Chapter 7-Structure of the Atom and the Periodic Table

1. An atom consists of a central nucleus containing protons and neutrons surrounded by

electrons in shells. Most of the atom is empty space. Atoms do not have specific boundaries.
2. The electrons present in the furthest shell from the nucleus (outermost shell) are called
valence electrons.
3. Subatomic particles: are electrons, protons and neutrons.
4. Protons and neutrons are collectively called nucleons.
5. Comparison between subatomic particles

Subatomic particle Charge Mass Position

Proton +1 1 amu Inside the nucleus

Neutron 0 1 amu Inside the nucleus

Electron -1
1
mass of 1 proton Around the nucleus
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CQD1.
a) How do the masses of protons, electrons and neutrons compare?
b) What determines the mass of the atom?
c) What determines the size of an atom?

6. Nuclei are positively charged since it contains positive protons and neutral neutrons.
7. The mass of an atom is concentrated in its nucleus since eelectrons have negligible mass
compared to nucleus.
8. Neutrons helps stabilizing the nucleus by preventing protons from repelling each other.
9. Nuclei of same element have same atomic number/proton number (# of protons) and nuclear
charge.
10. An atom is electrically neutral since it contains equal number of protons and electrons.
11. Formation of positive ions (cations):
• The atom loses one or more electron.
• Energy is needed (absorbed) to pull an electron from the neutral atom:
X + E → X+1 + e-
• In a cation, number of protons is greater than number of electrons.
12. Formation of negative ions (anions):
• The atom gains one or more electron.
• Energy is generally released (produced) when an e- is captured by an atom: Y + e- →
Y -1 + E
• In an anion, number of electrons is greater than number of protons.
13. Electrons of an atom could be anywhere, we have no idea how electrons move or where they
are at an instant in time. We do know that they have a higher probability of being nearer to
the nucleus than farther away from it.

EX. 1 In isolated atoms, how do electrons move, and where are they found with respect to the
nucleus?
a) In circular orbits of a definite radius
b) In egg-shaped orbits of a definite radius
c) we have no idea how they move
d) An atom has no sharp boundary, so its electrons could be anywhere.
e) Electrons have a higher probability of being nearer to the nucleus than farther away from it.

14. Atomic number/Proton number (Z): is the number of protons in the nucleus. It is equal to
the number of electrons in a neutral atom. It is equal to the nuclear charge.

EX. 2 Which is true about the term “atomic number”? It is

a) the number of atoms in a given sample.
b) the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom of an element.
c) the number of neutrons in the nucleus of an atom of an element.
d) equal to the number of electrons in a neutral atom.
e) Avogadro’s number, 6.02×1023.
f) The charge on the nucleus of an atom and its symbol is Z.

15. Mass number/Nucleon number (A): is the total number of protons and neutrons in a
nucleus. It is the number of nucleons. It is the mass in amu of a given nucleus.

EX. 3 Which is true about the term “mass number”? It is

a) the mass in amu of a given nucleus and its symbol is A.
b) the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom of an element.
c) the number of neutrons in the nucleus of an atom of an element.
d) equal to the number of nucleons in a given nucleus.
e) the total number of protons and neutrons in a given nucleus.

16. The nucleus of an atom is represented by 𝐴𝐴𝑍𝑍𝑋𝑋 where X is the element’s symbol, Z is the
atomic number (number of protons) and A is the mass number (number of nucleons).
CQD4. [G] Deduce number of subatomic particles using A and Z The atoms of an element are
represented as 𝐴𝐴𝑍𝑍𝑋𝑋.

a. Which letter in the above atomic symbol corresponds to each of the following? Write
your answer as a capital letter only.
i. mass number
ii. atomic number
iii. symbol of the element

b. The element carbon is represented as 126𝐶𝐶 .

i. How many neutrons does it contain?
ii. How many protons does it contain?
iii. How many electrons does it contain?

CQD5. [G] Fill in the table to determine the number of subatomic particles in the given ions.

10. Complete the following table.

Atomic Particles per atom Mass

Number Protons Electrons Neutrons Number
Aluminium, Al 13 27
Beryllium, Be 4 9
Bismuth, Bi 83 209
Barium ion, Ba2+ 56 81
Chloride ion, Cl- 17 36

23
CQD7. [G] Consider the element sodium of nuclear symbol 11𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 .

a) What is the atomic number of sodium?

b) What does the atomic number represent?
CQD11. Consider the nucleus 35
17𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 .

a) What is its atomic number?

b) What is its mass number?
c) How many nucleons does it contain?
d) How many neutrons does it contain?
e) How many electrons would its neutral atom contain?
f) How many protons does it contain?
-
CQD12. Consider the nucleus 35
17𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 :

a) What is its atomic number?

b) What is its mass number?
c) How many nucleons does it contain?
d) How many neutrons does it contain?
e) How many electrons does it contain
f) How many protons does it contain?
3+
CQD13. Consider the nucleus 27
13Al .

a. What is its atomic number?

b. What is its mass number?
c. How many nucleons does it contain?
d. How many neutrons does it contain?
e. How many electrons does it contain?
f. How many protons does it contain?

CQD8. [G] Given the following model for a neutral atom.

a. What is the mass number for this atom?

b. What does the mass number represent?
CQD14. [T]
a. Atoms are composed of subatomic particles.
Identify the subatomic particles given their properties.

i. Have a relative charge of -1.

1
ii. Have a relative mass of .
1840
iii. Are found in the nucleus with relative charge +1.
iv. Have a relative charge zero

b. The below table provides information about atom(s) and ion(s).

Complete the table.

Mass Atomic Number Number Number

Symbol
number number / of of of
/A Z electrons protons neutrons
39
X 19 20 19 K+
19
Y 19 9 9 F

17. Atoms are too small to weigh on regular balances. Atoms masses are measured against a
standard whose mass is fixed using an instrument called a mass spectrometer. The standard
was chosen to be the atom of carbon whose mass was set at 12. Carbon was chosen because
there are more compounds containing carbon than any other element. Because we are
measuring masses against each other, the obtained masses are called relative masses.
18. Relative atomic mass, Ar, is the average mass of naturally occurring atoms of an element on
a scale where the carbon-12 atom has a mass of 12 units.
19. The definition above uses the term average, why? This is because the same element can
have atoms of different mass!
20. Isotopes: are atoms of the same element that have the same number of protons (atomic
number, nuclear charge) but a different number of neutrons (mass number). Isotopes have the
same chemical properties because they have the same number of electrons and therefore the
same electronic arrangement, but have different masses.

EX. 4 Isotopes are

a) particles within the nucleus of an atom of an element

b) nuclei of the same element having different masses
c) nuclei of the different elements having the same mass
d) nuclei having the same atomic number but different mass numbers
Examples of isotopes:

3
1 2 1𝐻𝐻
1𝐻𝐻 1𝐻𝐻

protons 1 1 1

electrons 1 1 1

neutrons 0 1 2

common name hydrogen deuterium tritium

Isotopes of Oxygen
18
16 17 8𝑂𝑂
8𝑂𝑂 8𝑂𝑂

protons 8 8 8

electrons 8 8 8

neutrons 8 9 10

common name oxygen-16 oxygen-17 oxygen-18

1
21. An atomic mass unit (amu) is defined as 12 the mass of an atom of carbon-12.

CQD9. [G] Hydrogen atom, H, has three isotopes represented in the following diagram.

a. Define isotopes.
b. Give the nuclear symbols, AZ X , for the three given isotopes.
22. Relative molecular mass, Mr, is the sum of the relative atomic masses.
23. Relative formula mass, Mr, is used for ionic compounds.
24. Chemical reactions: are interactions between e-s of reacting atoms. Chemical properties of
an element are determined by the atomic number (# of e-s around the neutral atom).
EX5 Which of the following determines the normal chemical properties of an element?
a) the atomic number Z
b) the mass number A
c) the number of electrons around the neutral atoms

25. Given the relative average atomic mass of an element, find the % abundance of its
isotopes

35
CQD2. Chlorine has two stable isotopes, 17 Cl and 37
17 Cl (assume the mass of each nucleon to
be 1.0000 amu).. If the average molar mass of chlorine is 35.5, find the percentage of each
isotope in nature.

26. Given the % abundance of isotopes, find the average atomic mass

CQD3. Chlorine in nature consists of 75.4% of chlorine-35 and 24.6% of chlorine-37. Find the
average molar mass of chlorine.

27. Molar mass is measured in units of g/mole while relative atomic and molecular masses
are unitless

EX. 6 Carbon in nature consists of 98% of carbon-12, 1.5% carbon-13 and carbon-14. Find the
average molar mass of carbon.

28. Identify diagram of atoms and ions from a given list.

CQD6. [G] The diagrams below show 2 atoms and 4 ions

a. Identify the diagrams that represent atoms.

b. Identify the diagram that represents a positive ion.
c. Identify the diagrams that represent atoms which are isotopes of the same element.
d. Identify the diagram that represents a mass number of 3.
The Periodic Table
29. The Periodic Table is an arrangement of elements in in increasing order of atomic proton
number/atomic number. The elements are found in
• periods, horizontal rows
• groups, vertical columns of elements sharing similar chemical properties (because
they have the same number of valence electrons) and similar physical properties
30. Across a period, the elements change from metals to non-metals. Non-metals can be found on
the top right-hand part of the Periodic Table.
31. The main group elements are Groups I-VIII. The block between Groups II and III are metals
called the transition metals.

32. Group I is also known as the alkali metals, group II as the alkaline earth metals, group VII as
the halogens and group VIII as the noble gases.
33. Across a period, there are many properties that show a repeating pattern, these are called
periodic properties.
34. There is a relationship between the group number and the charge the main group elements
acquire:
• Metal ions carry a positive charge that is the same as their group number. For example,
sodium forms Na+, calcium forms Ca2+ and aluminum forms Al3+
• Non-metal ions carry a negative charge that is (8 - their group number). For example,
chlorine forms Cl- (8-7), sulfur forms S2- (8-6) and phosphorus forms P3- (8-5).

35. At STP there are:

• 10 gaseous elements, 5 monoatomic: helium(He), neon(Ne), argon(Ar), krypton(Kr),
xenon(Xe); and 5 diatomic: fluorine(F2), chlorine(Cl2), oxygen(O2), hydrogen(H2)
and nitrogen(N2)
• two liquid elements: bromine and mercury.
• All other elements are solids.
36. The Noble Gases:
• Have 8 valence electrons
• Are very unreactive
• Exist as monoatomic gases
• Their boiling and melting points increase down the group

CQD15. [G] Elements of group 18 (Group VIII) are called noble gases.

a. Why do noble gases exist in nature in a monoatomic state?

b. How do the melting points and boiling points of noble gases vary as you go down the
group?
37. The Alkali Metals (Group I)
• Physical properties
o solid metals, therefore have a luster, conduct heat, conduct electricity, malleable
and ductile)
o stored under kerosene (oil) because the react very quickly with oxygen in air so
quickly lose their luster when exposed to air
o soft enough to be cut with a knife
o have relatively low melting points and densities
• Periodic Trends down the group
o Melting points and boiling points decrease
o Get softer
o Densities increases
o Reactivity increases

Alkali metals are the most reactive among metals. To test reactivity will study their reaction with
cold water. Alkali metals react with cold water producing an alkaline solution (thus called alkali
metals) and liberating hydrogen gas as illustrated by the general reaction below.

2M(s) + 2H2O(l) → 2MOH(aq) + H2(g)

The table below is a summary of the observation seen when equal masses of Li(s), Na(s) and
K(s) are place in cold water. Note that a few drops of Universal indicator is added to the water to
detect the formation of an alkaline solution as such solutions turn the universal indicator purple.

Metal Observations
• Slow fizzing (few bubbles form)
• The metal slowly moves on the liquid surface
Li
• The metal does not melt, it slowly disappears as the solution turns purple
• No flame
• fast fizzing (many bubbles form)
• The metal darts on the liquid surface
Na • The metal melts into a ball, quickly disappears as the solution turns
purple
• No flame unless held in place
• violent fizzing (too many bubbles form)
• The metal darts very quickly on the liquid surface
K • The metal melts into a ball, very quickly disappears as the solution turns
purple
• The gas ignites burning with a lilac flame

CQD16. c. Write the equation for the reaction of potassium with water.

38. The alkali metals can be identified by the flame test because each of them Imparts a different
color to a blue flame:
 Metal Color of flame
Li(s) red
Na(s) Yellow
K(s) lilac

39. Hydrogen, though placed above Group 1 metals, is a non-metals that does NOT belong to the
group. It has distinct properties and is the only non-metal on the left of the Periodic Table.
40. The Halogens (Group VII)
• Physical properties
o They exist as diatomic molecules
o At room temperature all are smelly and poisonous

State Color
F2(g) Pale yellow gas
Cl2(g) Pale yellow-green gas
Br2(l) Red-brown liquid with red-brown vapour
I2(s) Grey-black solid with purple vapour

• Periodic Trends down the group

o Melting points and boiling points increase
o Densities increases
o Reactivity decreases

Halogens are the most reactive non-metals.

• All react with hydrogen forming HX, which are soluble in water forming strong acids
• They react with metals and non-metals forming halides.
• They react with metals forming ionic salts, and with non-metals forming molecular
compounds.
• They undergo displacement reactions with their salts.

Displacement reactions: The more reactive halogen can displace the less reactive halogen
from its solution. Note: halide ions are colorless when in solution.

1) F2 can displace Cl2, Br2 and I2 from their solutions

F2(g) + 2Cl-(aq) → 2F-(aq) + Cl2(aq)/ (g)
colorless colorless colorless
solution formed has the distinctive antiseptic smell of chlorine

F2(g) + 2Br-(aq) → 2F-(aq) + Br2(aq)/(l)

colorless colorless brown
solution turns brown if few drops of carbon tetrachloride are added to it solution
stays brown due to the formation of Br2

F2(g) + 2I-(aq) → 2F-(aq) + I2(aq)/ (s)

colorless colorless brown
 solution turns brown if few drops of carbon tetra chloride are added to it a purple
layer forms at the bottom of the test tube due to the formation of I2

2) Cl2 can displace Br2 and I2 from their solutions

Cl2(g) + 2Br-(aq) → 2Cl-(aq) + Br2(aq)
colorless colorless brown
Cl2(g) + 2I (aq) → 2Cl-(aq) + I2(aq)
-

colorless colorless brown

3) Br2 can displace I2 and At2 from its solution

Br2(g) + 2I-(aq) → 2Br-(aq) + I2(aq)
colorless colorless brown
Br2(g) + 2At (aq) → 2Br-(aq) + At2(s)
-

colorless colorless black

4) I2 can only displace astatine.

I2(g) + 2At-(aq) → 2I-(aq) + At2(s)
colorless colorless black

41. Halide ions can be identified by addition of acidified silver nitrate solution followed by
ammonia.

Halide ion Add acidified AgNO3(aq) Add NH3

F-(aq) No precipitate
White precipitate
Cl-(aq) Dissolves in dilute NH3(aq)
Ag+(aq) + Cl-(aq) → AgCl(s)
Creamy precipitate
Br2(aq) Dissolves in concentrated NH3(aq)
Ag+(aq) + Br-(aq) → AgBr(s)
White precipitate
I-(aq) Does not dissolve
Ag (aq) + I-(aq) → AgI(s)
+

42. Transition metals (between Groups I and III)

• Physical properties
o solid metals, therefore have a luster, conduct heat, conduct electricity, malleable
and ductile)
o high densities
o hard and strong
o have high melting points and densities
o form colored compounds (for eg. copper compounds are blue or green, iron (II)
compounds are pale green while iron (III) compounds are brown)
o have catalytic properties
o form ions with variable charges (for eg. iron (II), Fe2+, and iron (III), Fe3+, ions)

43. Atoms or ions that have the same electron arrangement around their nuclei as the noble gases
will be stable. This is why elements combine with other elements in order to acquire the
electronic structure of an inert gas.
44. Elements either lose, gain or share electrons to attain the Group VIII electron structure.
45. Chemical bonding involves the valence electrons. In general, there are two types of
compounds:
a. Molecular compounds in which atoms bond together by sharing electron pairs and
forming covalent bonds
b. Ionic compounds in which ions are attracted to each other in a regular structure by
ionic bonds
46. Comparison between ionic and covalent bonds.
Ionic Bond: It is the electrostatic force of attraction between oppositely charged atoms.
Usually forms between a metal and a non-metal. The metal atom loses one or more electrons
and forms a positive ion while the non-metal atom gains one or more electrons and forms a
negative ion. Ions will be surrounded by oppositely charged ions, resulting in giant lattices
that are solids at room temperature.

Covalent Bond: It is the equal sharing of pair or pairs of electrons between non-metal atoms.
Each of the two atoms provides one electron of the pair. Each of the two atoms forming the
bond “feels” the presence of additional electron going around it. The two atoms sharing a
pair of electrons stay together forming a molecule.
47. Ionic compounds have high melting and boiling points, while molecular compounds have
low melting and boiling points.

CQD21.[G]
A chlorine atom has 7 valence electrons as shown in the following diagram.

An oxygen atom has 6 valence electrons as shown in the following diagram.

A nitrogen atom has 5 valence electrons as shown in the following diagram.

a. How many pairs of electrons are shared between two chlorine atoms to form a stable
molecule?
b. How many pairs of electrons are shared between two oxygen atoms to form a stable
molecule?
c. How many pairs of electrons are shared between two nitrogen atoms to form a stable
molecule?
d. What is the type of bond formed between the two chlorine atoms?
e. What is the type of bond formed between the two oxygen atoms?
f. What is the type of bond formed between the two nitrogen atoms?

48. Periodic Trends across Period 3

• Atomic numbers increase from left to right.
• Metallic to non-metallic properties: the elements to the left are metallic solids (Na,
Mg, Al), to the right are molecular solids (P4 and S8), molecular gas (Cl2) and atomic
gas (Ar).
• Silicon is the only network solid in the period.
• The melting and boiling points increase till Group IV then then decrease (exception
between P4 and S8).
• The densities increase till Group IV then then decrease (exception between P4 and
S8).
CQD25. Write equations for the following reaction. In each case from (a) to (g), state what type
of bond(s) is/are formed and what type of compound results.

Equation bonds Compound

a) Sodium with sulfur
b) Magnesium with
chlorine
c) Aluminum with oxygen
d) Silicon with oxygen
e) Silicon with chlorine

f) Sulfur with hydrogen

g) Argon with hydrogen

EX7
a) Why does every element in group I form ions of charge +1?
b) What elements form ions of charge +2?
c) What elements form ions of charge +3?
d) Why don’t elements of group 4 form ions of charge 4+? Why don’t they form ions of
charge 4–?
e) Why do elements of groups 6 and 7 form ions of charge –2 and –1 respectively?
f) How else do elements of groups 6 and 7 react?
g) In H2O, why does hydrogen make one bond while oxygen makes two?
h) How do you explain that oxygen forms O2 molecules?

CQD28. [G]
Identify the type of bond that exists between atoms of the following groups.
a. elements of Group I (alkali metals) and elements of Group VI.
b. elements of Group VI and elements Group VII.
c. elements of Group II and elements of Group VI.
d. elements of Group VII.
e. elements of Group VI.
EX8 Which of the following elements form an ionic compound?

element atomic number

X 11
Y 14
Z 16
W 7

A. X and W
B. X and Z
C. Y and Z
D. Y and W
E. Z and W

CQD29. [T]
The diagram below shows the location of four elements X, Y, W and Z in the periodic
table.

Which of the following statements about the above elements is false?

A. X combines with W to form an ionic compound, X2W.

B. Z has two electrons in its outermost shell.
C. Y combines with W to form a covalent compound, YW2.
D. Z has more metallic character than X.
E. W is a Group VI element in the periodic table.