where man lives, builds houses, raises
crops and animals and puts it to various other uses. For geographers and agricultural scientists,
however, the term 'land' has much wider connotations.
• The terms land use and land utilization are often used interchangeably. However, Fox (1956)
elaborates that land use is the actual and specific use to which a land surface is put in terms of
inherent land use characteristics, while land utilization is the process of exploiting the land use that is
applied to specific objective.
• Some agricultural economists have used the term land resource utilization for land utilization
which denotes the use of land according to man's wishes (choice) for a specific purpose.

• Land Capability Classification

• In land capability classification, the texture and structure of soil, aspect of slope, terrain,
temperature, run-off and water availability are taken into consideration. In general, loamy soil is
ideally suited for the cultivation of rice, wheat, sugarcane, jute, pulses, gram and oilseeds while
cotton performs well in black soil.
• The cultivation of saffron is possible only in the Karewa lands, while bajra grows well in the
sandy soil. Thus land capability of a soil has certain physical properties which help in getting better
returns of certain crops.
• Concepts of Land (Use) Capability
• Land use capability denotes the production capacity of a unit of land. When net return from per
unit of and exceeds the cost of inputs the land capability is termed as good. On the basis of net
returns the land capability may be determined. The first-ever notable attempt at land capability was
made in the
U.S.A., followed by Stamp in Great Britain. Powers in Iraq and Dokuchaev in the east while
U.S.S.R. made quantitative analysis of land capability. In India, it has been done by the
Government Oraganizations and individual researchers.

• Land use studies were initiated in Great Britain by individual geographers as an academic pursuit
for the land utilization survey of Britain. In 1930, a scheme covering the entire country was
successfully accomplished and the field work began in 1931. Stamp generated a great
enthusiasm for the regional and systematic survey of land use of Britain.
• Similarly, in America, Sauer (1924), who pioneered land use survey, emphasized the need for
vigorous observation and field work for a detailed study of land use. Subsequently, Jones, Finch (
1925) stressed on the importance of land use classification for planning and development.

• In India, S.P. Chatterjee (1945-1952) is the pioneer of landuse surveying. He was followed by V.L
.S. Prakasharao (1947-1956) and O.P. Bhardwaj (1960-1964). Mohd. Shafi is the pioneer of land
use studies who published “The Land use Survey in Eastern Uttar Pradesh in 1962.”
• In several developed countries including India, land has been classified on the basis of land
capability, suitability, productivity and irrigability. Stamp (1960) introduced the concept of
Potential Production Unit (PPU) as a standard unit for land classification.
• A PPU may be defined as “the potential production of one acre of good average farm land
under good farm management practices”. By applying this technique, one may assess the loss of
cultivated land if that is devoted to some other uses e.g. industries, housing etc. The Potential
Production Unit is a good technique for the delineation of land capability regions.
Qualitative Land Classification Systems Classification of Land in Britain
• The first systematic land classification was done by Stamp (1930) in England. The entire land
was surveyed between 1930-33 with the help of volunteers (students and teachers) drawn from
schools, colleges and universities. The report of the countries in respect of land use was prepared in
92 parts and a comprehensive volume “Land of Britain: its use and Misuse, 1948” was brought out.
• The land of Britain has been accordingly classified into ten types numbered 1 to 10. These ten
groups were grouped into three major categories: good, medium and poor quality of land. The good
quality land includes types 1 to 4, while poor quality land includes types 7 to 10 and 5 and 6
belong to the intermediate (medium) category.
• It is to be noted that this survey started as an academic exercise, but during the World War II, when
the import of foodgrains in Britain was almost cut off, these maps helped in increasing food
production of Britain and also proved a powerful aid in the correct land use planning of Britain

• The first method of land use is called the British method. In fact the aim of this method is to "
factually record the various uses of land on the scale (1 : 10560) of the survey six inches equal to one
mile scale obtained by land-use survey researches in Britain".
• It was published in parts prepared by voluntary workers on the basis of ordinances maps. This
land- use survey was done by The corresponding report of land-use survey, 92 received facts were
shown on the scale map of 1: 63360.
• A second land use survey of Britain was started in 1960 by Alice Coleman. There was a dire need
to incorporate changes that had occurred in the landuse during the last three decades. The second
survey was more detailed than the previous one and it was published on a scale 1:25,000.

Alice
Coleman

• Major Class I (First Class Land) If agriculture is done properly on this class of land, proper
production can be obtained. This type of land is again divided into four sub-divisions.
• 1. Land suitable for intensive agriculture – Here deep and loamy type soil and developed water
drainage are found. Agriculture can be done here in all seasons.
• 2. Good and generally cultivated land – The soil here is less deep. In this, agricultural work is
easily possible in a few seasons only. This land has limited utility.
• 3. Best land but suitable for grass – Such land is more suitable for grass than crops.
• 4. Best land but whose soil is heavy – this land is suitable for only a few crops.

• Major class II (ordinary class land) Ordinary production is obtained even after cultivating this class
land in a systematic manner. It has 2 subcategories.
• 5. Ordinary type of light soil land – it has less depth and less slope. The amount of sand is more in
this type of agricultural land. Here the soil is suitable.
• 6. Normal type of land of public use – Its gradient is sharp. In this category of land, along with
pebbles, shallowness or heaviness, other defects are also found.
• Major class III (low grade land) It is a land of limited production which is defective due to soil and
condition. It can be divided into 4 subcategories.
• 7. Low grade heavy soil land – It is made up of dense and smooth soil. Plowing with tractor is not
possible in this.
• 8. Low Range Mountain Moorland – This is the land of mountainous semi-vegetated areas.
• 9. Low grade light soil land – This is a land containing pebbles and sand. This includes heath areas.
• 10. Alkaline land of low grade - Alkaline soil areas are included in this.
 Classification of Land in the U.S.A.
• In the United States Sauer (1924) pioneered the land survey. Finch (1933) made the first attempt
to classify land on a map of a scale of 1:15,840 wherein the combinations of slope, soil, drainage,
general landuse, specific landuse and quality of land cover were recorded in the form of a fractional
notation.
• A more rational technique of classification was developed for the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA)
by the United States National Resource Planning Board in 1940.
• The resultant 5 types of land for agricultural purposes include:
• Class 1: Excellent land-well suited to intensive cultivation.
• Class 2: Good land-well suited to arable farming and under proper farm management practices suited
to moderately intensive farming.
• Class 3: Medium land-suited to less intensive forms of agriculture, or suited to a general type of
agriculture under careful farm management.
• Class 4: Poor land-even under proper management practices, it is poorly suited to agriculture, ideal
for grazing only.
• Class 5: Very poor land-not suited either to agriculture or grazing, but in most cases suited to
forestry, recreation etc. and in cases wasteland and barrenland.

Classification of Land in India

• The assessment system devised by the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization (
CSIRO) for use in Australia has been widely used elsewhere. In India, the All India Soil and Land
Use Survey Organization attempted a land capability classification in 1960 and a revised one in 1970.
Accordingly, the following eight classes have been recognized:
• Land Suitable for Cultivation
• Class I: Very good cultivable land with no specific difficulty in farming.
• Class II: Good cultivable land which needs protection from erosion or floods, drainage improvement
and conservation of irrigation water.
• Class III: Moderately good cultivable land where special attention has to be paid to control erosion and
floods, conserve irrigation water and intensive drainage.
• Class IV: Fairly good land suited for occasional or limited cultivation, needs intensive control of
erosion, intensive drainage and very intensive treatment to overcome soil limitations.
• Land not Suitable for Cultivation
• Class V: Very well suited for grazing but not for arable farming, needs protection from gullying.
• Class VI: Well suited for grazing or forestry, but not for arable farming.
• Class VII: Fairly well suited for grazing or forestry but not for arable farming.
• Class VIII: Suited only for wildlife, recreational facilities and protection of water supplies.

Agricultural Productivity
• Productivity may be defined as output per unit of input or per unit of area. In other words, it is input-
output ratio. In traditional measurement of agricultural productivity, geographers and economists
used to take into account the inputs like labour and capital and see them as costs incurred in the
production of agricultural produce. The traditional approach however, does not take into account the
social and environmental costs incurred in the production of crops and raising of livestock.
Nowadays, these factors have become increasingly important in the measurement of agricultural
productivity.
 • In the recent decades geographers and economists have developed techniques to determine
the agricultural productivity. Jasbir Singh and Dhillon (2006) have
reviewed them as under:
1. Assessing output per unit area.
2. Measuring production per unit of farm labour.
3. Determining input-output ratio. (Khusro, 1964)
4. Assessing agricultural production as grain equivalents. (Buck, 1967; de vries, 1967; Clark
and Haswell, 1967)
5. Considering output per unit area or yields per hectare after ranking them, thereby deriving
ranking coefficients.
(Kendall, 1939; stamp, 1960; Shafi 1960).
6. Giving weightage to the ranking order of the output per unit area with the percentage share
under each crop.
(Sapre and Deshpande, 1964, Bhatia, 1967).
7. Using the carrying capacity of land in terms of population. (Stamp, 1958, 1967)
8. Determining productivity index (Enyedi, 1964; Shafi, 1972, 1974).
9. Computing the crop yield and concentration indices ranking coefficient (Jasbir Singh, 1976)
10. Involving the area, production, and price of each crop in each areal unit of the region and
relating the out turn in terms of money of the unit to the corresponding productivity of the
region (Husain, 1976)
11. Delimiting agricultural productivity by computing the intensity and spread indicies of yield,
grain equivalents and cropping system (Singh, VR, 1979).
12. Assessing net income (farm business income) in terms of money (Jasbir Singh et.al 1985)
13. Weighted composite level of agricultural performance
(Jasbir Singh, et.al, 1990).
14. Crop productivity efficiency levels (Jasbir Singh, 1997).
Kendall’s Ranking Co-efficient Method, 1935

• The ranking coefficient technique is quite simple and easy to apply. In this technique the
component areal units are ranked according to the per hectare yields of crops and the
arithmetical average rank called the ranking coefficient for each unit is obtained.
• It is obvious that a component areal unit with relatively high yields will have low ranking
coefficient, indicating a high agricultural productivity and vice versa.
• In other words, if a component areal unit was at the top of every list it would have a ranking
coefficient of one and thus having the highest agricultural productivity and if it were at the
bottom of every list, it would have a ranking coefficient equal to total number of units
considered, showing the lowest agricultural productivity among the constituent units.
• The ranking coefficient method can be illustrated with the help of an example. Suppose, in a
region, there are 80 component areal units. In x component areal unit, on the basis of average
yields, wheat ranks 5, rice 12, gram 20, cotton 21, barley 34, sugarcane 38, pulses 40 and
mustard 54. The average rank, called the ranking coefficient of the areal unit x would be:
• The average ranked position of all the units of the region is thus calculated and then arranged in an
ascending or descending array. The array is divided into five equal parts to obtain the very low, low,
medium, high and very high agricultural productivity.
• For the calculation of agricultural productivity, Kendall first used the rank coefficient method. In this
, unit production of each sector has been used for determination of agricultural productivity. He
considered the yield per acre of ten main crops as the basis for determining the productivity of 48
counties of England.
• Although simplicity is the main feature of this method. But it has two limitations.
• First, in this method the area of ​crops is not given a place.
• Second, no normative level of productivity has been specified to determine the relative status of
any one. For example, unit ‘A’ ranks first in per acre production of wheat but here the area under
wheat is only 1 percent. Therefore, despite the high production per acre, it is negligible in terms
of area.
• Stamp has used Kendall’s rank coefficient method on the basis of production per acre of nine
major crops of 20 countries.
• This method was first used in India by Prof. Shafi on the basis of yield per acre of eight crops
to determine the agricultural potential of all the districts of Uttar Pradesh.
• Sapre and Deshpande (1964) removed this shortcoming of the rank coefficient method and
determined the agricultural productivity of Maharashtra. For this purpose scholars have used “
weighted average rank coefficient”.
• SS Bhatia (1967) used “Efficiency index method” to determine the agricultural productivity of
Uttar Pradesh. The yield index was calculated on the basis of both yield rate and area of ​11 major
crops. The following formula was used for yield index.
• Enyedi (1964) devised a technique for determining an index of productivity coefficient, which
was adopted by Shafi (1972, 1974) with some modifications for determining the productivity
indices in respect of twelve food crops of India.
• Enyedi's formula of productivity index is:
where, Y is the total production of the selected crop in unit area,
• Yn is the total production of the same crop on national scale,
• T is the total cropped area of the unit area, and
• Tn is the total cropped area at national scale.
• Enyedi's technique is commendable as it determines the productivity index of an area with
reference to national level. However, the technique suffers from two weaknesses:
1. It does not consider that in certain cases the productivity index is influenced by the magnitude of
the area under a specific crop.
2. When the district yield is less than the national yield, its productivity index is higher than the
national level.
• Jasbir Singh (1976) introduced the crop yield and concentration indices ranking coefficient
technique in order to assess the regional differences in the levels of food production and to
delimit the weaker areas from the point of view of agricultural production only in the Oriental
World.
• Two elements the average food crop yields and proportions of these crops in the total
harvested area have been used for measuring the index of the level of food production. In order
to determine food productivity in Haryana, Jasbir Singh computed the crop yield and
concentration indices ranking coefficient with the help of the following formulae:
 The levels of agricultural productivity were ascertained: It may be noted that the lower the
ranking coefficient, the higher the level of agricultural productivity and vice versa.
Von Thunen's theory of agricultural location
• Agricultural land use
• The principles of agricultural land use depend on the context by which methods maximum
production can be obtained from a certain area of ​land and the cost used in agricultural work is
relatively low, due to which one or more of the following aspects are necessary to maximize
production. Make the benefits accessible.
• J.H. Von Thunen, 1783-1850
• In the context of agricultural land use, the contribution of Johann Heijridge Von Thunen (J.H.
Von Thunen, 1783-1850) presented in the nineteenth century is particularly remarkable. He was
a German scholar who was the manager of a farm in Mecklenburg. Based on his long-term
experiences and economic considerations, he propounded a theory of agricultural land use in
1826 (book – The Isolated State), which is popularly known as Von Thunen's theory'. He was
a qualified economist and an experienced agricultural economist. That's why he has
incorporated both these aspects in his theory.
• The main features of this theory are as follows –
• He has imagined such a vast agricultural area which is found in the form of an isolated state
and in which only one city is located. Although such conditions are beyond reality, yet he had to
select this reality to clarify his theory. Geographically, this is just an imaginary situation.
• He considered this one city as the source of both production and consumption. Along with this
, facilities for uniform soil fertility, yield potential of crops, cost and expenditure towards
transportation were imagined which are not implemented in reality. Especially the
assumption of equal production capacity and equal traffic is an uncomfortable hypothesis from
the geographical point of view. But Von Thunen abandoned even such real references to simplify
his ideological persuasion.
• He has assumed that the cost of transport increases in proportion to the distance and weight,
which appears to be true only in certain contexts.
• According to him, in addition to that one town, rural settlements would have spread in that
agricultural area. Farmers will be interested to get maximum profit and will be able to grow
crops in their agriculture field as per the demand of the market located in that city.
• According to the above assumptions, as the distance around the market area increases, the
production area of ​crops will continuously decrease. If the natural importance of various
enterprises of increasing distance in the city is kept in mind, then on that basis enterprises of more
importance will be found implemented near the city and enterprises of less importance away from
the city.
• A- vegetable production area
• B- dairy farming
• C- meat and animal production
• D- negligible market impact

1. wheat
2. meat animal husbandry
3. Dairy farming
4. vegetable production
According to this theory, the profit of any farmer is based on
three factors which can be defined by the following formula –

P = V - (E + T)
जहाँ, P = किक
ृ का लाभ (profit),
V = िस्त का षििय िल्य (selling price),
E= उत्पादि की लागत (expense), और
T = पररिहि (transport) की लागत के द्योतक हैं।

• Von Thunen's opinion is that only those crops are produced on any land area from which
maximum economic benefits are obtained. This economic benefit can be calculated from the
following formula –
• L =Y (P - C) - YD (F)
• जहाँ, L = अिस्थापिात्िक भकरू (locational rent)
• Y = प्रनत इकाई भमि की उपज (प्रनत िगभ ककिी० टि िें) (the crop yield), ू
• P = उपज का बाजार िल्य (market price of the crop), ू
• C = उपज की उत्पादि लागत (production expense),
• D = बाजार की दरी (distance to the central market), ू
• F = पररिहि लागत (transport cost)
• As the distance of agricultural production area from the domicile (village/city) increases, in the
same way, differences are visible in the form of crops. Similarly, as the distance from the market
increases, productivity and net profit also decrease and changes in land use are also visible.
• According to the above formula, the outer limit of agricultural belt will be indicative of the
decreasing profit due to the increase in conversion cost and wherever such profit ends, this outer
limit will be fixed. The boundaries of the inner sub-categories in the agricultural belt will be based on
both options of high profit and low profit crops and increasing distance from the market, in which the
impact of changes will continue to be on these sub-categories.
• Van thuneen has mentioned 6 belts to develop around the central city.
• The first belt near the city will be of intensive agriculture, in which works like vegetables, milk
business etc. will be completed. These are quickly perishable substances which are used
continuously on priority in human life.
• Firewood was of great importance in the economy of that time. So they made the second belt as a
fuel wood production belt. In the modern context, when coal or gas is being used as fuel, the
imagination of this type of belt seems uncomfortable.
• In the third belt, that activity of agricultural land use has been considered in which the land
cannot be left fallow due to the active work of food production. In connection with this belt, he
also accepted the presence of a flowing river, because irrigation would be very necessary for
agricultural land use without leaving fallow, for which the presence of river water was necessary
in the contemporary context. According to modern resources, this work can be done by tube wells
in addition to the river.
• The fourth belt has been considered as the area of ​food production in which both fallow and
grazing lands are contained. Irrigation is less required in this belt.

• The fifth belt will be based on a three-farm system, with about one-third of the area under
extensive cultivation, the second under fallow and the third under animal husbandry. In the remote
parts of the belt, there will be excess of pasture area.
• The sixth belt will be a special belt for the animal husbandry industry. Detailed animal husbandry
will be done in this. According to the requirement, the belt of animal husbandry-industry has been
considered in the remote parts of the city.
• Criticism of theory
• This theory of Von Thuneen is of static type in which no place has been given to the changes taking
place in the form of land use with technological development. That is why it seems to be irrelevant in
the context of modern developed economy.
• The relation and form of agricultural production and grain belts reflected by Von Thunen is still seen
in Uruguay.
• Due to factors like mechanization, crop combination and crop balance in agriculture, there has been a
lot of change in the conditions since Von Thuneen's time till now. Due to the special importance of
intensive agriculture in a densely populated country like India, Von Thuneen's non-agricultural belts
have become irrelevant.
• Von Thuneen envisioned equality of soil fertility, perfect flatness of land, equality of natural
environment, equality of technical and economic factors, convenience of one central city and one
market, and farm (agriculture) located in Mecklenburg in all parts of the world. The theory which has
been propounded by assuming symmetry has now remained as a historical background.
• According to Sinclair (1967), Von Thune's theory is suitable for underdeveloped parts of the world
but it is out of date for developed countries.
• McCarty and Lindbergh (1966) first studied how and to what extent the limits of optimum
economic conditions would be determined and presented the “law of optimum economic
conditions and limits”. The basis of his theory is David Rickard's “Theory of Economic Rent”.
According to the records, “Economic Rent” means obtaining production more than the marginal
productivity of the land.
• R. B. Mandal's (1980) model of rural land use is based on polar and antipodal concepts.
Crop Combinations
• All the crops produced in a particular area are studied under crop combination. There is a specific
crop in a unit area and along with it many minor crops are also grown. Along with the main crop,
farmers cultivate some food grains, pulses, oilseeds, fiber, or vegetables. Often it is also seen that if
pulses or oilseeds or vegetables or fibrous crops are in the first priority order in a particular area,
then along with that the farmer definitely produces one or the other food grain crop. In this way, the
group of major crops produced in an area or region is called crop combination.
• The methods applied in the delineation of crop combination regions can be categorized under
two headings:
1. Arbitrary choice method which is not rational and objective, as involves irrational exclusion of
certain crops from being considered.
2. Statistical method which is more accurate, reliable and scientific as it gives better objective
grouping of crops of a region. The statistical techniques have been modified suitably by the
geographers from time to time.
• Husain demarcated first ranking crops (1991-92) of Uttar Pradesh, using the first method. Crops
were selected on the basis of their area strength (area occupied by each of them in a given year). The
crop occupying the highest percentage of the total cropped area in each of the component units was
chosen. He found rice in 28 districts, wheat in 26 and gram in 4 districts as first ranking crop.

J. C. Weaver's Method, 1954, “Crop Combination Regions in the Middle West, U.S.A.”
• Weaver (1954) was the first to use the statistical technique to demarcate the crop-combinations
of the Mid-West (U.S.A.). Weaver based his analysis on acreage statistics. He computed the
percentage of total harvested crop land occupied by each crop that held as much as 1% of the total
cultivated land in each of the 1081 countries covered in his work.
• He calculated deviation of the real percentages of crops (occupying over 1% of the cropped area)
for all possible combinations in the areal units against a theoretical standard. The theoretical
curve for the standard measurement was employed as follows:
• Monoculture = 100% of the total harvested crop land in one crop.
• 2-crop combination = 50% in each of two crops.
• 3-crop combination = 33.3% in each of three crops.
• 4-crop combination = 25% in each of four crops.
• 5-crop combination = 20% in each of five crops.
• 10-crop combination = 10% in each of ten crops.
• For the determination of the minimum deviation the standard deviation method was used,
applying the following formula:
• where, d is the difference between the actual crop percentages in a given unit and the appropriate
percentage in the theoretical curve, and
• n is the number of crops in a given combination.
• As Weaver pointed out, the relative not absolute value being significant, square roots were not
extracted so, The actual formula used was as follows:

• To illustrate the Weaver's technique an illustration can be given from Gorakhpur district in which
the percentage share of crops in the cropped area in a year was as follows: rice 48 per cent, wheat 23
per cent, barley 15 per cent, sugarcane 6 per cent, and gram 5 per cent.
The deviation of the actual percentages from the theoretical curve is seen to be the lowest for a 3-crop
combination. This result established the identity and the number of crops in the basic combination for
the district as RWB (rice-wheat-barley).
• The criticisms of the model propounded by Weaver have been made on the basis of the
following facts -
• Equal importance has been given to all crops in their model, which is not appropriate from a
practical point of view. This is also the hypothetical idea of ​Weaver.
• This model of theirs is not appropriate for the crop combination of countries with subsistence
agriculture, because these parts have one or two important crops, and the rest are secondary. The
results are not correct in calculating the combination of crops of these countries.
• Weaver has not given a place to animals in crop-combination determination, whereas in some
regions mutual relation between animals and crops is important.
• When the number of crops is more, the form of value is found changing. In the beginning of
the calculation, the combination value is high and gradually it decreases. But after reaching a limit
, this value starts increasing again.
• Weaver used his model in the cropping pattern of the Midwest region of USA where the units
of study are almost the same. Also limited crops are produced here. On the contrary, in other
regions of the world the units are unequal and the number of crops is also found to be more than
20. Weaver has not taken such problems into account in his model.
• Weaver's method used in crop combination has been applied largely by geographers. Scholars like
Scott (1957), Bennett (1961), Coppock (1964) have followed this method in demarcating crop and
livestock combinations. Johnson and Teufner (1968) used it for demarcating industry combinations.
Rafiullah (1956) and Hoag (1969) have shown its short comings, while Doi (1959, 1970), Thomas (
1963) Ahmad and Siddiqui (1967), Husain (1976), and Jasbir Singh (1977) used it after suitable
modifications.
Kikukazu Doi's Method, 1959
• Weaver's technique was modified by Doi (1959). Prior to the application of computer programming
facilities, Doi's technique was considered to be the easiest for crop-combination analysis. Doi used the
following formula:

• In Doi's technique, it is not required to calculate (Ed²) for each combination but the crop
combination is actually established by One Sheet Table representing critical values for various
elements at different ranks against cumulative percentage of elements at higher ranks.
• It is the modified method of Weaver which was used by Doi to find out the industrial structure
of Japan and which is most valid at present. Its ideological basis is economic like that of Weaver
. Doi has also assumed that cultivated land is equally distributed among all crops.
• The difference between theoretical and actual percentage has also been determined in the same way
as Weaver. The difference between these two techniques is that instead of Weaver's diffusion
formula , Doi has considered the sum of the squares of the differences i.e. [d] as the basis of
crop combination. This makes a huge difference in the number of crops as compared to Weaver's
method.
Maximum Positive Deviation Method
• Looking at the inherent weakness of Weaver's method which tends to include all or most of the crops
in the series by which the resultant combination becomes overgeneralized, Rafiullah (1956)
developed a new deviation method in his work “A New Approach to the Functional Classification
of Towns”. The technique devised by Rafiullah may be expressed as follows:
• where d is the deviation,
• Dp is the positive difference and
• Dn is the negative difference from the median value of the theoretical curve value of the combination,
and
• N is the number of functions (crops) in the combination.
• Since it is the relative rank of the value of deviation which is needed, the under root sign may be
ignored to save laborious calculations and the formula may be used in the following form:
• The maximum positive deviation method includes lesser number of crops in combination and thus
avoids the inclusion of insignificant crops from the combination. The statistical technique
advocated by Rafiullah is more accurate objective and scientific, and therefore quite popular for the
delineation of crop combination regions.
• Following Rafiullah's method, Husain (1995) presented the crop combination regions map of Uttar
Pradesh, using the average data of 1991-1994.
• Coppock (1964) using a modified version of Weaver's method produced crop and livestock
combinations as well as combinations of enterprises in England and Wales. His objective was not
merely to plot the combinations of crops and livestock but the grouping together of these as to reveal
distribution of types of farm enterprise.
• This includes comparison of unequal units, e.g. livestock with crops and potatoes and grains. For
equating the different unequal units, Coppock took into account the feed requirements. Livestock units
with slightly varying equivalent are widely used today in calculations of food requirements and
farming intensity.

Schemes of Agricultural Regionalisation

• A geographic classification of agricultural landscape is, therefore, needed to make a regional
analysis and synthesis of crop production and livestock raising and other characteristics. “
Agricultural Region is an uninterrupted area having some kind of homogeneity with
specifically defined outer limit.” – Whittlesey (1936)
• Whittlesey was the first person who made an attempt to classify agricultural types
scientifically. In the year 1936, Whittlesey had classified the agricultural systems of the world
into thirteen parts on the base of region. The first scientific attempt for the Whittlesey in his
paper “Major agricultural regions of the Earth” published in 1936 in the Annals of Association
of American Geographers.

Whittlesey’s Classification
• Whittlesey believed that the regional pattern of agriculture is determined by the interaction
between the two sets of variable – physical and non-physical.
• The physical environment sets the limit for the production of crops and raising of livestock. The
terrain, climate, soil and water are the most important elements of natural environment.
• The non-physical elements of environment include human circumstances which exploit natural
environmental conditions to suit human requirements. These elements include such elements as
institutional, bio-chemical, techno- organisational, demographic, cultural and infrastructural.
• Whittlesey adopted a five-fold criteria in the classification of agricultural types given as under:
1. Crop and livestock combination of the structural character of the system.
2. Methods and techniques used to grow crops and raise livestock.
3. Intensiveness in the application of inputs (labour, capital and organisation) to land.
4. Disposal of agricultural produce or livestock products whether used for subsistence or sold off.
5. Ensemble of structures used to house the farm operations or farm buildings.
 1. Nomadic Herding
2. Livestock Ranching
3. Shifting Cultivation
4. Rudimental Sedentary Tillage
5. Intensive Subsistence Tillage with Rice Dominance
6. Intensive Subsistence Tillage without Paddy Rice
7. Commercial Plantation Tillage
8. Mediterranean Agriculture
9. Commercial Grain Farming
10. Commercial Crops and Livestock Farming
11. Subsistence Livestock Crop Farming
12. Commercial Dairy Farming
13. Specialized Horticulture and olericulture

1. Nomadic Herding
• Nomadic herding is a form of extensive subsistence agriculture involving the grazing of
domesticated animals on natural pastures. It require constant or seasonal migration of the
nomads and their flocks. It is adapted to dry climates where intensive subsistence agriculture is
difficult or impossible. The great arid belt of the world stretching from the Atlantic shores of
the Sahara Desert to the Steppes of Mongolia has been occupied by oases farmers and
pastoral nomads for the past 3000 years.
• Initially, it was thought that nomadic herding was a stage in the evolution of agriculture from the
hunters and gatherers who migrated across the earth's surface in search of food to the sedentary
farmer who cultivated grain in one place. They domesticated animals instead of plants.
• The life of the nomadic herders is traditionally very dependent upon their animals who provide
food, clothing, transport and shelter. The nomads travel very light, have few personal possession
and live in temporary homes such as ‘Yurts’ or tents. The extra requirement is obtained by
trading with caravan merchants, while some nomads stay for long periods in one place growing
a few basic food crops.
• Nomadic herding is a declining form of agriculture. True nomads have mostly become semi
nomads, and the semi- nomads are moving towards a sedentary existence.
• Distribution:
• Nomadic herding is practiced in large belt of arid and semi arid lands that includes north
Africa, the Middle East and parts of Central Asia.
• In Africa, nomadic herding is practised by the Fulani of West African Savannas, the Masais in
East Africa, the Nuba in Ethiopia and Sudan, the Bantu and Hottentots of Southern Africa is
Botswana, the Tuareg of the Sahara and the Bedouins of Saudi Arabia in the Middle East.
• In Central Asia, from the Caspian Sea to Mongolia and northern China, the Kirghiz, Kazakhs
and Kalmuks were the main nomadic herders. In the tundra lands of Siberia, Yakuts, Samoyeds
and Koriaks and Lapps in Scandinavian have all been nomadic herders but they are tending to
settle down or have already settled.
2. Shifting Cultivation
• Shifting cultivation is the oldest form of agriculture which originated about 7000-8000 BC,
when man made an attempt to switch to food production from food gathering activities. The
term ‘cultivation’ is used rather than agriculture to describe this means of obtaining food because
agriculture implies greater use of tools and animals, and more sophisticated attempts to modify the
landscape.
• Shifting cultivation is the primitive form of soil utilization usually of tropical rainforests and
bush areas of Central Africa, Central America and South east Asia. In this system farming is
on a self-sufficient basis and farmers grow food only for themselves and their families. The
either exchange the surpluses by barter or sell for cash. This economy is, thus, static with little
chance for improvement.
• The cultivated patches are usually very small, about 0.5-1.0 hectare. A number of crops are
simultaneously grown in the same plot. The land is used to grow crops for only a short time,
usually three years or less.
• The old site is left uncropped for many years and is allowed to be over run by natural vegetation.
The villagers return to the site 6-20 years later to begin the process of clearing the land again.
This is called field rotation.
• Distribution:
• Shifting cultivation is carried on chiefly in regions with a tropical forest climate. The tropical
regions of Americas, Central Africa, and South-east Asia may be identified as the home of
shifting cultivation. In these regions, agriculture is known as migratory, primitive, cut and burn
, slash-and-burn, and bush fallow agriculture.
• Shifting cultivation is known by different names is different parts of the world.
• For example, it is called as Chiltenene and Masole in central Africa, Tavy in Malagasy, Berbecho
and Coamlle in Mexico, Conuco in Venezuela, Derrubdas, Quemadas and Roca in Brazil, Milpa in
central America; Ladang in Malaysia; Djuma in Sumatra; Humah in Java; Kaingin in Philippines;
Tamral in Thailand; Ray in Laos, Taungya in Myanmar and Chena in Sri Lanka.
• In India, shifting cultivation is known by several names such as Jhum in north east India; Podu,
Dabi, Koman and Bringa in Orissa, Kumari in Western Ghats, Walra in south eastern Rajasthan
and Penda, Bewar or Dahia in Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh.
• Shifting cultivation has two important characteristics:
1. Farmers usually clear the land for planting in part by slashing the vegetation and burning the
debris,
2. Farmers grow crops on a cleared field for only a few years and then leave it fallow for many years
.
• Merits
• Shifting cultivation is the most environmentally sound form of agriculture in the tropics. Practices
associated with other forms of agriculture involving fertilizers and clearing of forests are likely to
damage the soil and upset the ecological balance in the humid tropics. Elimination of shifting
cultivation could also upset the traditional culture of the tribal people.
• Demerits
1. It destroys natural resources and genetic wealth. Inadequate land management practices cause
deforestation and soil erosion.
2. It is a relatively inefficient approach to growing food in a hungry world. Shifting cultivation
supports only a low level of population in an area.
3. Shifting cultivation is at best preliminary step in the process of economic development of society.

3. Rudimentary Sedentary Tillage

• In many parts of the world agrarian communities practice subsistence cultivation to feed
themselves and their family. It is normally practiced in environments not suitable for
commercial livestock rearing and crop production. The general farming practice of the
rudimentary sedentary cultivator and the nature of his products are almost similar to those of the
shifting cultivator, except that the farmer does his job more carefully in clearing and
preparing the land, and in cultivating and harvesting the crops. His greater interest in tilling
the soils demands better tools. He employs methods which are more advanced than those used
by shifting cultivators. This agricultural system is more reliable than shifting cultivation.
• Distribution:
• Rudimentary sedentary cultivation is mostly confined to the tropical lands of central and south
America, Africa and South east Asia.
• Characteristics
• Crop rotation rather than field rotation is practised and greater attention is paid to the land and
the crop sown. However, all the work is done by hands. Ploughing and hoeing of the soil is done
with crude hand-implements. There is more employment of man power in the field.
• Most of the crops grown under rudimentary sedentary tillage belong to the tuber and cereal
family, such as potatoes, sweet potatoes, maize and sorghum, cassava, banana etc. These are
subsistence crops and are frequently supplemented with cash crops, particularly tree crops, such
as coffee, cocoa, oil palm, coconut, palm, rubber, etc.

4. Intensive Subsistence Tillage (With Paddy dominance)

• Intensive subsistence (paddy dominant) tillage is largely confined to monsoon lands where rice
farming system is virtually a monoculture. The notable areas are: the Kwangtung in China, the
Tonking delta in North Vietnam, the lower Mekong flood plain in Cambodia, the Mekong delta in
South Vietnam, the lower Menam flood plain in Thailand, the lower Irawaddy plain in Myanmar,
the Ganga-Brahmaputra delta in India and Bangladesh and the coastal plains of Orissa and Andhra
Pradesh in India. Apart from these “rice-bowls”, rice occupies significant area in Korea, parts of
southern China, South-western Japan and Taiwan.
• Characteristics:
• The size of holdings is very small. In most of south and east Asia, the average farm size is less
than one hectare. In China, however, after the revolution of 1949, many farms were consolidated
under communist rule into large collective farms called ‘commune’.
• Farming is very intensive. Every inch of cultivable land is utilized. Farmers waste no land to
maximize food production (double-cropping). Most farmers cannot afford to buy the
machinery. Traditional method of agriculture and dominant role of hand labour.
• Animal rearing has little importance in rice dominant agriculture. However, poultry farming
is quite common and pigs are kept as scavengers on Chinese and Japanese farms. Fish culture is
practised in ponds and rice fields.
5. Intensive Subsistence Tillage (Without Paddy dominance)
• The areas bordering the regions of paddy dominance are characterised by summer
precipitation and harsh winters. The short growing season and other favourable physical
conditions discourage intensive paddy cultivation. In these regions, farmers have adopted
drought resistant cereal farming. In north-western parts of India and north east China, crops
other than rice find favour with the farmers.
• The region has most of the characteristics of intensive subsistence rice dominant agriculture.
Land is intensively used. Human power is employed with the assistance of some hand
implements and animals. Manures and fertilizers are used. Irrigation is often employed to
make up for water scarcity.
• Distribution:
• A wide range of crops is grown in north China, Manchuria, North Korea, Northern Japan and
North west India. Wheat, soyabean, barley and Kaoliang (a millet) are the chief crops grown. In
the interior of Indian peninsula and the Indus Basin, millet is the dominant crop. In the dry areas
of Myanmar, Korat plateau of Thailand and the interior regions of Indo-China millets, maize,
groundnut, cotton, sugarcane and oilseeds are grown. In regions with milder climate, more than
one harvest is obtained through skilled use of crop rotation. In colder climates, wheat or another
crop is raised.
• Characteristics:
• Growing food is given more importance because of the high density of population. Draught cattle
are fairly common. Bullocks and water buffaloes are used for heavy work. Swine, poultry and
goats are also domesticated. By and large, milch animals are not very important because the
available arable land is scarce. Farming in these regions suffers from frequent crop failures, and
famines because droughts and floods are frequent due to erratic rainfall.

6. Subsistence Crop and Livestock Farming

• In this type of farming, farmers produce crops and raise livestock mainly for their own
consumption. They do not earn cash income, so they cannot afford to buy modern machinery
and good breeding stock. The returns are obviously low.
• Distribution:
• Extensive areas were devoted to subsistence crops and livestock farming in east Europe, Russia,
Middle East and Mexico during the Pre-World War II period. After the World War II, many
holdings were collectivized in the social countries of Europe and Russia. This sort of agriculture is
practised in some parts of south Mexico, Turkey, Iran, Iraq etc., but it is becoming increasingly
commercial in organization.
• Characteristics
• The methods employed to grow subsistence crops and raise low-grade animals are primitive.
Manual labour and animal power is mostly applied.
• Seeds are of poor quality and animals of low stocks. Grazing lands are poorly managed.
• Capital generation is very low. Barley and wheat are the most important cereals. Rye and maize
are the chief food grains for the people, and potatoes and barley are other staples.
• Carts still remain the most important and economic means of transportation.
• Near the developing urban centres, market gardens and dairy farms are evolving.

7. Mediterranean Agriculture
• Geographically speaking, Mediterranean agriculture is the most popular form of all types of
agriculture. It is an ancient system of agriculture representing a more stable collaboration
between man and nature.
• Distribution:
• Mediterranean agriculture exists primarily in the lands bordering the Mediterranean Sea in
southern Europe, northern Africa, Western Asia, California, Central Chile, and the south western
part of South Africa and Australia. All the Mediterranean lands share a similar physical
environment. The climate in these lands is characterised by moist and mild winters and hot
and dry summers. Sea breezes provide some relief.
• Characteristics
• The most common feature of the Mediterranean agriculture is the occurrence of both
subsistence and cash crops in the economy of each of its regions.
• The relative emphasis on the production of crops both for commercial and subsistence
farming varies with rainfall. For example, the chief products of North African countries viz.
Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia, are barley and goat-skin, as the region receives little rainfall, the
chief product of southern Europe is wheat and sheep-skin. The nature of cultivation is both
intensive and extensive.
• In the bordering areas of Mediterranean Sea, the two most important cash crops are olives and
grapes. Two thirds of the world's wine is produced in Italy, France and Spain. Greece
specializes in raisins and wine and Spain in oranges, olive oil and wine.
• Olives and grapes are the most important sources of income of commercial farms bordering
the Mediterranean Sea. Approximately half of the land is devoted to growing cereals, especially
wheat. Horticulture is highly developed in California.
• California specializes in growing citrus fruits and deciduous fruits. Horticulture is practiced in
other Mediterranean lands also. South Africa specializes in preparation of jams and in
preserving citrus fruits for English market. Australia concentrates on grain farming,
livestock grazing and grape growing for making raisins.
• Turkey grows cotton on the Adena Plain and Russia has developed truck farming or
olericulture east of the Black Sea.
• The farmers of the Mediterranean Basin, central Chile and Southern Africa usually employ much
manual labour in intensive tillage method, while the farmers of California and Australia adopt
measures of extensive agriculture. They prefer to use farm machinery for various agricultural
operations such as ploughing, planting and harvesting.
• Farmers derive a smaller percentage of income from animal products. Livestock production is
hampered by the lack of water and good grazing land during the summer. Some farmers
living along the Mediterranean Sea traditionally used transhumance, although the practice has now
almost vanished. Sheep and goats are the main animals.
8. Livestock Ranching
• Livestock ranching is the commercial grazing of livestock over an extensive area. It is a form
of agriculture adapted to semi-arid or arid land. It is a product of 19th century, growth of
urban markets for beef and wool in western Europe and the north-eastern United States. It is
largely confined to areas of European settlement, i.e. relatively developed countries where
vegetation is too sparse and the soil too poor to support crops.
• Distribution:
• The major livestock areas are: (i) The western United States and the adjacent parts of Canada
and Mexico, (ii) the 'llanos' of Venezuela; (iii) the 'Sertao' of Brazil, the 'Pampa' of Uruguay and
Argentina, the 'Chaco' and Patagonia, (iv) the 'Karoo' of South Africa, (v) the arid interiors of
Australia, and (vi) the South Island of New Zealand.
• Ranching is rare in Europe except in Spain and Portugal. With the exception of humid Pampa and
South Island of New Zealand, all regions are semi-arid.
• Characteristics
• Livestock ranching is an extensive form of land use.
• The major types of livestock are sheep, cattle, goats and horses, mostly introduced from the
European stock and improved by the adoption of scientific breeding.
• There is little continual movement from one area of pasture to another, because food supplies are
permanent or are supplemented by fodder crops.
• The best breeds are used to produce high quality beef, mutton or wool.
• Labour requirements are low. These regions are typified by a low population density, small
scattered urban settlements, poorly developed transport and communication network, and limited
educational facilities.

9. Commercial Grain Farming

• Commercial grain farming is the creation of great economic and technological changes brought
about by the Industrial Revolution of the nineteenth century. It is of recent origin and is both
extensive and mechanised in respect of production technology. It is found in the continental
lands of the mid-latitudes, far removed away from the marine influence.
• Distribution:
• Large scale commercial grain farming is found in the United States, Canada, the erstwhile Soviet
Union, Argentina and Australia. It is best developed in the European 'Steppes' in region of
chernozem soils, east of the Volga River in northern Kazakhstan and the southern part of western
Siberia. The Canadian and American 'Pariries,' the Pampas of Argentina, the Veldt of South Africa
, the 'Downs' of Australia and the Canterbury plain of New Zealand.
• Characteristics
• Farms are very large, ranging from 240 to 16,000 hectares, the average in the USA is about
400 hectares. Land is very cheap. Settlements are small and often scattered.
• Wheat is the most important crop, barley, flax and corn are also grown with wheat as
subsidiary crops. Oats, rye, hay, etc. are grown chiefly to feed animals.
• Cultivation is highly mechanised. Large scale grain production is heavily mechanised. Farmers
invest heavily in labour saving devices such as tractors, ploughs, drills and combine
harvesters.
• The output per unit of land is always low as compared to the regions where intensive
cultivation is practised. The average yield of wheat per hectare under extensive cultivation is as
low.
• Extensive commercial grain farming is subject to climatic vagaries like drought, hail, frost, plant
diseases and attack by pests and insects. Unpredicted rainfall causes concern to wheat farmers.
Droughts, severe winter frosts or summer heat waves reduce yields drastically. This often results in
fluctuations in productivity and crop failures.

10. Commercial Livestock and Crop Farming (Mixed Farming)

• Mixed farming may have stemmed from the medieval agriculture of the north west Europe, which
was essentially subsistence in character. It now features both commercial crops and livestock
in different combinations and in varying ratios. This system at present is not confined to Europe,
but also to the humid mid-latitudes of the USA and of other continents except Asia.
• Region of mixed farming are characterised by the phenomenon of the inter-dependence of crop
and livestock, which rightly provides optimum utilization of the available land resources.
• Characteristics
• The most distinctive characteristic of mixed farming is the integration of crops livestock.
• Mixed farms are characterised by high expenditure on machinery and farm buildings, extensive use
of manures and fertilizers and by the input of technical skill by farmers.
• A variety of crops are grown in the mixed farming region. The livestock farmer maintain soil
fertility by using a system of crop rotation.

11. Commercial Dairy-Farming

• Commercial dairy farming is the most advanced and efficient type of farming. It is an activity
of the temperate latitudes based on the utilization of permanent pastures. It is the third
agricultural system of the temperate latitudes, which developed from the medieval system of
agriculture of North Europe.
• Distribution:
• Dairy farming is prevalent mostly in the north western Europe and north eastern United States. In
north western Europe, dairy farms occupy coastal and low-lying meadowlands of abundant
precipitation, warm summers, and cool and cold winters (50° to 60°N latitude). Other region
of dairy farming are the eastern states of the south eastern part of Australia and the North Island of
New Zealand (30° to 40°S latitudes). Besides, there are numerous minor dairy regions in the
western United States, eastern Argentina, middle Chile, South Africa, eastern Japan and Western
Russia. It accounts for nearly 20% of the total value of agricultural output throughout western
Europe and North America. Nearly 90% of the world's milk is produced and consumed in these
relatively developed regions.
• Characteristics
• A modern dairy farm needs large investment in infrastructure: animal sheds, mechanical
equipments like milking machines, freezers, feeding towers, barns and silos for storage of fodder,
and veterinary services etc.
• The productivity is very high in dairy farming regions. A healthy cow in temperate regions yield
as much as 3000 kg of milk annually.

12. Specialised Horticulture and Olericulture

• The production of vegetables and fruits in orchards and kitchen gardens is a common feature of
the agriculture of humid temperate regions of the world. Among the Occidental agricultural
systems of the mid-latitudes, horticulture is practised in the Mediterranean regions. Elsewhere,
large scale fruit and vegetable growing is confined to exceptionally favourable spots.
 The most ancient and important areas of specialised horticulture and olericulture are restricted to
the vineyards of Western Europe not experiencing the Mediterranean climate. This system of
agriculture developed with the creation of markets by urbanites who were willing to pay a good
price for large quantities of perishable fresh fruits and vegetables.
• Distribution:
• Market gardening is well developed in the densely population industrial districts of north
western Europe: in Britain, Denmark, Belgium, Germany, and the Netherlands; and in the north
eastern USA. In the south eastern USA this type of farming is called ‘truck farming’. In
tropical regions, truck farming may be established for climatic reasons. Upland areas may be
able to produce temperate fruits and vegetables which are in great demand in urban areas.
• Characteristics
• Farmers in these regions specialise in particular fruits or vegetables.
• The scale of farming is small and intensive attention is paid to individual plants.
• The methods of growing crops are traditional.
• Scientific farming is done using selected seeds, insecticides, and nurseries.
• A common feature of market gardens and truck farms is the high degree of commercialisation for all
types of products.
• In addition to market gardening, a modern development in the industrial regions of Western
Europe and North America is ‘factory farming’.

13. Commercial Plantation Farming

• Plantation is a form of commercial agriculture introduced by the Europeans in the tropics
and sub-tropics of Latin America, Africa and Asia. It refers to the large scale, capitalised
and highly centralised cultivation in the plantations of cash crops for export. It is, thus, one
of the best examples of an export-oriented systems. Among the most important plantation
crops are: cotton, sugarcane, coffee, tea, cocoa, rubber and tobacco. Plantation crops are
raised on large estates of more than 40 hectares.
• Characteristics
• Most estates have foreign ownership but the employes are local. The largest estates are still
owned by the Europeans. For example, the rubber plantations in Malaysia are owned by
Europeans while the tapping and processing of rubber is done entirely by local people or by
immigrant labourers from South India.
• The British established large tea gardens in India and Sri Lanka, and banana and sugar
plantation in West Indies. The French established cocoa and coffee plantations is West
Africa, e.g. in Cameroun and Ivory Coast. The Dutch once monopolised the sugarcane
plantations in Indonesia, especially in Java; Spanish and American Capitalists invested in
Coconut, sugarcane and abaca plantations in Philippines; The Portuguese still own fazendas in
Brazil, Sugarcane plantations in Australia exceptionally employ white labour.
• Plantation farming is capital intensive. Most plantation crops take several years to mature (
rubber-6 years, cocoa-5 years, oil palm-3 years, etc.)
• Plantation agriculture is characterised by specialisation of a single crop in a region viz. tea in
India and Sri Lanka, coffee is Brazil and Colombia, banana in Latin America and Caribbean
Islands, cacao in Ghana, Nigeria and Ivory Coast, and sugarcane in Cuba, Brazil, Hawai,
Philippines etc.