Topic 2: First Language Acquisition – Simplified Notes

Learning Outcomes
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:

1. Recognize how children perceive speech.

2. Understand the stages of language acquisition in children.
3. Explain the characteristics and roles of Child-Directed Speech (CDS).
4. Discuss the Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH) in relation to language acquisition.
5. Explore key characteristics and theories of child language acquisition.

Introduction

 Language allows humans to communicate simple and abstract ideas.

 It enables information to be passed down through generations.
 Language use involves:
1. Selecting words from a large vocabulary.
2. Forming complex sentences using grammar rules.
3. Producing speech or writing with accurate sounds or symbols.
 Children learn language effortlessly by listening to speech around them.
 Research focuses on:

1. What children learn in terms of language.

2. How they acquire it.

Key Focus Areas of the Topic

1. Language acquisition in typically developing children.

2. Language development in children with abnormalities and the concept of a critical
period.
3. Theories and stages of child language development.
Child Language Acquisition – Simplified Notes

Key Concept:

 Developmental psycholinguistics studies how children, despite being born without

language, can acquire:
1. Large vocabulary
2. Complex phonology and grammar
3. Socially appropriate language use
 By age 5, children in all societies, regardless of upbringing or literacy, achieve these
milestones.

Perceiving Speech

 Infant Speech Perception:

o Babies can hear before birth.
o Shortly after birth: Prefer mother’s voice and native language.
o By 4 days old: Distinguish native language from foreign ones.
o Infants prefer speech in clausal chunks (not random).
o Early recognition of phonotactic rules (sound combinations).
 Speech Sound Discrimination:
o Newborns can distinguish /p/ vs. /b/ within weeks.
o Ability to differentiate tiny sound variations is inherent.
o Infants can hear phonemes not present in their native language.
 o By 1 year: Sensitivity to non-native sounds fades as they adapt to their
environment.

Key Insight:

 Babies are born ready to perceive all speech sounds but lose this ability as they focus
on their native language.

Producing Speech – Simplified Notes

Key Concept:

 Parents often assign meaning to babies' sounds early, even before true intentions exist.
 Speech development follows overlapping stages, with approximate ages as guides.

Stages of Language Development

1. Crying (Birth):

 First vocal activity (signals hunger/pain).

 Not considered part of speech – more instinctive communication.

2. Cooing (6 Weeks):

 Vowel-like sounds (gurgling/mewing).

 Helps babies control speech mechanisms.
 Consonant-like sounds gradually appear.

3. Babbling (6 Months):

 Repetitive consonant-vowel sounds (e.g., mama, dada).

 Often mistaken by parents as intentional speech.
  Includes:
o Protodeclaratives – Talking about objects.
o Protoimperatives – Requesting something.

4. Intonation Patterns (8 Months):

 Mimics speech rhythm and tone.

 Sounds like real speech to parents.

5. One-Word Utterances (1 Year):

 Single-word sentences (holophrastic stage).

 Around 50 words by 18-20 months.
 Early words are phonetically and semantically similar across cultures.

Key Insight:

 Language development is gradual, with overlapping phases leading to mature speech.

One-Word Utterances – Simplified Notes

Key Points:
  Comprehension vs. Production:
o Children understand 5x more words than they can say.
 Early Words:
o Tend to be nouns (referred to as "nouny").
o Reflect basic categories (e.g., car before vehicle or sedan).
 Individual Variation:
o Some children prefer social terms (hi, bye-bye).
o Others focus on nouns for objects.

Insight:

 Early language is simple but reflects patterns in how children categorize and engage
with the world.

Two-Word Utterances – Simplified Notes

Key Points:

 Age: Begins around the second year.

 Description: Combines 50+ words into basic two-word sentences (telegraphic
stage).
 Characteristics:
o Lacks articles, prepositions, and inflections (like telegrams).
o Expresses simple thoughts and intentions similar across languages.

Common Expressions:

 Negation: No bed
 Recurrence: More milk
 Non-existence: All gone cookie
 Notice: Hi, Daddy!

Other Types of Utterances:

  Actor + Action: Mommy eats
 Noun Modification: Bad kitty
 Possession: Dada shoe
 Location: Kitty table
 Action + Location: Go school
 Action + Object: Eat apple
 Actor + Object: Mom lunch

Limitations at this Stage:

 No references to past or future events.

 Function words and grammatical markers are missing.

Insight:

 After the two-word stage, speech development accelerates with grammar, questions,
and more complex sentences.
Answer activity 2.2

Perception develops before production when infants start to acquire their first language.

Reasons:

1. Early Listening Abilities:

 Infants can hear and differentiate sounds even before birth. By a few days old, they
can recognize their mother's voice and distinguish their native language from others.

2. Sound Discrimination:

 Babies show the ability to distinguish between speech sounds (e.g., /p/ vs. /b/) within
the first few weeks of life. This fine-tuned perception allows them to understand
phonetic differences long before they can produce similar sounds.

3. Vocabulary Understanding:

 Studies show that infants understand more words than they can say. By the one-
word stage (around 12 months), they comprehend five times more words than they
can produce.

4. Motor Development:

 Speech production requires physical control over vocal cords, tongue, and lips, which
develops more slowly compared to auditory perception.

Conclusion:
Infants perceive and process language first, gradually building the foundation for later
speech production.
Child-Directed Speech (CDS) – Simplified Notes

Key Points:

 Definition:
o CDS refers to the simplified and exaggerated speech used when
communicating with infants and young children.
o Also known as parentese/motherese or baby talk.
 Characteristics of CDS:
o Slow rate of speech
o Exaggerated intonation
o Higher pitch (fundamental frequency)
o Frequent repetition
o Simple syntax
o Concrete vocabulary
o Focuses on immediate, present things.
 Example:
o “Look at the birdie!” is easier for a child to understand than “Are you aware
of the bird on the windowsill?”
The Debate on CDS:

1. Is CDS Necessary for Language Acquisition?

o Ongoing debate – some researchers argue it helps, while others think it’s
irrelevant.
2. Key Viewpoints:
o Frequency of Words:
 Children may acquire frequently repeated words earlier, but this is not
always consistent.
 o Parental Adaptation:
 Some believe parents adjust speech naturally to match the child’s
language level.
 Parents focus more on the child’s interests than structured linguistic
teaching.
o Child’s Role:
 Children seem to filter and select important input on their own.
3. Significance of CDS:
o Universally found in all cultures, suggesting it aids language development.
o Research shows infants prefer CDS over normal adult speech.
o Interaction changes as the child’s language skills grow, supporting the role of
nurture and environment in language learning.

Conclusion:
While the exact role of CDS in language acquisition is debated, evidence supports its
influence in facilitating early language development through social interaction.

Imitation and Correction – Simplified Notes

Key Points:

 Children as Imitators:
o Children are strong imitators, especially in the early stages of language
acquisition.
o Imitation plays a crucial role in learning speech sounds initially.
 Focus on Meaning Over Form:
o By the one- and two-word stages, children imitate the meaning (truth
value) of sentences rather than the exact words.
 o Example:
 If a child hears, “The ball that is rolling down the hill is black,” they
might repeat it as “The black ball is rolling down the hill.”
 Correcting Children’s Speech:
o Correcting mistakes can be frustrating because children often ignore
surface-level corrections.
o Example:
 Child: “Nobody doesn’t like me.”
 Mother: “Say, Nobody likes me.”
 Child: (repeats the incorrect form multiple times).
 Child (later): “Oh, nobody don’t likes me.”
 Why Correction Fails:
o Children acquire language in stages.
o They only focus on meaning and ignore grammar corrections unless it
aligns with their current stage of development.
 Long-Term Development:
o Consistent interaction and exposure to correct forms gradually lead to the
natural adoption of proper language.
o Over time, children self-correct as they progress through developmental
stages.

Conclusion:
While imitation is vital for early language learning, children prioritize understanding meaning
over grammatical accuracy. Errors gradually fade as they reach the appropriate
developmental stage, making patience and ongoing communication key to language
acquisition.
Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH) – Simplified Notes

Key Concepts:

 Wild Children:
o Cases like Victor of Aveyron or Mowgli highlight the idea of a biologically
determined window for language learning.
o These cases suggest that language is harder to acquire if this window is
missed.
 Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH):
o CPH suggests there is a specific period (early in life) when language is
learned easily.
o After this period, learning a language becomes significantly harder.
 Sensitive Periods:
o Modern research prefers the term “sensitive period” rather than a rigid
critical period.
o Language learning becomes harder with age but never entirely impossible.
o Early exposure to language is crucial for optimal development.

Key Questions on CPH:

1. Is CPH only for language or a general developmental phase?

o Linguists: CPH applies specifically to language.
o Neurologists: CPH may be part of general cognitive development.
2. Why is language easier for children but harder for adults?
o Children filter out complexities and focus on key language features.
o Adults lack this filter and face overwhelming input.
o Tuning-in Hypothesis:
 Different ages focus on different language aspects:
 Babies: Sounds
 Children: Syntax
 Older children/teens: Vocabulary
 3. How long is the critical period?
o Some believe it ends at puberty, while others argue it is shorter.

Two Views on CPH (Scovel, 2001):

 Strong Version:
o Language acquisition is impossible after the critical period.
 Weak Version:
o Language learning is still possible but much harder after the critical period.

Takeaway for Teachers and Parents:

 Early exposure to language is key.

 Younger brains are more flexible, making language learning easier.

2.3 THEORIES OF FIRST LANGUAGE ACQUISITION

This section explores how children acquire language, focusing on key questions that theories
must address. While there isn’t a single unified theory, research has provided valuable
insights into the process.

2.3.1 Dimensions in Language Development

Researchers examine key questions to understand language acquisition, each focusing on

different aspects of development:
(a) Nature or Nurture

 Nature: Is language inbuilt into the brain?

 Nurture: Is language learned from interaction with the environment?
 Question: Do parents teach language, or does it develop naturally?

(b) Continuity or Discontinuity

 Continuity: Does language develop smoothly with small transitions?

 Discontinuity: Does language develop in distinct stages?

(c) Universal Competence or Individual Variation

 Universal Competence: Is linguistic ability the same for all speakers?

 Individual Variation: Do individuals have different levels of language knowledge?

(d) Structure or Function

 Structure: Should we focus on the grammar children acquire?

 Function: Should we focus on how children use language in different situations?

(e) Autonomy or Dependency

 Autonomy: Is language a separate part of the mind?

 Dependency: Is language development linked to other cognitive development areas?

(f) Rules or Associations

 Rules: Does the child learn language through rules?

 Associations: Does the child make connections based on past experiences?

2.3.2 First Language Acquisition Theories

 Disagreement on language acquisition:

o Extreme view: Language is learned behavior, taught by parents.
o Opposing view: The capacity for language is innate, part of a child’s
biological makeup.
  Middle ground: Many believe children acquire language by imitating what they
hear.
o Imitation does play a role, but it isn’t sufficient, especially for learning an
unknown language.
 Theories of First Language Acquisition can be divided into the following
categories:

o Learning Theory / Behaviourism

o Cognitive Theory / Cognitivism
o Linguistic / Innatist Theory
o Social-Interactionist Model / Constructivism

(a) Learning Theory / Behaviourism

 Overview:
o Known as behaviourism, with key proponents like Pavlov and Skinner.
o Once popular for explaining both animal and human learning.
o Pavlov's classical conditioning influenced learning studies, but FLA (first
language acquisition) researchers were not greatly influenced by it.
 Skinner's Operant Conditioning:
o Focuses on what happens after a response (reinforcement).
o Example: If a baby babbles “mama” and the mother responds with positive
reinforcement, this reinforces the child’s behavior.
o This shaping process influences future language learning.
 Principles of Learning Theory/Behaviourism:

o Language is learned like any other behavior through reinforcement.

o Spoken language development results from adults reinforcing and shaping
infant babbling.
o Three kinds of learning:
 Classical Conditioning: Associating stimuli and responses (Pavlov’s
theory).
 Operant Conditioning: Reinforced behavior strengthens, unreinforced
behavior weakens (Skinner’s theory).
 Social Learning: Children learn by observing behavior from
influential models (parents, caregivers).

 Key Belief:
o Language is acquired through environmental influences and reinforcement,
not necessarily social interaction.
  Limitations of Behaviourism:
o Cannot explain:

 Why children say things they’ve never heard.

 Why children don’t always use common words like articles.

o Thus, behaviourism doesn't fully explain language acquisition.

(b) Linguistic / Innatist Theory

 Overview:
o Developed by Noam Chomsky as a response to the behaviourist model.
 o Chomsky critiqued Skinner’s Verbal Behaviour theory and offered a new
perspective.

 Chomsky's Arguments:

o Universal Sequence of Acquisition:

 All children, regardless of their language or cultural background,
acquire language in a similar order, despite differences in individual
traits like intelligence or personality.
o Limitations of Adult Feedback:
 Children cannot solely rely on adult language models to learn rules
because not all language they hear is complete or grammatically
correct.
 Since children cannot easily identify good or bad language examples,
how do they manage to acquire rules?
o Creative Language Use:
 Children can create and understand sentences they’ve never heard
before (e.g., "The girl the boy kissed was adopted by a stranger the
lady met").
o Inherent Knowledge of Grammar:
 Children do not produce ungrammatical sentences, even though they
are never explicitly warned not to.

 Key Belief:
o Innate Ability: Language acquisition is not purely learned but is instead
supported by an inborn, biological capacity in children to acquire language.
Linguistic / Innatist Theory (Continued)

 Surface vs. Deep Structure Analogy:

o Surface Structure: Differences in appearance, such as skin color, are visible
but superficial.
o Deep Structure: Regardless of superficial differences, all humans share
fundamental anatomical characteristics (e.g., similar skeletal structure).
 o Similarly, Chomsky proposed that all human languages may appear vastly
different at the surface level but share a common deep structure—universal
grammar (UG).
 Key Points of Chomsky’s Argument:

o Environment vs. Learner:

 Unlike behaviourists (Pavlov, Skinner) who believed that the
environment shapes language learning, Chomsky argued that the
learner brings innate abilities to the environment.
 Children are not born as a blank slate (tabula rasa) but have an inborn
linguistic capacity.
o Universal Grammar (UG):
 Children are pre-programmed with an innate ability for language
acquisition, which helps them develop the rules and patterns of the
language they are exposed to.
 UG is the universal underlying structure shared by all languages.
o Inborn Linguistic Ability:
 According to Chomsky, just as walking is a natural development for
humans, so is language acquisition. Children will naturally develop
language skills without explicit teaching.
 Language Acquisition Device (LAD): Chomsky’s concept that the
human brain is equipped with a built-in mechanism that facilitates
language learning.
Shift in Perspective in the 1960s: From Behaviourism to Innatism

 Rejecting Operant Conditioning:

In the 1960s, developmental psycholinguists began to move away from operant
conditioning (behaviourism) and shifted towards the linguistic/innatist perspective
on language acquisition.
 Change in Focus:
o The focus shifted from what mothers and caretakers did or said to what
babies appeared to be creating in terms of language.
o There was a double shift in perspective:
1. From the mother (external) to the child (internal).
2. From external influences (environment) to internal factors (innate
abilities).
  Innate Factors over Social Interaction:
o Researchers became more interested in innate factors, such as universal
grammar (UG), than in social interactions.
o This led to the belief that children follow innate stages of development and
are largely impervious to the influence of their environment.
 Reevaluation of the Theories:
o As the extreme focus on innatism became more apparent, researchers started
to realize that neither the behaviourist nor innatist theories fully explained
the complexity of first language acquisition.
o This led to a moderate approach that sought to balance both innate and
environmental factors in understanding language learning.

c) Cognitive Theory/Cognitivism

 Key Proponent:
The most prominent figure in this school of thought is Jean Piaget.

 Core Focus:
Cognitivists, like the innatists, focus on mental processes during language learning.
 However, unlike innatists who describe the language acquired, cognitivists aim to
understand how language is learned, emphasizing the learning process.
 Principles of Cognitive Theory:
o Language as Part of Cognitive Development:
Language is seen as just one aspect of overall cognitive development, and its
principles align with other cognitive principles.
o Learning Sequence:
Children first learn about the world (e.g., concepts like "cat"), then map
language onto that experience (e.g., learning the word "kitty" for the cat).
o Language and Intelligence:
Language development is thought to depend on intelligence. A child must first
understand something before they can express it verbally.

 Controversy:
This theory is controversial, especially when applied to children, because many other
developments (cognitive or otherwise) occur simultaneously. It can be challenging to
prove that language acquisition is solely a result of intelligence.

(d) Social-Interactionist Model/Constructivism

 Recognition of Social Interaction:

Research increasingly shows that social interaction is the foundation of all language
learning, which aligns with what many parents instinctively know.
 Integration of Previous Views:
This perspective does not contradict the behaviourist or innatist views but aims to
combine them into a social-interactionist approach.
 Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD):
o ZPD refers to the difference between a child’s current linguistic and
cognitive development and the potential development that can be achieved
with interaction from adults or peers.
o This zone is considered the optimal environment for early learning, including
language acquisition.
Key Points:

 Integration with Behaviourism:

 o The social-interactionist model does not reject the behaviourist view that
environmental conditioning affects language learning.
o It agrees that operant conditioning plays a role, especially in acquiring
pronunciation and vocabulary.
 Innate Human Abilities:
o This model acknowledges innate human abilities; infants are biologically
programmed to seek human interaction.
o Autism cases show that without human contact, a child may fail to acquire
language, reinforcing the idea of a biological need for interaction.
 Beyond Behaviourism and Innatism:
o The social-interactionist model goes beyond simply combining behaviourism
and innatism, offering unique insights.
 Vygotsky’s Challenge:
o Vygotsky’s view argues that children attempt to communicate first and learn
language through these attempts, not just to communicate.
 Pragmatic and Sociolinguistic Features:
o Social interaction helps children acquire pragmatics (how to use language
appropriately in different contexts), such as what to say, to whom, when, and
where.
 Focus on Process:
o Unlike traditional views focused on cognitive factors and language
structure, this model focuses on the entire communicative process rather
than the final product, offering a more realistic understanding of language
acquisition.
 Communication as a Need:
o Social-interactionists emphasize that humans are social beings who need to
communicate, and interaction and input are key factors in language
acquisition.

2.2.3 Language Dimensions revisited

Key Points:

 (a) Nature or Nurture:

 o The answer is Both.
o We are genetically programmed to acquire language (innatist view) but also
need social interaction to learn language (social-interactionist view).
 (b) Continuity or Discontinuity:
o Language acquisition happens continuously.
o It is a gradual process, not an overnight transformation (from babbling to
speech).
 (c) Universal Competence or Individual Variation:
o The answer is Both.
o While everyone shares innate language structures, there are individual
differences in language style, rate, and communication skills.
 (d) Structure or Function:
o Innate grammatical mechanisms are activated when children hear language.
o Social and emotional needs also drive children to use language to connect with
others.
 (e) Autonomy or Interaction:
o There is no clear answer.
o Some believe linguistic capacity is autonomous (innatists), while others argue
it depends on social or cognitive factors.
 (f) Rules or Associations:
o The research is still inconclusive.
o We know what children learn, but how they do it is still unclear, involving
both linguistic systems and the child's unique biological, social, and cognitive
factors.
Multiple Choice Questions:

1. Which of the following theorists is associated with the concept of operant

conditioning in language acquisition?
a) Noam Chomsky
b) Ivan Pavlov
c) B.F. Skinner
d) Jean Piaget
2. According to the learning theory/behaviourism, language acquisition is primarily
influenced by:
a) Innate factors
b) Cognitive development
c) Environmental conditioning
d) Social interaction
3. What is the main criticism of the learning theory/behaviourism regarding
language acquisition?
a) It focuses too much on innate abilities.
b) It cannot explain why children say things they've never heard before.
c) It overemphasizes social interaction.
d) It ignores cognitive factors.
4. Which theory argues that language acquisition is an innate ability, part of the
child's biological makeup?
a) Social-Interactionist Model
b) Cognitive Theory
c) Linguistic/Innatist Theory
d) Behaviourism
5. According to Chomsky’s innatist theory, what do all human languages share?
a) Similar vocabulary
b) Universal grammar
c) Identical syntax
d) Same phonetic structure
6. In the context of language acquisition, the "deep structure" of language refers
to:
a) The specific vocabulary of a language
 b) The social context in which language is used
c) The universal grammar shared by all languages
d) The observable speech patterns
7. Which concept in the innatist theory suggests that children are born with a
preprogrammed linguistic competence?
a) Cognitive competence
b) Universal grammar
c) Social interaction
d) Operant conditioning
8. According to Piaget's cognitive theory, language is a part of:
a) Cognitive development
b) Behavioural development
c) Genetic programming
d) Social interaction
9. Cognitive theorists believe that children learn language by:
a) Imitating adults
b) Developing intelligence first and then mapping language onto their experiences
c) Being reinforced by adults
d) Using their innate linguistic structures
10. Which of the following is a key principle of cognitive theory/cognitivism?
a) Language is learned through social interaction.
b) Language development is independent of cognitive development.
c) Intelligence influences language acquisition.
d) Children do not need prior experience to learn language.
11. In the Social-Interactionist Model, what is the main source of language
acquisition?
a) Innate abilities
b) Environmental reinforcement
c) Social interaction
d) Cognitive development
12. Vygotsky’s zone of proximal development describes the gap between a child’s
current development and:
a) The child’s innate linguistic competence
b) The child’s potential development with adult or peer interaction
 c) The child’s cognitive abilities
d) The child’s language environment
13. The social-interactionist model challenges which conventional understanding of
language learning?
a) That language is learned to communicate
b) That language is innate
c) That social interaction is unnecessary
d) That language acquisition is a passive process
14. In the social-interactionist model, what aspect of language do children primarily
acquire through interaction?
a) Phonology
b) Vocabulary
c) Pragmatics and sociolinguistic features
d) Grammar
15. The social-interactionist model focuses on:
a) The final product of language acquisition
b) The process of language acquisition within a communicative context
c) Cognitive development before language development
d) The influence of innate grammar on language
16. According to social-interactionists, humans are:
a) Born with all necessary linguistic abilities
b) Independent of their social environment in language acquisition
c) Social animals that use language for communication
d) Only capable of learning language in isolated settings
17. Which theory believes that language acquisition depends on social and cognitive
factors, not just biological ones?
a) Behaviourism
b) Linguistic/Innatist Theory
c) Cognitive Theory
d) Social-Interactionist Model
18. The “nature versus nurture” debate in language acquisition suggests that:
a) Only nature influences language development
b) Only nurture influences language development
 c) Both nature and nurture contribute to language acquisition
d) Language acquisition is unaffected by either factor
19. Which of the following best describes the cognitive theory’s view on language
acquisition?
a) Language is learned through imitation and reinforcement.
b) Language development is influenced by cognitive development and intelligence.
c) Language acquisition occurs in stages determined by social interactions.
d) Language acquisition is driven by innate grammatical structures.
20. According to the social-interactionist model, what role do adults or peers play in
language acquisition?
a) They passively reinforce the child’s language.
b) They provide linguistic input and help shape the child’s social use of language.
c) They act as a neutral influence on language development.
d) They have no significant role in language learning.

Answers:

1. c) B.F. Skinner
2. c) Environmental conditioning
3. b) It cannot explain why children say things they've never heard before.
4. c) Linguistic/Innatist Theory
5. b) Universal grammar
6. c) The universal grammar shared by all languages
7. b) Universal grammar
8. a) Cognitive development
9. b) Developing intelligence first and then mapping language onto their
experiences
10. c) Intelligence influences language acquisition
11. c) Social interaction
12. b) The child’s potential development with adult or peer interaction
13. a) That language is learned to communicate
14. c) Pragmatics and sociolinguistic features
15. b) The process of language acquisition within a communicative context
16. c) Social animals that use language for communication
17. d) Social-Interactionist Model
18. c) Both nature and nurture contribute to language acquisition
19. b) Language development is influenced by cognitive development and
intelligence.
20. b) They provide linguistic input and help shape the child’s social use of language