www.sakshieducation.

com

Alternating current

1. An alternating current or e.m.f. is one whose magnitude and direction vary

periodically with time.
2. Alternating current abbreviated as ac not A.C or a.c.

m
3. The simplest types of alternating current and e.m.f. have a sinusoidal variation, given

co
respectively by i=i0sin ω t and ε = ε0 sin ω t where i0, ε0 are called peak values of
current and voltage respectively and ω is the angular frequency.

n.
4. The time taken by alternating current to go through one cycle of changes is called its

io
period (T) and T = 2π .
ω

at
5. The number of cycles per second of an alternating current is called its frequency,
uc
ω
n=1 = . The phase of an alternating current at any instant represents the fraction of
T 2π
ed

the time period that has elapsed since the current last passed through the zero position
of reference. Phase can also be expressed in terms of angle in radians.
hi

6. An alternating current or e.m.f. varies periodically from a maximum in one direction

ks

through zero to a maximum in the opposite direction, and so on. The maximum value
of the current or e.m.f. in either direction is called the peak value.
a

7. The average or mean value of alternating current or e.m.f. for complete cycle is zero.
.s

It has no significance. Hence, the mean value of alternating current ( i ) is defined as

w

1 T/2
i=
T 0∫
its average over half a cycle. For positive half cycle i dt where
w

2
w

i = i0 sin ωt =
2
i0 = 0.636i0 similarly average value of e.m.f. ε = 2ε0 .
π π

8. The root mean square (r.m.s.) value of an alternating current is the square root of the
average of i2 during a complete cycle where i is the instantaneous value of the
alternating current.

www.sakshieducation.com
 www.sakshieducation.com
(Or)
It is the steady current, which when passed through a resistance for a given time will
produce the same amount of heat as the alternating current does in the same
resistance and in the same time.
(Or)

m
The r.m.s. velocity of an alternating voltage can be defined as that direct voltage
which produces the same rate of heating in a given resistance. The r.m.s. value of

co
alternating voltage is also called as the effective or the virtual value of the voltage.

n.
2 1T2
irms = ∫ i dt Where i=i0sin ω t
T0

io
i0
i rms = = 0.707i 0

at
2

Similarly
uc
2 1T 2
εrms = ∫ ε dt where ε = ε0 sin ωt
T0
ed

ε0
εrms =
2
hi

Voltage marked on ac instruments is the r.m.s. voltage, i.e. 220 V ac means

ks

Erms = 220 V.
a

9. In any circuit, the ratio of the effective voltage to the effective current is called the
.s

impedance Z of the circuit. Its unit is ohm.

10. A diagram representing alternating voltage and current as vectors with phase angle
w

between them is called Phasor diagram.

w

11. Purely resistive circuit: A circuit containing an A.C. source and a resistor is known
w

as purely resistive circuit. If ε = ε0 sin ωt and the current at a time t is i, then

ε0 sin ωt = Ri

R
i
i
ε
~
i E
E
www.sakshieducation.com
t
i
 www.sakshieducation.com
Here both voltage and current are in same phase.
Instantaneous power dissipation
p= εi = ε 0 i 0 sin 2 ωt

Average power dissipation P = εrmsirms

12. Purely inductive circuit: A circuit containing an A.C source and inductor is known

m
as purely inductive circuit.
ε

co
If ε = ε0 sin ωt , the circuit equation is ε − L di = 0 ; di = 0 sin ωtdt by integration we get
dt L

⎛ π⎞ ε

n.
i = i0 sin⎜ ωt − ⎟ where i0 = 0
⎝ 2⎠ ωL

io
The constant XL= ωL plays the role of effective resistance of the circuit. The constant

at
XL is called the reactance of the inductor. It is zero for direct current ( ω =0) and
increases as the frequency increases. The current lags the voltage in phase by π / 2 and
uc
the quantity ω L is a measure of the effective opposition to the flow of A.C. The
ed

average power consumed in a cycle is zero.

C
i
hi

i
90o
ks

~ ε
E
i
a

E
.s

t
i
w
w

13. Purely capacitive circuit: A circuit containing an A.C source and a capacitor is
w

known as purely capacitive circuit. If ε = ε0 sin ωt , the circuit equation is

Q= cε = cε0 sin ωt by differentiating;
dQ ⎛ π⎞ ε0
i= = i0 sin⎜ ωt + ⎟ Where i0 =
dt ⎝ 2⎠ ⎛ 1 ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎝ ωC ⎠

www.sakshieducation.com
 L
www.sakshieducation.com
ε
i 90o

~
E i
i
E i

m
The current leads the voltage in phase by π / 2 .

co
The quantity 1/ ω C is a measure of the effective opposition of alternating current by a

n.
1
capacitor. It is denoted by XC and is called capacitive reactance XC = .
ωC

io
14. The peak current and the peak e.m.f. in the entire above three circuits can be written
ε

at
as i0 = 0 where Z=R for a purely resistive circuit, Z=1/ ω C for a purely capacitive
Z
uc
circuit and Z= ω L for a purely inductive circuit. The general name for Z is
impedance.
ed

15. If the e.m.f of an A.C circuit is represented by ε = ε0 sin ωt , the current can be
represented as i = i0 sin( ωt + φ) . For purely resistive circuit φ =0; for a purely capacitive
hi

circuit φ = π / 2 and for a purely inductive circuit φ = π / 2 . The constant φ is called

ks

phase factor.
a

16. L–R series circuit

.s

The impedance Z of the circuit is given by Z= R 2 + ω2L2 .

w

ε0 ⎛ ωL ⎞
The current i in the steady state is given by i= sin(ωt − φ) where tan φ = ⎜ ⎟
R2 + ω2L2 ⎝ R ⎠
w

⎛ Lω ⎞
Tan−1⎜ ⎟
w

The applied voltage leads the current by

⎝R ⎠

R L R
φ
i Z
ωL
~

www.sakshieducation.com
 www.sakshieducation.com
17. R-C series circuit
2
⎛ 1 ⎞
The impedance Z of the circuit is given by Z= R2 + ⎜ ⎟ .
⎝ ωC ⎠

ε
The current i in the steady state is given by i = 0 sin(ωt + φ) where
Z

⎛ 1 ⎞
The applied voltage leads the current by Tan−1⎜ ⎟
⎝ ωCR ⎠

m
R C

co
1/ωC
i Z
φ

n.
~ R

io
18. LCR series circuit

at
R L C
uc
1/ωC
i

~
1/ωC-ωL
ed

Z
i φ
R
hi

ωο ωL

ω
ks

2
εrms = εR + ( εL ~ εC )2
a
.s

2
⎛ 1 ⎞
Z = R2 + ( XL ~ XC )2 = R2 + ⎜ ωL − ⎟
⎝ ωC ⎠
w

Lω − 1 / ωC 1
tan φ = ; ω0 =
w

R LC
w

1
(i) When Lω > , tan φ is positive i.e., φ is positive in such case e.m.f leads the
ωC

current.
1
(ii)When Lω < , tan φ is negative i.e., φ is negative in such case e.m.f lags behind
ωC

the current.

www.sakshieducation.com
 www.sakshieducation.com
1
(iii) When Lω = , tan φ is zero i.e., φ is zero in such case current and e.m.f are
ωC

in phase with each other.

1
When XL = XC or ωL = the impedance becomes minimum and hence current will
ωC

be maximum. The circuit is then said to be resonance and the corresponding

1 1

m
frequency is known as resonant frequency. The resonant frequency= . . The
2π LC

co
ε0
peak current in this case is
R

n.
19. Quality factor of resonance: the selectivity or sharpness of resonant circuit is
measured by Q-factor called quality factor.

io
The Q factor or quality factor of a resonant LCR – circuit is defined as ratio of the

at
voltage drop across inductor (or capacitor) to the applied voltage.
uc
volt age acros L(or C) 1 L
Q= Q= .
applied voltage R C
ed

The Q-factor of LCR series circuit will be large (or more sharpness) if R is low or L
is large or C is low.
hi

20. Power in A.C. circuit: The average power P delivered by A.C source in a complete
ks

cycle is given by P= εrms .irms cos φ where cos φ is called the power factor of LCR
circuit. P also represents the average power delivered in a long time.
a

21. Advantages of AC over DC

.s

1. The generation of AC is more economic than DC.

w

2. AC voltages can be easily stepped up or stepped down using transformers.

w

3. AC can be transmitted to longer distances with less loss of energy.

w

4. AC can be easily converted into DC by using rectifiers.

22. Disadvantages
1. AC is more fatal and dangerous than DC.
2. AC always flows on the outer layer of the conductor (skin effect) and hence AC
requires stranded wires.

www.sakshieducation.com
 www.sakshieducation.com
3. AC cannot be used in electrolysis like electroplating etc.

DC Circuits

Growth of Current in LR Circuit

m
di
1. When switch “S” is closed at t=0, ε −L = Ri

co
dt .
b
R •
• S
• a

n.
i
⎛ − t ⎞⎟
R E
ε⎜
2. At time t, current i = ⎜1 − e L ⎟
R⎜ ⎟

io
⎝ ⎠.

at
3. The constant L/R has dimensions of time and is called the
uc
ε
0.63
inductive time constant ( τ ) of the LR circuit. R
growth of current
ed

4. t = τ; i = 0.63i0 , in one time constant, the current reaches 63% of i

the maximum value. The time constant tells us how fast the
time
hi

t
current will grow.
ks

ε
5. i=i0, when t= ∞ , where i = .
R
a

Theoretically current grows to maximum value after infinite time. But practically it
.s

grows to maximum after 5τ.

w

Decay of current
w

di
w

6. When switch “S” is open at t=0; −L = Ri

dt i

at t=0, i=i0 ε
0.37
t R decay of current
−
at time t, i = i0 e τ t time

www.sakshieducation.com
 www.sakshieducation.com
The current reduces to 37% of the initial value in one time constant i.e., 63% of the
decay is complete.

7. Energy stored in inductor E= 1 Li2 .

2

m
Charging of a capacitor

co
8. When a capacitor is connected to a battery, positive charge R i=0 b
C
appears on one plate and negative charge on the other. The S
i a

n.
E
potential difference between the plates ultimately becomes + –

io
equal to e.m.f of the battery. The whole process takes some
0.63 εc
growth of charge
time and during this time there is an electric current through

at
connecting wires and the battery.
uc
t
9. Using Kirchhoff’s loop law q + Ri − ε = 0 . time
C
ed

⎛ −
t ⎞ ⎛ t ⎞
⎜ ⎟ −
10. At any time t, q = εC⎜1 − e RC
⎟= Q ⎜⎜1 − e CR ⎟
⎟
⎜ ⎟ ⎝ ⎠
⎝ ⎠
hi

⎛ −
t ⎞ −
t
⎜ ⎟
ks

V= E ⎜1 − e CR
⎟
; i = i0 e CR .
⎝ ⎠
a

11. The constant RC has dimensions of time and is called capacitive time constant ( τ ).
.s

12. In one time constant ( τ =RC), the charge accumulated on the capacitor is q=0.63 εC .
w
w
w

Discharging of a capacitor
q
13. When the plates of a charged capacitor are connected
0.37εc
through a conducting wire, the capacitor gets decay of charge

discharged, again there is a flow of charge through the t time

wires and hence there is a current

www.sakshieducation.com
 www.sakshieducation.com
q
14. − Ri = 0
C

t
− t→
15. q = Qe RC , where Q = εC
i
t t
− −
V = Ee CR ; ; i = – i0 e CR . i0

16. At t=RC, q=0.37Q, i.e., 63% of the discharging is complete in one time constant.

m
co
n.
io
at
uc
ed
hi
a ks
.s
w
w
w

www.sakshieducation.com