Chapter 3

Simple applications of quantum theory

• In this chapter, we present the time-independent Schrodinger equation

and then apply it to a free particle of mass m that is restricted to lie
along a one-dimensional interval of length a. particle in a box
•
• The particle-in-a-box problem is simple, yet very instructive.
•
• Then we extend the problem to a particle in a two-dimensional box
and a particle in a three-dimensional box.
• The particle in a box is an example of the translational motion.
 The particle in a one-dimensional box
• Consider a free particle of mass
m in a one dimensional box, is
confined between two walls at
x = 0 and x = a .

• The free particle means that the

particle experiences no potential
energy or that V(x) = 0.

• but rises abruptly to infinity as

soon as the particle touches the
walls. (𝟎 > 𝒙 > 𝐚), 𝑽(x) = ∞
• Outside the box (𝟎 > 𝒙 > 𝐚), 𝑽(x) = ∞
ℏ2
෡ 𝑟 =
• 𝐻𝜓 − ∇2 + 𝑉(𝑟) 𝜓 𝑟 = 𝐸 𝜓 𝑟
2𝑚
ℏ2 𝑑 2
• − 2 𝜓
𝑥 = 𝐸− 𝑉 𝑥 𝜓 𝑥 = 𝐸− ∞ 𝜓 𝑥 ,
2𝑚 𝑑𝑥
•
• Neglecting E in comparison with ∞, we have
•
ℏ2 𝑑 2 𝑑2
• −
2𝑚 𝑑𝑥 2 𝜓 𝑥 = −∞ 𝜓 𝑥 ⇨ 𝑑𝑥 2 𝜓 𝑥 = ∞𝜓 𝑥
•
1 𝑑2
•𝜓 𝑥 = 2 𝜓 𝑥 Thus, 𝜓 𝑥 =0
∞ 𝑑𝑥
• Since 𝜓 𝑥 = zero outside the box Thus the probability of finding the
particle outside the box is zero.
• Inside the box (𝟎 ≤ 𝒙 ≤ 𝐚), (𝑽(x) = 0)
𝒅𝟐 𝟐𝒎
• 𝟐 𝝍 𝒙 + 𝟐 𝑬𝝍 𝒙 =𝟎
𝒅𝒙 ℏ
• Thus:
𝒅𝟐
• 𝟐 𝝍 𝒙 + 𝒌𝟐 𝝍 𝒙 = 𝟎, k2 = 2mE/ħ2
𝒅𝒙
•
• This equation is a linear differential equation, which is a standard
type of equation having a solution of the form:
•
• 𝝍 𝒙 = 𝑨 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒌𝒙 + 𝑩 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒌𝒙
• where A and B are constants
• The boundary conditions: are those requirements, that the
wavefunction must be a certain value at the boundaries of the system.
• They are
• 1- The particle is restricted In the region 𝟎 < 𝒙 < 𝒂,
• 𝝍 𝒙 defined and V=0

• 2- Outside this region 𝝍 𝒙 =0 and V= ∞

• then: 𝝍 𝟎 =𝝍 𝒂 =𝟎
 • B− At x = a: 𝝍 𝒂 =𝟎=
• A- At x = 0: 𝑩 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒌𝒂
• 𝜓 0 = 0 = 𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑘0 •
+ 𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑘0 • Since B ≠ 0 ,a trivial solution,
• • 𝜓 𝑥 = 0, for all x.
• sin 0 = 0 and cos 0 = 1 so:
• ⸫ 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒌𝒂 = 𝟎
•
• 0 = 𝐴. 1 • sin θ = 0 for θ = 0◦, 180◦, 360◦, .
• .= nπ
• Therefore, A = 0 and the • ⸫ θ = nπ, where n is an integer.
wavefunction reduces to: •
• • 𝒌𝒂 = 𝒏𝝅,
𝒏𝝅𝒙
• 𝜓 𝑥 = 𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑥 • 𝝍 𝒙 =𝑩 𝒔𝒊𝒏( )
𝒂
 The energy of the particle
𝟏
(𝟐𝒎𝑬)𝟐
• Rearrange the following expression 𝒂 = 𝒏𝝅
ℏ
• give the allowed energy levels in terms of n:
•
𝒏𝟐 ℏ 𝟐 𝝅 𝟐 𝒏𝟐 𝒉𝟐
• 𝑬𝒏 = = , 𝒏 = 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, …..quantum number
𝟐𝒎𝒂𝟐 𝟖𝒎𝒂 𝟐

• Therefore, the energy of the particle in the box is quantized!

• the energy of the lowest state is not zero and that the lowest state has
an energy of h2/8ma2.
A particle of mass 2 × 10-26 g is in a one-dimensional
box of length 4 nm. Find the frequency and
wavelength of the photon emitted when this particle
goes from the n = 3 to the n = 2 level.

Answer: the emitted photon energy hν equals

∆𝐸 between the two stationary states:
• ∆𝐸 = 𝐸𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 − 𝐸𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = ℎ𝜈
ℎ2 2 2
• = (𝑛 𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 − 𝑛 𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 )
8𝑚𝑎2
ℎ 2 2
• 𝜈 = (𝑛 𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 − 𝑛 𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 )
8𝑚𝑎2
6∙626× 10−34 J.s 2
• 𝜈 = 3 − 22
8 2× 10−29 kg (4× 10−9 m)2
• = 1.29 × 1012 s −1 Energy levels for a particle in
• From 𝜆𝜈 = 𝑐, 𝜆 = 2.32 × 10−4 m a one-dimensional box
 Normalization constant
𝑛𝜋
• The wavefunction 𝜓 𝑥 = 𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑥 ,𝑘 =
𝑎
• The constant B to determine before the solution is complete.

𝒏𝝅𝒙
• Thus, 𝝍 𝒙 =𝑩 𝒔𝒊𝒏( ), 𝒏 = 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, …
𝒂
• Since the particle is restricted to the region 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑎,
• Therefore the probability of the particle lies between 0 and a is unity:
𝒂 ∗
• ‫𝟏 = 𝒙𝒅 𝝍 𝝍 𝟎׬‬
•
𝒂 𝒏𝝅𝒙 𝒏𝝅𝒙
• ‫𝑩( 𝟎׬‬ 𝒔𝒊𝒏( ))(𝑩 𝒔𝒊𝒏( )) 𝒅𝒙 =𝟏
𝒂 𝒂
 2 a 2 𝑛𝜋𝑥
•𝐵 ‫׬‬0 sin ( 𝑎 ) d𝑥 =1

𝟐 (𝟏−𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐𝒏𝒙) 𝒙 𝟏
• Note that ‫= 𝒙𝒅 𝒙𝒏 𝒏𝒊𝒔 ׬‬ ‫׬‬ 𝒅𝒙 = − 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐𝒏𝒙
𝟐 𝟐 𝟒𝒏
•
• Using the relation and substitute to give the following:

2 𝑥 𝑎 2𝑛𝜋 𝑎
• 𝐵 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 ቚ =1
2 4𝑛𝜋 𝑎 0
•
2 𝑎 2
• 𝐵 =1 𝐵=
2 𝑎

• The complete solution is:

𝟐 𝒏𝝅𝒙
• 𝝍𝒏 𝒙 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧( ), 𝒏 = 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, …
𝒂 𝒂
 The wavefunction and the probability

• Graphs of (a) 𝜓 and (b) 𝜓 2 for the three lowest energy of a particle
in a one-dimensional box states
 • The wavefunctions looks like the standing waves set up in vibrating string
• A node is a point where a wavefunction passes through zero.
• The number of nodes is n-1.
• The higher the number of nodes, the higher the kinetic energy due to
shortening the wavelength and increasing of frequency.
A maximum in probability exists at the center of the box for the lowest energy
level.
At higher energy levels, more nodes, the maxima and minima of probability come
closer together, and the variations in probability along the length of the box
ultimately become undetectable.
For very high quantum numbers, we approach the classical result of uniform
probability density, the correspondence principle, which states that classical
mechanics emerges from quantum mechanics at high quantum numbers.
• Example: Calculate the probability that a particle in a one-dimensional
box of length a is found between 0 and a/2 for n = 3.
•
• Answer: The probability that the particle will be found between 0 and a/2
is:
•
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
2 2 2 𝑛𝜋𝑥 2 2 2 3𝜋𝑥
• = ‫׬‬0 𝜓 ∗ 𝑥 𝜓 𝑥 d𝑥 =
2 ‫ ׬‬sin ( 𝑎 ) d𝑥 = ‫ ׬‬sin ( 𝑎 ) d𝑥
𝑎 0 𝑎 0
3𝜋
• Let = 𝑧,
𝑎
•
𝑎 𝑎
2 2 2 𝑧𝑥 d𝑥 2 2 (1−𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑧𝑥)
• = ‫׬‬ sin = ‫׬‬ d𝑥
𝑎 0 𝑎 0 2
•
2 𝑥 1 𝑎/2 2 𝑥 𝑎 6𝜋 𝑎/2
• = ( − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑧𝑥)ቚ = ( − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥)ቚ
𝑎 2 4𝑧 0 𝑎 2 12𝜋 𝑎 0
•
2 𝑎 𝑎 6𝜋𝑎 1 1 1
• = − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 = − 𝑠𝑖𝑛3𝜋 =
𝑎 4 12𝜋 2𝑎 2 6𝜋 2
 The expectation value of position
𝑎 ∗ • Thus, it has an average
• 𝑥 = ‫׬‬0 𝜓 𝑥 𝑋෠ 𝜓 𝑥 d𝑥 position in the middle of the
=
2 𝑎
‫׬‬ 𝑥 sin 2 𝑛𝜋𝑥
d𝑥 box.
𝑎 0 𝑎
•
2 𝑥2 𝑥𝑎 𝑛𝜋𝑥 • because a particle bouncing
•= ( − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 back and forth in a box.
𝑎 4 4𝑛𝜋 𝑎
𝑎2 𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝑎 •
− 𝑐𝑜𝑠2 )ቚ
2
8𝑛 𝜋 2 𝑎 0 • It should spend as much
•
2 𝑎2 𝑎
time on one side as on the
•= . = for all 𝑛 other, so its average
𝑎 4 2
position would be right in
the middle.
 The momentum of the particle
𝑑
• 𝑃𝑥 = 𝑃෠𝑥 𝜓 𝑥 = (−𝑖ħ )𝜓 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 2 𝑛𝜋𝑥
•= (−𝑖ħ )( 𝑠𝑖𝑛 )
𝑑𝑥 𝑎 𝑎
•
𝟐𝒏𝝅 𝒏𝝅𝒙
•= −𝒊ħ 𝟐 (𝒄𝒐𝒔 )
𝒂 𝒂

• It is not an eigenvalue equation , momentum is not sharp

quantity
 The expectation value of momentum
𝑎 ∗ 𝑎 ∗ 𝑑
• 𝑃𝑥 = ‫׬‬0 𝜓 ෠
𝑥 𝑃𝑥 𝜓 𝑥 d𝑥 = ‫׬‬0 𝜓 𝑥 (−𝑖ħ ) 𝜓 𝑥 d𝑥
𝑑𝑥
•
𝑎 2 𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝑑 2 𝑛𝜋𝑥
•= ‫׬‬0 ( 𝑠𝑖𝑛 )(−𝑖ħ ) ( 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ) d𝑥
𝑎 𝑎 𝑑𝑥 𝑎 𝑎
•
2𝑛𝜋 𝑎 𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝑛𝜋𝑥
•= −𝑖ħ 2 ‫׬‬0 (𝑠𝑖𝑛 ) (𝑐𝑜𝑠 ) d𝑥
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
•
2𝑛𝜋 𝑎 2 𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝑎
•= −𝑖ħ 2 sin ቚ 𝑷𝒙 = 𝟎
𝑎 2𝑛𝜋 𝑎 0
•
• This does not mean that the kinetic energy is 0, because:
𝑃𝑥 2 𝑃𝑥 2
• 𝐸 = ≠
2𝑚 2𝑚
 The square value of momentum
𝑑 2
• 𝑃𝑥 2 =𝑃෠𝑥 2𝜓 𝑥 =(−𝑖ħ ) 𝜓 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 2 2 𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝑛𝜋 2 2 𝑛𝜋𝑥
• = (−𝑖ħ ) ( 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ) = (−𝑖ħ ) 𝑠𝑖𝑛
𝑑𝑥 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎

𝑛2 𝜋2 ℏ2 = ± 𝒉𝑛
• = 𝑃𝑥
𝑎2 𝟐𝒂

• Thus, the result “ 𝑃𝑥 = 0” is reasonable since a particle in a box is

equally likely to be moving in either direction (+x or -x).
• In each direction the momentum value is quantized
• 𝑃𝑥 = ± 𝒉𝑛
𝟐𝒂
 The particle in a three-dimensional box
• A particle in a box of dimensions a, b, and c in the x, y, and z
directions, respectively.
• The potential energy inside the box to be zero, but outside the box
𝑉(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = ∞.
• The time-independent Schrödinger equation can be written as:
•
ℏ𝟐 𝒅𝟐 𝒅𝟐 𝒅𝟐
•− ( 𝟐 + + )𝝍 𝒙, 𝒚, 𝒛 = 𝑬𝝍 𝒙, 𝒚, 𝒛
𝟐𝒎 𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒚𝟐 𝒅𝒛 𝟐

•
• This equation can be written as in terms of the Laplacian operator
(∇2):
• This equation can be written as in terms of
the Laplacian operator (∇2):
•
𝟐
ℏ𝟐 𝜵
• − 𝝍 𝒙, 𝒚, 𝒛 = 𝑬𝝍 𝒙, 𝒚, 𝒛
𝟐𝒎
• or
𝟐
𝟐𝒎
• 𝜵 𝝍 𝒙, 𝒚, 𝒛 + 𝑬𝝍 𝒙, 𝒚, 𝒛 = 𝟎
ℏ𝟐
•
• The wavefunction 𝜓 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 satisfies the
boundary conditions that it vanishes at all
the walls of the box, and so:
• The wavefunction 𝜓 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 satisfies the boundary conditions that it
vanishes at all the walls of the box
The method of separation of variables
• 𝜓 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 , can be factored into three functions, each of which is a
function of one variable only:
• 𝝍 𝒙, 𝒚, 𝒛 = 𝑿 𝒙 𝒀 𝒚 𝒁 (𝒛)

𝒅𝟐 𝑿𝒀𝒁 𝒅𝟐 𝑿𝒀𝒁 𝒅𝟐 𝑿𝒀𝒁 𝟐𝒎

• + + + 𝑬 𝑿𝒀𝒁 = 𝟎
𝒅𝒙𝟐 𝒅𝒚𝟐 𝒅𝒛𝟐 ℏ 𝟐

• Since YZ is not a function of x, XZ is not a function of y, and XY is not

a function of z
𝒅𝟐 𝑿 𝒅𝟐 𝒀 𝒅𝟐 𝒁 𝟐𝒎
• 𝒀𝒁 𝟐 + 𝑿𝒁 𝟐 + 𝑿𝒀 𝟐 + 𝟐 𝑬 𝑿𝒀𝒁 = 𝟎
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒛 ℏ
• Divided by XYZ,
𝟏 𝒅𝟐 𝑿 𝟏 𝒅𝟐 𝒀 𝟏 𝒅𝟐 𝒁 𝟐𝒎
• + + =− 𝑬
𝑿 𝒅𝒙𝟐 𝒀 𝒅𝒚𝟐 𝒁 𝒅𝒛𝟐 ℏ𝟐
• or
ℏ𝟐 𝟏 𝒅𝟐 𝑿 ℏ𝟐 𝟏 𝒅𝟐 𝒀 ℏ𝟐 𝟏 𝒅𝟐 𝒁
• − − − =𝑬
𝟐𝒎 𝑿 𝒅𝒙𝟐 𝟐𝒎 𝒀 𝒅𝒚𝟐 𝟐𝒎 𝒁 𝒅𝒛𝟐
•
• Each of the three terms on the left side of the above equation is a function
of only x, y, or z, respectively.
•
• Because x, y, and z are independent variables, the value of each term can
be varied independently

• The above equation is valid if each term equal a constant.

• The above equation is written as:
ℏ 𝟐 𝟏 𝒅𝟐 𝑿
• − = 𝑬𝒙
𝟐𝒎 𝑿 𝒅𝒙𝟐
•
ℏ 𝟐 𝟏 𝒅𝟐 𝒀
• − = 𝑬𝒚
𝟐𝒎 𝒀 𝒅𝒚𝟐
•
ℏ 𝟐 𝟏 𝒅𝟐 𝒁
• − = 𝑬𝒛
𝟐𝒎 𝒁 𝒅𝒛𝟐
•
• Each of these three differential equations is the same as for the one-
dimensional case of a particle in a box. Where, Ex, Ey, and Ez are
constants.

• Thus: 𝑬 = 𝑬𝒙 + 𝑬𝒚 + 𝑬𝒛
• The three solutions can be written directly as:
𝟐 𝟏 𝒏𝒙 𝝅𝒙
• 𝑿 𝒙 = ( )𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧( ), 𝒏𝒙 = 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, …
𝒂 𝒂
•
𝟐 𝟏 𝒏𝒚 𝝅𝒚
•𝒀 𝒚 = ( )𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧( ) , 𝒏𝒚 = 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, …
𝒃 𝒃
•
𝟐 𝟏 𝒏𝒛 𝝅𝒛
•𝒁 𝒛 = ( )𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧( ), 𝒏𝒛 = 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, …
𝒄 𝒄
•
• The general solution is:
• 𝝍𝒏𝒙 𝒏𝒚 𝒏𝒛 𝒙, 𝒚, 𝒛 =

𝟏
𝒏𝒙 = 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, …
𝟖 𝒏𝒙 𝝅𝒙 𝒏𝒚 𝝅𝒚 𝒏𝒛 𝝅𝒛
( ) 𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧( ) 𝐬𝐢𝐧( ) 𝐬𝐢𝐧( ), ൞𝒏𝒚 = 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, …
𝒂𝒃𝒄 𝒂 𝒃 𝒄
𝒏𝒛 = 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, …
• the expression for the energy levels based on the x, y and z components as:
•
𝒏𝟐𝒙 𝒉𝟐 𝒏𝟐𝒚 𝒉𝟐 𝒏𝟐𝒛 𝒉𝟐
• 𝑬𝒙 = , 𝑬𝒚 = 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝑬𝒛 =
𝟖𝒎𝒂𝟐 𝟖𝒎𝒃𝟐 𝟖𝒎𝒄𝟐
•
• The total energy, E, is:
•

𝒏𝒙 = 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, …
𝒉𝟐 𝒏𝟐𝒙 𝒏𝟐𝒚 𝒏𝟐𝒛
• 𝑬𝒏𝒙 𝒏𝒚 𝒏𝒛 = 𝑬𝒙 + 𝑬𝒚 + 𝑬𝒛 = + + , ൞𝒏𝒚 = 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, …
𝟖𝒎 𝒂𝟐 𝒃𝟐 𝒄𝟐
𝒏𝒛 = 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, …
•
nx, ny, and nz are the quantum numbers for the x, y, and z components of energy,.

• When the sides of the box are equal (cubic). In this case, a = b = c and so:
•
𝒉𝟐
• 𝑬𝒏𝒙 𝒏𝒚 𝒏𝒛 = (𝒏𝟐𝒙 + 𝒏𝟐𝒚 + 𝒏𝟐𝒛 )
𝟖𝒎𝒂𝟐
 𝒉𝟐 𝟑𝒉𝟐
• 𝑬𝟏𝟏𝟏 = 𝟏𝟐 + 𝟏𝟐 + 𝟏𝟐 = , nx= ny=nz=1
𝟖𝒎𝒂𝟐 𝟖𝒎𝒂𝟐
• The level, E111, the lowest energy state, is nondegenerate.
• The second energy level (two of the quantum numbers = 1 and the
other = 2)
𝟔𝒉𝟐
• 𝑬𝟐𝟏𝟏 = 𝑬𝟏𝟐𝟏 = 𝑬𝟏𝟏𝟐 =
𝟖𝒎𝒂𝟐

• This level is threefold degenerate (three states have the same energy
but have different wavefunctions).
• In case of nx, ny, nz have the values 1, 2 ,3
• This energy level (Six fold degenerate)
𝟏𝟒𝒉𝟐
• 𝑬𝟐𝟑𝟏 = 𝑬𝟑𝟐𝟏 = 𝑬𝟏𝟑𝟐 = 𝑬𝟏𝟐𝟑 = 𝑬𝟐𝟏𝟑 = 𝑬𝟐𝟏𝟐 =
𝟖𝒎𝒂𝟐
• One can also find examples of accidental degeneracy. For
example, in a cubical box E333, E511 are:

𝟐𝟕𝒉𝟐 𝟐𝟕𝒉𝟐
• 𝑬𝟑𝟑𝟑 = 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑬𝟓𝟏𝟏 =
𝟖𝒎𝒂𝟐 𝟖𝒎𝒂𝟐
•
• When 𝑎 ≠ 𝑏 ≠ 𝑐, the energies must be calculated by using the
actual dimensions of the box by choosing unequal values for a,
b, and c and then using several integers for nx, ny, and nz.
•
• The electronic spectrum of the molecule butadiene, H2C=CHCH=CH2,
can be approximated using the one-dimensional particle-in-a-box if
one assumes that the conjugated double bonds span the entire four-
carbon chain. If the average C-C bond length is 1.23nm What is the
wavelength of a absorbing photon to excite the electron from the level
n = 2 to the level n = 3
• Solution
• Here we consider Butadiene is composed of FOUR pz atomic orbitals
each contribute by 1 electron i.e we have FOUR electrons
• Therefore FOUR MOs will be obtained
• TWO of them are occupied (level n = 1 and level n = 2 HOMO)
• and Two unoccupied (level n = 3[LUMO] and level n = 4)
 𝒏𝟐 𝒉𝟐
• The energy level value is given by: 𝑬𝒏 =
𝟖𝒎𝒂𝟐
• m mass of electron =1.9x10-31 kg
• A length of molecule =1.23 x4 = 4.92 nm = 4.92x10-7 m
• nHOMO = 2 n LUMO = 3
• ∆𝐸 = 𝐸𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 − 𝐸𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = ℎ𝜈
ℎ2 2 2 ℎ2 2 2
• = (𝑛 𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 − 𝑛 𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 ) = (3 − 2 )
8𝑚𝑎2 8𝑚𝑎2
ℎ 2 2
• 𝜈 = 2 (𝑛 𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 − 𝑛 𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 )
8𝑚𝑎
6∙626× 10−34 J.s 2 − 22
• 𝜈 = 3
8 1.9x10−31 kg (4.92x10−7 m)2
• = 1.29 × 1012 s−1
• From 𝜆𝜈 = 𝑐, 𝜆 = 2.16 × 10−9 m