Fishing boat

construction: 1
Buiiding a sawn-frame
fishing boat
 Fishing boat
construction; 1
Building a sawn-frame
fishing boat

Prepared by
John F. Fyson
Fishing Technology
Service
FAO Fishery Industries Division
 The Oes>gnai>ons employed and the presemation of
material in this publication do not imply the expression of
any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Food and
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city
or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation
of its frontiers or boundaries.

M-41
ISBN 92-5*10a672*6

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or
Iransmitled m
any form or by any means, electronic, mechanicat. photocopying or otherwise, without
the prior permission of the copyright owner. Applications for such permission, wilh a statement
of the purpose and extent of the reproduction, should be addressed lo the Director. Publications
Oivrsion. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Via delle Terme di Caracalla,
00100 Rome. Italy

e FAO 1MS

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PREPARATION OF THIS DOCUMENT

A paper on this subject was originally written during an assignment in

Thailand by the author, on the basis of his own practical experience and
material from FAD project publications and was published as FAO Fisheries
Technical Paper No. 96 in 1970.

This present document is a revision of the 1970 edition by the same author
while in the capacity of Senior Fishery Industry Officer in the Fishing
Technology Service, for the purpose of establishing a sub-series dealing with
boat construction technology within the main series of the FAO Fisheries
Technical Papers.

Present address: Mr. John F. Fyson

Grand Rue
53570 Correns (Var)
France

Distribution : For bibliographic purposes thi s

document should be cited as follows :

FAO Fisheries Department

FAO Regional Fishery Officers Fyson. J.F., Fishing boat construction: 1.
FAO Fisheries Field Projects 1988 Building a sawn frame fishing
Selected Boatbuilders and boat. FAO Fish. Tech. Pap. ,
Naval Architects ( 96 ) Rev. 1:63 p.

Xhi. a Ona

TSSQ-NPS-9KD6 -d maenai
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ABSTRACT

This publication deals with small fishing boat

construction. Sections 1 and 2 explain the
architect's design drawings and how to draw these
out to full size for the making of patterns for the
various construction members and is the first step
in the building of any boat from plans. Sections 2
to 5 suninarise the construction procedures for
building wooden craft with sawn frames. Round
bottom 2uid V-bottom construction using sawn frames
is described.

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CONTENTS

Page

1. HOW TO READ AND UNDERSTAND BOAT DRAWINGS 1

1.1 Drawing conventions 1

1.2 Boat plans and vdiat they show 2
1.2.1 Profile, deck arrangement, under deck arrangement 2
1.2.2 Lines drawing and offset te±>le 2
1.2.3 Construction profile and plan 4
1.2.4 Construction sections 5

2. LOFTING THE LINES TO FULL SIZE 6

2.1 Introduction 6
2.2 Mold loft floor 6
2.3 Battens 6
2.4 The grid 7
2.5 The offset table 8
2.6 The profile 8
2.7 The deckline in plan 9
2.8 Sections 9
2.9 Waterlines 11
2.10 Buttocks 12
2.11 Transom projection 13
2.12 Conclusion 13

3. PATTERN MAKING AND BACKBONE CONSTRUCTION 14

3.1 Introduction 14
3.2 Rabbet and bearding lines 14
3.3 Backbone patterns 15
3.4 Backbone construction 15
3.5 Frame patterns 16
3.5.1 Frame bevels 16
3.5.2 Transom bevels 17

4. DOUBLE SAWN FRAME ROUND AND V BOTTOM CONSTRUCTION 18

4.1 Introduction 18
4.2 Futtock and floor layout - Square frames 18
4.3 Layout for half frames 19
4.4 Frame assembly 19
4.5 Frames for V bottom construction 19

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Page

SETTING UP AND GENERAL CONSTRUCTION DETAILS 20

5.1 Setting up 20
5.1.1 Foundations 20
5.1.2 Backbone 20
5.1.3 Square frames 21
5.1.4 Half frames 21
5.1.5 Fitting chines in V bottom construction 22
5.2 General construction details 22
5.2.1 Stringers and clamps 22
5.2.2 Breasthooks emd knees 23
5.2.3 Deck beams 23
5.2.4 Planking 23
5.2.5 Decking 24

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VI

PLATES

Page

I General arrangement 25
II Lines plan, round bottom 26
III Lines plan with diagonal, round bottom 27
IV Lines plan, V-bottom 28
V Construction profile and plan 29
VI Construction sections, round bottom 30
VII Construction sections, V-bottora 31
VIII Offset table 32

FIGURES

1. Profile view 33
2. Plan view 34
3. Sectional views 35
4. Sectional graining of wood 36
5. Longitudinal graining of wood 36
6. Grid reference lines 37
7. Two halves of a boat separated at WL 4 38
8. Pl 2m view of waterline 39
9. Plan view of buttock line 39
10. Hull of a boat separated at buttock line (view from aft) 40
11. Hull of a boat separated at buttock line (view from forward) 41
12. Section view of a tiuttock line 42
13. Diagonal 42
14. Erection of a perpendicular to a baseline 43
15. Fixing of points by intersection 43
16. Waterline endings transferred from profile to plan view 44
17. A. Buttock endings transferred from plan view to profile 44
B. Intersection of buttock and waterline in plem view 44
transferred to the profile
18. Preparation of grid for transom expainsion 45
19. Transom expansion 46
20. Keel rabbet in section 47
21. Stem fabbet in plan 47
22. Rabbet patterns 47
23. Calculation of freune bevels (forward sections) 48
24. Plotting frame distances 48
25. Calculation of frame bevels (aft section) 48
26. Transom bevels 49
27. Frames with long and short floors 50
28. Frames with single floors 51
29. Half frame construction 52
30. Sawn frames for V-bottom construction 53
31. Foundations for setting up 54
32. Positioning of frames on keel 55

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33. Hatpins for positioning of half frames 56

34. Chine logs eind battens for V-bottom construction 57
35. Timber scarfs 58
36. Clan^ and shelf construction 59
37. Hanging and lodging knees 59
38. Direction of grain in the cutting of knees 60
39. Butt blocks in plamking 60
40. Spacing of butt joints in planking 61
41. Waterways 62
42. Covering boards 61
43. Covering board notched to take plank ends 63

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 1 . HCW TO READ AND UNDERSTAND BOAT DRAWINGS

Even for someone who is accustomed to reading drawings prepared by

engineers or architects, a set of boat plans may appear confusing and
difficult to understand. The purpose of this paper is to explain how a
designer draws the curved shape of a boat on a flat sheet of paper, what each
sheet of a set of drawings shows and where to look for the details of
construction and the dimensions necessary to build a boat.

1.1 Drawing conventions

To show all the necessary details and dimensions of a solid object on a

flat sheet of paper all constructional drawings use three different views of
the object.

In boat plans, the first of these is a view of the boat as it appears to a

person standing to one side and seeing only the side of the boat which is
facing him. This view, which is known as the profile view, will only show the
details of the boat vrtiich are visible within the outline of the side which is
facing the observer (see Fig. 1). The second or plan view is what a person in
a position directly above the boat sees as he looks down at the boat below
him (see Fig. 2). The third or section view is perhaps a little more
difficult to understand. Imagine that the boat is sawn in two across the hull
at a certain point and the two halves separated. Now if a person stands
directly in front of the saw cut looking at one of the two halves, he will see
everything that has been exposed by the cutting open of the boat in this
manner. The designer, in his section view, draws everything that such a
person would see and the outside lines of this drawing are the lines that the
saw would make on the outside of the boat as it cuts its way through (see Fig.
3).

Certain lines which the designer uses have a special meaning and help to
make the drawing clear to the reader. The centreline of a drawing is always
shown like this . so that if you see this line you know that
you are looking at the centre of the drawing.

Looking at Fig. 3 again you will see that the imaginary saw as it cuts
through the boat would cut some of the wooden pieces in two and the person
looking at one of the two halves would see the cut end of these pieces. To
make the drawing easily urxlerstaix]£d3le the designer shades these cut ends in a
special way. Pieces vhich have been cut across the length are shown as in
Fig. 4, while pieces cut along the length are shown in Fig. 5.

If you look at a number of boat drawings you will see that the boat
designer always draws the bow of the boat to the right and in order to tell
you the size of the boat the scale will be shown on each sheet. For example,
if the designer has drawn his plan to a scale of one to ten you see on the
drawing (usually in the right hcind lower corner) the figures 1:10. This means
that every inch measured on the drawing is equal to ten inches on the full
size boat.

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1.2 Boat plans and what they show

A complete set of plans for the construction of a fishing boat will

include the following drawings:

(a) Profile, deck arrangement, under deck arrangement;

(b) Lines drawing and offset table;
(c) Construction; profile and plan
(d) Construction sections;
(e) Joinery and other details.

1.2.1 Profile, deck arrangement, under deck arrangement (See Plate 1)

This drawing is readily understandable to most people. The profile shows

the outside of the hull as it looks afloat when seen from the side, while the
deck arrangement shows the position of the deckhouse, hatches and various
items of deck equipment seen from above. The under deck arrangement shows the
position of the various equipment inside the boat. Imagine that the whole
deck has been lifted off the boat, then what is shown on this drawing is what
would be seen by someone looking down at the resulting open hull from above.

1.2.2 Lines drawing and offset table (See Plate II)

This is the most important drawing of all as it is this drawing which

shows the exact space of the hull which the designer wishes to have built.

Look first at the middle drawing of the three shown in Plate II. This is
a profile view of the hull and the heavy outside line shows the outside form
of the deck, stem, keel and stern. For the moment let us ignore the other
lines shown on this drawing and just remember the shape of the boat shown by
the heavy outer line.

The lower drawing is the plem view and the heavy outside line on this
drawing shows the outer shape of the deck vhen looked down on from above. In
this case only one half of the boat is shown because the other half will be
exactly the same. Again let us forget the other lines for the moment.

Finally there is the upper drawing in Plate II which shows the section
view. What the designer wishes to show in a section view has already been
explained in connection with Fig. 3. This view however, shows not one twt a
number of sections and to save space euid make the drawing more compact these
sections have been drawn one inside the other. The first thing to notice is
that the designer has drawn only half of each section, as again the other half
will be exactly the same. If you find the centreline in this drawing (shown
like this . . ) and then look at the sections drawn to the right
of the centreline you will see that they are not the same as those to the left.

The designer chooses a number of fixed positions along the length of the
hull at (diich to draw his sections and these are numbered from 0 to 10. The
sections from the middle of the boat (section 5 in Plate II) to the bow are
drawn to the right of the centreline from the widest No. 5 (at the centre) to
the narrowest No. 10 (near the bow). The sections from No. 4 (near centre) to
No. 0 (near the stern) are drawn to the left.

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The profile of the outside of the boat, the plan view of the deck and the
section views already mentioned are enough to give a general idea of the shape
of the boat but these lines are not sufficient to allow the boatbuilder to
accurately draw the shape of the boat full size, so that he can make the
patterns from which to cut out his wood.

The first requirement is a system of reference lines from which to make

measurements. Looking again at the profile view in Plate II you will see a
straight line drawn across the paper just under the lowest point of the keel.
This is called the baseline and all vertical measurements are made from this
line. The position of the baseline is arbitrary.

Along this baseline at equal spacing, are lines perpendicular to the

baseline numbered from 0 to 10. itiese give the positions of the sections
which are shown in the section view, and the number below each of these lines
is the same as the number on the corresponding section in that view.
Therefore by looking at the number on a section and then finding the
perpendicular line with the same number in the profile view you cem see the
exact position along the hull at which each section is drawn. There is also a
further set of straight lines in the profile view drawn parallel to the
baseline and one above the other at fixed spacing. These lines are called
waterlines cind they are in ascending order from 1 to 6 with waterline 1 (WL 1
on Plate II) nearest to the baseline. On Fig. 6 you will see these reference
lines as they are drawn by the designer before he begins to draw the profile
of the boat (shown dotted in Fig. 6). This system of lines is called the grid
and all measurements are referred to one or other of these lines.

You will see that the baseline and the waterlines are also drawn with the
same spacing in the section view auid here also all measurements are referred
to these lines.

Now look at the pl«in view in Plate II; the reference lines here use the
centreline as a base and lines showing the positions of the sections are drawn
perpendicular to this centreline. Looking up from this view to that of the
profile above it, you will see that these section lines have exactly the same
spacing and are numbered the same as the section lines in the profile view.
The remaining lines on this plan view are a number of curved lines which you
will see are numbered the same as the waterlines in the profile view. To
understand what these lines show, let us imagine that we make a model
corresponding exactly to the shape of the full sized boat but reduced in size.
If we draw on the side a straight line representing a waterline as seen by a
person looking at the model from the side, what would happen if we took a saw
and cut the model in two along this line?

Seen from the side the two pieces would look like the drawing in Fig. 7.
If we took away the upper part and looked down on the lower part from above it
would look something like Fig. 8. In the figure one half of the boat is drawn
with a heavy line and the other half with a dotted line because, as already
explained, the designer only draws half of the boat in plan view.

Now looking at the plan view in Plate II you will see that the curved
lines shown there are in fact the waterline in the profile view drawn as if
the designer had sawn through the waterlines one after the other and then
drawn the curved lines which each piece would show if looked down on frcan

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above exactly as in Figs. 7 and 8. We now have three different kinds of line
shown in all three views: the outside lines of the boat seen from the side in
profile and from above in plan; the sections, which appear as straight lines
in the profile and plan view and as curved lines in the section view; and the
waterlines, which appear as straight lines in the profile and section view and
as curved lines in the plan view. This is sufficient to show the shape of the
hull, but to make the drawing of the various curved lines more accurate by
providing more reference points, and to aid the designer in his work, two more
types of lines are included. Looking down at the plan view in Plate II you
will see three straight lines drawn parallel to the centreline and marked I,
II and III. If we took our model again and drew one of these straight lines
along the deck parallel to the centreline and then sawed along this line to
divide the model into two pieces we would have something like the drawing in
Fig. 9. If we took away the outside piece shown as a dotted line in Fig. 9
and looked at the remainder from the side we would see a curved line showing
the outside of the saw cut emd looking like the heavy lines in Figs. 10 and
11. If you look at Plate II again you will see that the line marked I in the
profile view does look like this and II and III are similar, each one being
drawn at a different distemce from the centreline. If the m^el were turned
to be looked at from the stern the saw cut would be seen as a straight line in
Fig. 12 end so these lines are drawn in the section view as straight lines
perpendicular to the baseline. These lines are called buttocks and they appear
as straight lines in the plan and section views and as curved lines in the
profile view.

A further set of lines known as diagonals are drawn diagonally to the

centreline in the section view (see Fig. 13 and Plate III). Measurements made
from the centreline along these lines to the various sections are set out
opposite the plan view and curved lines drawn through the points so marked
(See Plate III).

All these lines are used to make a complete picture of the shape of the
boat which the designer wishes the builder to reproduce. To assist the
builder to draw the shape of the boat full size, all measurements necessary to
draw the various lines are gathered together in a teible called the offset
table.

In Plate II the sections are drawn above the profile. In many designs the
sections are drawn on top of the profile view using the middle section line
No. 5 as a centreline. In Plate II we have shown the sections above the
profile to make the explanations easier to read emd understand. However one
should become accustomed to reading a drawing in which the sections are placed
on the profile vieW and Plate III gives an example of a set of lines drawn in
this way.

1.2.3 Construction profile and plan

The next drawing which the designer prepares is the construction profile
and plan. This drawing shows the many items which go to make up the
construction of the hull of the boat together with indications of the position
of such items as engine, winches, power take off, etc.

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The upper drawing of Plate V shows a view of the boat like that which you
would see if you cut the boat in two vertically down the middle, took the
right hand half away and stood at the side looking at the remaining half of
the boat. The construction of the keel, stem, and stern are clearly seen and
indications of the positions of bolts fastening the different pieces together
will usually be given. The frames can be seen running up from the keel to the
underside of the deck and their spacing indicated. Across them will be drawn
the various longitudinal members, keelson, bilge stringers and clamps, etc.
The position of the engine and the wooden bearers to which it is fastened will
be shown and the location and construction of the fish hold and its hatches
indicated. The deckhouse construction can be seen and details of rudder and
steering may also be added.

Below this profile view of the boat will be a plan view. This is drawn in
two halves which differ from each other in the position from which they are
seen. If you imagine that the construction of the boat has progressed to the
stage that the keel, stem, stern, frame and planking have all been completed
but the deck beams have not yet been put into place, then someone looking down
at the boat from above would see a boat similar to the upper half of the plan
view in Plate V. Note that the frames, floors, bilge stringers, clamp, engine
bearers and bulkheads are all clearly shown.

If the work continues until all the deck beeims and hatch coamings are in
place but the deck planking itself is not yet laid, the lower half, B, in
Plate V shows how the boat would appear to someone looking down on it as
before. This drawing gives the position and spacing of deckbeams and hatches
and necessary wooden foundation to which the winch, mast and other deck
equipment will be bolted.

1.2.4 Construction sections

This drawing is very important to the builder as it is here that he can

read many of the sizes of the various pieces of timber and other items
necessary to build the boat. Plates VI and VII show the construction
sections. Here the designer has drawn a number of views of the boat as if it
had been sawn into sections as described in the discussion on the section view
in Plate II. Normally there will be a section at the middle of the boat
called the midship section on which all the principal dimensions are shown.
In addition the designer will draw sections at various other locations at
which he wishes to show special features not seen at the middle of the boat.
For example, one section will show the engine, its wooden bearers, position of
exhaust piping, and perhaps the location of fuel tanks, etc. Another may show
a section through the fish hold giving details of linings, insulation, hatch,
etc.

You will note that again only one side of the boat is drawn at each
section and an indication will be given as to whether the view shown is that
which someone would see if they were looking toward the bow or toward the
stern.

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In addition to the drawings mentioned already there may also be special

details of the construction such as the construction of the deckhouse, various
joinery detail, such as window construction, etc., engine room arrangement,
piping diagrams showing the layout of plumbing, wiring diagrams for the
electrical installation, etc.

2. LOFTING THE LINES TO FULL SIZE

2.1 Introduction

The first step in the building of any boat from plans is the full-size
reproduction of the lines drawing described in section 1.2.2. The time spent
in careful drawing of the lines full size might at first seem to be
unnecessarily long but, in fact, time spent in lofting will be more than made
up in time saved in trimming frames by hand and adjusting ill-fitting joints
if lofting is not properly done.

2.2 Hold loft floor

The basic requirement for drawing the lines of a boat in full size is a
wooden floor with a smooth surfce which is as flat as possible without bumps
and ridges. The minimum space necessary is a length at least 6 ft longer than
the boat itself with a width equal to the distance from the baseline to the
highest point of the sheer plus 6 ft. If a sufficient length of floor is not
available to draw the complete lines then the drawing can be made in two
parts. In this case the length necessary will be half the length of the boat
plus the spacing of two sections on the lines drawing plus a further 4 ft.
For a 60 ft boat with a section spacing of 5 ft the required length will be
30 ft + 10 ft + 4 ft - 44 ft. The extra lengths at each end of the drawing
area are necessary to allow the battens used for drawing curves to continue on
beyond the end of the drawing so that the resulting curves will be fair.

2.3 Battens

Battens to draw the curves should be made from wood with a long straight
grain which will bend easily without splitting. The sizes of batten required
are as follows:

For the sheer line and other easy curves:

1 Batten of l*j inch x l>j inch or 2 in x 3/8 inch

For waterlines in plan view:

1 Batten 1 inch x 3/8 inch

1 Batten 3/4 inch x 3/4 inch

For the sections:

1 Batten 3/8 inch x 3/8 inch

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2.4 The grid

The first step is to draw the baseline, the vertical section lines and the
horizontal waterlines which form the reference lines from which all the
measurements are taken. This is called the grid and it is important to get
the perpendicular correctly drawn and dimensions exact as this will influence
the accuracy of all later measurements.

The first line to be drawn is the baseline. Two to three feet from the
edge, stretch a cord about ij inch above the floor and running the full length.
The straight line so obtained is transferred to the floor by marking directly
uixJer the cord at regular intervals and joining the points with a straight
edge. About four or five feet from the left hand edge of the floor draw a
line perpendicular to the baseline. This will be the after perpendicular
(A.P.) of the profile view. The drawing of perpendiculars of this size cannot
be conveniently and accurately done with a square and it is usual to draw
these with a beam conpass. A straight length of wood about three quarters of
the length of the longest perpendicular is prepared. Near one end a nail is
driven with the point protruding about one inch. Holes are drilled to take a
pencil in a tight push fit about half way along the length and near the end
opposite to the nail. With a pencil in the middle hole and the nail at the
point on the baseline through which the perpendicular is to be drawn, (A in
Fig. 14), make two small arcs to cut the baseline at equal distances B and
B(l) on either side of A. Place the pencil in the outer hole in the beam and
the nail point on B and B(l) in turn. From these points draw two arcs above
the baseline. Through the point of intersection C, a straight line is drawn
to the baseline at A. CA is then the required perpendicular.

With the after perpendicular drawn on the floor, mark off along the
baseline the distance to the first section line. (You will find this
dimension marked on the lines drawing). Draw another perpendicular at this
point and repeat the process for each section line using the section spacing
shown in the lines drawing. Then, measure the distance from the last section
to the forward perpendicular (F.P.) and draw this perpendicular in also.
Next, find the spacing of the waterlines in the profile view, mark these
dimensions on the A.P., F.P. and several of the section lines and draw in the
waterlines by connecting the points with a straight edge. If this has been
correctly done all these waterlines should then be parallel to the baseline.

To complete the grid a batten is usually nailed along the underside of the
baseline so that when dimensions are being measured the end of the ruler can
be butted against this batten.

Note that to save space on the floor the lines are not drawn as shown on
the designer's plan. The half breadth plan is superimposed on the profile
drawing so that the baseline for the profile view becomes the centreline for
the half breadth plan view. The middle section line of the profile view
becomes the centreline of the section view and the sections are drawn to
either side of this line.

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2.5 The offset table

As mentioned previously all the dimensions necessary to draw the lines

plan are shown in the offset table. The table is laid out in three parts
separated by heavy lines (see Plate VIII). Along the top of the table are the
numbers of all the sections and the table is divided into columns each of
which contains the measurements referring to that particular section.

At the side of the table e>bove the heavy line dividing the first two parts
are the words "Height from baseline". This means that all measurements in
this part are to be made vertically from the baseline. The table is divided
by horizontal lines and against each line is the name of the part of the boat
to which the measurements refer.

For example if you wish to draw the line representing the sheer you will
find the word sheer against one of the horizontal lines in the part of the
table labelled "Height from baseline". Loo(i along the line beside this
heading. In each vertical column there will be a dimension which is to be
measur^ along the section line, the number of which is given at the top of
the column. The second part of the table is labelled "Half Breadths". Here
it is the breadth of the boat which is being measured and as only half the
boat is drawn the measurements given are half breadths. Looking at the teUale
you will see that the waterlines, sheer, top of bulwarks, etc., each have a
line of figures beside them while the columns for the different sections allow
you to choose the section for which you wish to make a measurement.

The third part of the table is marked "Diagonals" and the dimensions given
here refer to measurements along the diagonal lines drawn in the section view
(see Fig. 13)

With the offset table and lines drawing at hand you are now ready to begin
the full size drawing. One word of warning! Dimensions should never be
scaled from the blueprint of the lines plan because the blueprint paper often
shrinks after printing and measurements made on the print will be incorrect.
Always take the dimensions from the offset table or from the measurements
marked on the drawing by the designer.

2.6 The profile

The first lines to be drawn are those of the profile of sheer, keel, stem
and stern. The dimensions for these are to be measured vertically from the
l>aseline so the upper part of the offset table is used.

First the sheer: dimensions from the offset table are marked on each
section line and a nail driven at each point. The sheer Ijatten is then bent
until one edge of the batten touches each nail and nails are driven on the
other side of the batten to hold it in place. The ends of the batten should
run on beyond the last points marked to give a fair curve and you should look
along the batten from each end to see if the curve of the batten is smooth
without bumps and hollows. If an irregularity is seen at a point the nail
should be withdrawn and the batten allowed to spring to a smooth curve. The

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same procedure is followed for all of the points and when a smooth curve
running as close as possible to the original points has been found the line is
drawn on the floor. This same procedure is followed for all the curves which
are to be drawn during the lofting.

Next draw the line representing the bottom of the keel, taking the
measurements from the offset table. Now for the stem and stern profile. On
the lines plan you will see measurements marked from the F.P. along the
waterlines to the forward face of the stem. Lay these out on the waterlines
on the floor euid draw in the stem fairing the curve into the line of the keel
with a light batten. The same procedure is followed for the stem and when
this is completed the rabbet lines at keel, stem and stern are drawn. The
profile is then completed.

2.7 The deckline in plan

This is the next line to be drawn and to save space it is drawn over the
profile. In this case the line which served as a baseline for the profile
view becomes the centreline for the plan view and the half breadths are
measured along the section lines from this centreline. To avoid confusion and
make the reading of the various lines easier it is a good idea to draw the
separate views in different colours.

In the middle part of the offset table you will find the half breadths of
the deckline at each section. These are measured along the section lines and
drawn in with a batten in the usual way. The ending of the deckline at the
stem and stern however, have first to be found to enable the curve to be
completed.

Look at the sheer which you have already drawn in profile. The point at
which this line meets the rabbet line of the stem will be the same point at
which the deckline touches the stem in plan. Therefore, you measure the
distance from the forward perpendicular (F.P.) to the intersection of sheer
emd rabbet in profile and carry the same measurement along the centreline to
find the ending of the deckline in plan. However, in plan the deckline does
not run to the centreline but stops at the side of the stem so that the
correct point is not on the centreline but one half the breadth of the stem
from it. Figure 16 makes this clear.

The same method is used at the stern, the only difference being that, on a
boat with a transom stern, the half breadth of the transom at the sheer is
found in the offset table and this dimension used to find the position of the
point marking the deckline ending.

2.8 Sections

The sections are the next to be drawn, but before beginning this part of
the drawing work, measuring sticks should be prepared. As the dimensions of a
line in one view must correspond exactly with the same line seen in another
view, it will be necessary to transfer measurements from one view to another
frequently. Although it is possible to do this by using a ruler each time,
the possibility of error is much greater. Therefore two measuring sticks of
straight smooth wood are prepared. One, for measuring heights above the
baseline, should be a little longer than the highest point on the profile.

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while the other, for measuring half breadth should be a little longer them the
greatest half breadth in the plan view. The measuring stick for heights is
placed on each of the section lines in the profile view in turn, with one end
against the batten marking the baseline, and the heights of the keel bottom,
the rabbet and the sheer marked off. The same thing is then done with the
second batten for the half breadths in the plan view.

The line of the middle section in the profile view (Section No. 5) is used
as the centreline for drawing the sections exactly as they are drawn in Plates
III and IV. First the half breadth of the keel and stem is measured off and
drawn on the right hand side of this centreline. Similarly the half breadth
of the keel and stern post are drawn on the left. To draw in a section we
must first mark the position of the intersection of the section and the
deckline and also the point at which the section line touches the half breadth
of the keel (that is to say the rabbet). To do this the measuring sticks are
used. First the stick for heights is placed along the half breadth of the
keel line and the heights of the keel bottom and rabbet for the section vhich
is to be drawn are marked off. Next the height of the sheer is marked on the
floor at about the half breadth of this particular section. The measuring
stick for half breadths is then placed parallel to this height with one end
against the centreline and the half breadth of the sheer for this section
marked on the floor.

Now look in the offset table at the part marked half breadths. Let us say
we are drawing Section 5. In the column marked 5 you will see a dimension
against the horizontal line for each of the six waterlines. These dimensions
are to be measured in the section view from the centreline along each of the
numbered waterlines which were drawn in the grid.

Hark out each of these points for Section 5 and you will see the shape
which the curved section is to have, marked out the line of points.
However, if you bend a batten around these points you will see that in some
places the points are far apart and, as in the lower waterlines the angle
between the waterline and the section is acute, it is difficult to fix the
position of the point accurately (see Fig. 15). For this reason the designer
has provided dimensions for buttocks and diagonals to give more points to help
in the drawing of the sections.

To make use of these dimensions we must first draw the reference lines.
In the section on the reading of drawings it was explained that the buttock
lines seen in section are straight lines perpendicular to the base line. If
you look at the lines drawing Plate II you will see the position of these
buttock lines together with their spacing from the centreline of the section
view. Draw these lines on the floor on either side of the centreline of the
section view with the spacing given in Plate II. Similarly draw the diagonal
lines shown in the section-view at the spacing indicated. In the part of the
offset table marked "Heights from Baseline" you will see dimensions given for
each buttock line. Reraerat>ering thiat measurements from this part of the table
are to be taken vertically from the baseline, you measure from the baseline up
each of the vertical lines just drawn, the dimension given for the Section 5.
This will give you three additional points on the section curve. In the third
part cf the offset table, marked "Diagonals", you will find dimensions for the
diagonals for each section. These dimensions are to be measured along the
diagonal lines from the point at which the diagonal crosses the centreline.

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Nails are now driven into all these points and a batten bent around them as
was done for the sheet line. Similarly any irregular bumps or hollows in the
curve are removed and the section line drawn. The same process is repeated
for all the sections and the transom.

2.9 Waterlines

With the sections drawn it is necessary to draw the waterlines in plan

view to check that the smooth curves drawn in the section view will in fact
result in smooth waterlines in the plan view. Some builders are content to
draw only the section view, trusting that the waterlines and hence the hull
pleuiking which must follow the same curves can be faired up by trimming the
frames after erection. Tliis is a time-consuming process and time spent in
correctly fairing the lines on the loft floor will be more than con^nsated
for by the saving in time that can be made in reducing the process of trimming
frames by hand after erection. The dimensions given by the curves of the
sections must be transferred to the plan view and this is best done by use of
the measuring sticks.

Let us first look at waterline 1. Place the half breadth measuring stick
along WL 1 to the right of the centreline in the section view, with one end of
the stick on the centreline. Mark on the stick the distances from the
centreline to the points at which each section line crosses the waterline.
Reverse the stick and do the same for the distances to the left of the
centreline. Note that this waterline does not cut all of the section lines
due to the fact that it is low on the hull where the width is much narrower
than will be found higher up the hull. These dimensions are then transferred
to the sections in the plan view exactly as was done for the deckline in pleui.
To find the endings of the waterline, look at waterline 1 in the profile view.
Where it cuts the rabbet line at the bow will also be the position of the
waterline ending in plan. Therefore measure the distance from the F.P. to
'

where WL 1 crosses the rabbet in the profile view, then measure the same
distance along the centreline in the plan drawing. Mark this point emd then
with a square draw a line perpendicular to the centreline with a length equal
to the half breadth of the keel. This will be the waterline ending and at the
end of this line is the point which the waterline must cross (see Fig. 16).
The same process is repeated at the after end and then the batten can be bent
around the line of nails to give the curve. Should the line of the batten
give a smooth curve when view^ from both ends then all is well and you can
continue to the next waterline. If there are bunps or hollows in the line
then the nails must be lifted to smooth out the curve. You must remember
however that if any changes are made in the waterline the section lines must
also be changed so that the dimensions in both views are exactly the same.
Therefore as the succeeding waterlines are drawn the fairing consists of
altering the two sets of lines in such a way that the result gives curves
which are the same as those given in the lines plan and which correspond
exactly one to the other. You may ask why, if the designer has drawn his plan
carefully, should there by an differences which need correcting. This is
because the designer makes his measurements on a small plan on which it is
difficult to reach accurately to last 1/8 of an inch so that when the lines
are drawn full size small differences will cause bumps and hollows to appear
which the builder must correct if he does not want to waste time later fairing
the frames by hand.

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Two other points should be remembered at this stage. In many designs the
sternpost is made thicker than the keel in the area v^iere the stern tube and
propeller shaft ace located so that when drawing a waterline which ends in
this area care must be taken to take the half breadth of the rabbet at this
point and not the half breadth of the keel. If the lines being drawn are of a
boat with a transom you must draw the waterline endings in this area
accordingly.

Look at waterline 5 in the profile view in Plate II. As you can see this
waterline ends on the transom. The distance of the waterline ending from the
after perpendicular is taken in the same way as the other waterlines but the
half breadth of the transom at this waterline must be used instead of the half
breadth of the keel or sternpost when marking the position of the waterline
ending (see Fig. 16).

2.10 Buttocks

There remains one set of lines to draw. These are the curved buttock
lines which can be seen in the profile drawing of Plate II. Again a measuring
stick (this time the one for heights) is used to transfer the buttock
dimensions from the section view to the profile. Lay the stick along one of
the buttock lines to the right of the centreline in the section view with its
end against the baseline. Next mark off the points at vdiich the various
sections cross the buttock line. Transfer the stick to the buttock line with
the seune number on the left )iand side and mark for the other sections.
Returning to the profile view, mark these buttock heights on each section
line. Now to find the endings of the buttock line so that we can draw the
complete curve. In the section on reading drawings it was explained that the
buttock lines seen in plan are straight lines parallel to the centreline (see
Fig. 9 and Plate II). The point at vAiich the buttock crosses the deckline in
pl 2ui gives the dimension which is used to locate the ending in the profile
view (see Fig. 17). For the forward ending of the buttock, measure the
distance from the F.P. to the point at which the buttock crosses the deckline
in plan. Measure this same distance from the forward perpendicular to the
sheerline in the profile (see Fig. 17 A). This will be the point at which the
buttock touches the sheer.

Additional points on the buttock lines can be found from the intersection
of buttocks and waterlines in plan view (see Fig. 17 B). Drawing vertical
lines from these intersections to cross the coresponding waterline in the
profile view will provide additional points on tlie buttock lines in profile.
When nails have been placed in all these points and a tsatten bent arourd them
you can see if the resulting curve is fair without bumps or hollows. If
corrections must be made then the same corrections must lae made to both the
waterlines in plan and the sections so that all curves are smooth and without
irregularities.

Provided all these curves have been properly faired it is not usually
necessary to fair the diagonals in fishing boat construction and so these
lines will not be drawn on the floor.

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2.11 Transom projection

One more thing remains to be done in the lofting of the lines. This is
the projection of the transom if this has not been done by the designer. The
line marked T in Plate II is in fact the shape of a vertical section at the
transom position. If the transom is vertical this line will give the correct
shape of the transom. If the transom is at an angle to the vertical however
this will not be the correct shape because the transom will be inclined at an
angle to the vertical.

The correct shape can be drawn at the after side of the transom in the
profile view if there is room. If not the expansion can be drawn at any
convenient place, provided the transom emgle is correctly drawn and the
waterline spacing properly calculated.

If the expansion is drawn aft of the transom in profile, the centreline of

the transom is drawn parallel to the transom line in profile at any convenient
distance and the intersections of waterlines and sheer with the transom line
in profile are drawn across to cut this centreline at right angles. The
rabbet and buttock intersections are also drawn in this way and this gives a
grid from which measurements are made to determine the points on the transom
curve (see Fig. 18). For a flat transom the spacing of the buttock lines is
made exactly as in the section view and the lines drawn parallel to the
transom centreline as in Fig. 18.

Perpendiculars are drawn from the baseline to meet the transom at the
intersection with the sheer and the waterlines in the profile view. These
perpendiculars will cut the deckline and the waterlines in plan (see Fig. 19).
The distance from the centreline to these intersections (A, B, C, D, in Fig.
19) are then transferred to the projected transom grid. These points together
with the intersections of the vertical and projected buttock lines are then
used to draw the shape of the transom using a batten in the same way as the
vertical sections are drawn.

2.12 Conclusion

All the essentials of lofting to full size have now been covered, however
there are several other points to consider when working on the loft floor.

When fairing the lines, do not forget that a point fixed by the
intersection of two lines that cross at right angles, or close to right
angles, is much more accurate than that determined by two lines that intersect
at an acute angle (see Fig. 15). When one has the choice one should always
go by points fixed by the intersection of lines crossing at close to right
angles

In the construction of a round bottomed, sawn frame fishing vessel there

are usually many more sawn frames than shown in the sections in the lines
plan. To obtain the shape of these frames it is necessary to trace
supplementary sections. The position of these along the keel is usually given
in the construction profile and to loft them perpendiculars to the base line
are set out on the floor. Vertical heights of sheer, deck and rabbet are
transferred to a measuring batten from the profile view. Similarly half
breadths of the deck line, waterlines and rabbet are taken from the plan view.

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The new sections are then drawn in the section view using the measurements
taken from the battens to establish the shape of each intermediate section in
the same way as was used for the principal sections. If the full sized
lofting has been correctly carried out the curves of these new sections should
be fair and further modification should not be necessary.

For someone who is not accustomed to reading a loft drawing the large i

number of lines making up the different views when superimposed one on the
other can be confusing and it is suggested to use one colour for the lines of
the profile view, for example, another for the plan view and a third for the
j

section view, thus making it easier to identify the different views and avoid i

errors caused by choosing the wrong line. If the lofting is to be used for i

the construction of several boats, to avoid the risk of lines being \

accidentally erased they C 2ui be lightly scored into the loft planking using a '

scriber or a nail driven into a wooden handle. The lofting completed, the
next stage is the making of patterns.
^

3. PATTERN MAKING AND BACKBONE CONSTRUCTION

3.1 Introduction

Some builders make patterns only for the frames, and the backbone
structure is drawn directly on the various pieces of timber by scaling from
the blueprints. However, if more than one boat is to be built to the same
plan it is always advantageous to make patterns of the various members which
make up the backbone as time is then saved in marking out and the
possibilities of errors resulting in poor fitting joints is minimised.

Before proceeding to the construction of the patterns the shape and

position of the various members which make up the backbone are drawn on the
loft floor. The outer lines of the stem, keel, sternpost and horntimber have
already been drawn in the profile view. From the construction profile
dimensions are found for the inner lines of these members together with
deadwoods, stem knees and these and the joints between the various members are
drawn in.

3.2 Rabbet and bearding lines

During the lofting the outer rabbet line has been drawn but it is also
necessary to find the inner redsbet line (called the bearding line) so that the
rabbet can be cut before the backbone is set up. This line is the intersection
of the inner face of the pl^mking with the keel, stem and stern just as the
redjbet line already drawn is the intersection of the outer face of the
planking with the same members.

Let us look first at one of the section lines and the keel half breadth
from the section view (see Fig. 20). As the section line shows the outside of
the planking, if we draw the inside line of the planking thickness the point
at which this touches the half breadth line of the keel will be the inner
rabbet (or bearding) point for this section. By measuring the distance
t)etween inner and outer rabbet lines we can then transfer this point to the
profile view at this section. The same thing is done with all the sections

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along the keel and sternpost and with a batten these points can be joined to
give a line on the profile view. The measurements for the inner rabbet line
on the stem are found by referring to the plan view.

At each waterline ending and at the sheer the thickness of the planking is
drawn (see Fig. 21). Where the inner face of the planking touches the half
breadth of the stem, will be the inner rabbet point at the particular
waterline being measured. Finding the distance of these points from the F.P.,
the distances are then measured along the respective waterlines to give the
points, which are connected with a batten, and the bearding line drawn.

3.3 Backbone patterns

Wood for patterns can be any cheap, light wood which works easily, however
plywood with its light weight, dimensional stability and resistance to
breakage is the best material. The cheapest grade of three-ply 1/4 inch (6
ran) to 3/8 inch (9 mm) depending on the size of pattern is most satisfactory.
For large templates the shapes are cut out from the lines on the loft floor,
joined by gussets and braced by solid wood battens fastened by clenched nails
or screws.

The lines giving the shape of the various members of the backbone can be
transferred to the wood in various ways. Where the size of the pattern to be
made is not large, nails laid on their sides with their heads on the line at a
spacing of about 2 inches will be sufficient. The wood for the pattern is
then placed over the nails and the upper side tapped with a mallet to cause
the heads of the nails to leave an impression in the wood. The pattern is
then lifted off and the marks connected by drawing the shiape with a light
batten. Another method is to drive light nails into the line on the floor and
cut off the heads adxjut 3/8th of an inch above the floor level. The wood is
then laid over the nails and tapped as before. This latter method is more
satisfactory where the pattern is large as there is no risk of shifting the
nails when placing the wood. When the patterns hiave been cut and planed to
the lines, they are assembled on the loft floor to check that joints match up
correctly and the shape corresponds exactly to the drawing.

The rabbet and bearding line and the position of sections and waterlines
should be drawn on the patterns and tremsferred to the wood at the time of
marking out.

3.4 Backbone construction

The loackbone pieces can now be cut, clamped up and holes for bolting
drilled according to the indications on the construction profile. The outer
ends of bolt holes should be countersunk and when the bolts are in place and
tightened up wooden plugs dipped in thick paint or white lead should be driven
to cover the heads of the lx)lts. It is good practice to paint all joint
surfaces before assembly with white lead or thick paint and a strand of
caulking cotton or oakum dipped in paint twisted round the head of the bolt
under the washer before driving.

Gtopwaters should be fitted in all joints which cross the rabbet lines.
These are round dowels of a soft wood, which swells when in contact with
water, about 1/2 inch in diameter and their purpose is to prevent water

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leaking along the line of the joint and into the boat. Two stopwatecs should
be located in each joint one just inside the outer rabbet line and the other
just inside the bearding line (see Fig. 21); next the rabbet should be cut.
This job is much easier to do before the backbone is set up and much time will
be saved if it is cut at this stage. The shape of the rabbet has already been
drawn at each section and at the waterlines on the stem (see Fig. 21). You
can now make a pattern of the rabbet from light plywood at each of these
points (see Fig. 22) using the inner and outer rabtiet lines as a guide. A
slot about 2 inches wide can be cut in the backbone at each of these points so
that the pattern fits into it neatly. It is however wise to leave eibout 1/8
inch in the back rabbet for final shaping when the frames are in place. When
all the slots are cut they will serve as a guide to allow the wood in tietween
them to l>e cut away leaving a neat rabbet which should be free from fnimps and
hollows.

3.5 Frame patterns

As we )\ave already seen, the lines drawn in the section view are to the
outside of the planking and so we must draw a second line inside the first at
a distance equal to the thickness of the planking to give us the outside face
of the frame. This is done as follows: a compass is set to the planking
thickness and a series of arcs drawn inside the section line (see Fig. 21). A
)}atten is then bent to just touch these arcs and the curve drawn in. This
will be the shape of the outer face of the frame. This shape is then
transferred to the pattern wood in the same manner as was used for the
isacktxone and the inside edge of the frame drawn in. The pattern is then cut
to size, braces added to hold the shiape firm and avoid distortion and the
pattern replaced on the floor to check for errors. To assist in setting up
later, the position of sheer and waterlines should also be marked on the
pattern.

3.5.1 Frame bevels

The bevels of each frame and the amount of bevel along its length varies
depending on the shape of the hull at«i these bevels can be calculated on the
mold loft floor and marked on the patterns for cutting during frame assembly.
Figure 23 shows how these iievels are calculated. First take a piece of smooth
plank or plywood two frame spaces long and atnut 12 inches wide. Along the
centre of the lx>ard draw a taseline emd erect three perpendiculars to this
line at distances equal to the spacing of three freunes, centre to centre. The
centreline of these three is then marked with the nundser of the frame vhose
)3evels are to be calculated. Now look at the section drawing of this frame on
the mold loft floor. First divide up the length of the frame into the number
of points at which the bevel is to be calculated. This varies depending on
the size of the frame but 8-10 points should be sufficient for the size of
boat we are considering. Place a ruler on one of these marks at right angles
to the line 2uid measure the distance from this frame line to that of the
frames fore aivl aft of it. These distances are marked a and c in Fig. 24
where A is the frame line forward of B, the frame whose bevels we are
measuring, and C is the frame aft of B. At this point look at the frame B to
see if it is a frame forward or aft of amidships. Frames forward of the
widest section are placed with their after faces on the section line as, due
to the narrowing of the hull towards the bow, the bevel must be taken from the
forward face. For the frames aft of the widest section the opposite is the

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case and the forward face is placed on the section line. If the frame B is in
the forward part of the hull the distance is then measured up from the
baseline to the intersection on the perpendicular A, and is measured down from
the baseline to the intersection on the perpendicular C, and the intersection
with perpendicular B is on the baseline. The three points are then joined by
a line drawn with a batten. This line may or may not be a straight line. Now
draw a line parallel to B and forward of it at a spacing equal to the total
thickness of the frame. The portion shown shaded in the figure is the amount
of wood which must be cut off to form the bevel at the point for v^ich this
line has been drawn . Similar lines must be drawn for the other points chosen
along the frame. It is usual to measure the distance and write this on the
pattern at the point at which the measurements have been taken. Measuring
these distances in from the squared face of the frame will permit the drawing
of a curved line with a batten, showing the amount of bevel to be taken off
all along the frame. In the case of the frames aft of the widest section the
procedure is the Scune except that the distance to the forward frame is
measured in a downward direction on the perpendicular and upward for the after
frame. The line for the thickness of the frame is drawn aft of the centreline
as in Fig. 25.

A board for the calculation of the bevels must be prepared for each frame
and the resulting bevels marked on the patterns.

3.5.2 Tremsom bevels

The calculation of the bevels for the transom frame varies a little from
the procedure outlined due to the rake of the transom. In this case draw the
baseline across the board and erect a perpendicular near one end. Lay out the
number of points at which the bevels are to be taken on the transom section
and measure the distance from the transom to the adjoining section as before.
Measure the height of each point from the baseline. Look now at the transom
in the profile view. Measure the heights of each point from the baseline.
Look now at the transom in the profile view. Measure the heights fian the
baseline just taken from the section view and mark each of these points on the
line of the transom (see Fig. 26). At each of these points in profile measure
the distance from the transom to the next section. In Fig. 26 this has been
done for two points D arxl E, distances from the next station are d and e aixi
the heights from the baseline BD and B'E respectively while DS and ES' are the
distances from the transom to the next station in profile.

Returning to our bevel board, the distances DS and ES' are measured from
the perperxiicular along the baseline and the distances d and c measured
vertically down from them. The two points thus found are joined to the
intersection of the baseline and the perpendicular. The thickness of the
tramsom planking and the transom frame are drawn parallel to the perpendicular
and the bevels are found as before. Patterns for all the frames are prepared
with the bevels marked and you are then ready to commence frame construction
as outlined in Section 4.

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4 . DOUBLE SAWN FRAME ROUND AND V BOTTOM CONSTRUCTION

4.1 Introduction

Double savm frames are constructed of two thicknesses of timber fastened

together with tree nails, clenched nails or bolts to form the desired total
frame thickness.

The older method of frame construction was to cut the frame directly from
one thickness of timber and special grown crooks were used in vdiich the line
of the grain followed the curve of the crook. Such crooks are now difficult
to obtain and in some cases straight grained timber has been used from which
the single frames are cut. Ihis type of construction is weak because where the
freune is curved a large part of the wood will be cut with the grain running
across the frame and if the completed hull takes a heavy blow in the region of
cross grain the frames may crack across the grain. If the frames are made
double, straight grained timber in one piece of the frame can be placed to
reinforce any cross grain in its partner. A further advantage is that the
cutting of shorter almost straight grained pieces from the plank will enable
the pieces to be cut with less waste thain in the case of single frames. Over
a period the saving in timber can be quite considerable and should offset the
cost of extra labour needed to assemble the frame. Ihe individual pieces
making up the frame are called futtocks.

4.2 Futtock and floor layout - Square frames

There are two methods of layout out futtocks and floors, in one of which
there are two "long and short" floors and in the other a single floor with
arms of equal length. In the first of these, construction consists of two
floor timbers which cross the keel but in which the long and short arms are
alternated as shown in Fig. 27. If for exanple the short arm of the first
floor is to starboard that of the second floor will be to port. In this way
the joints between futtocks are alternated, the joints in one series of
futtocks being reinforced by the futtocks of its partners. The frame is
completed with bottom futtocks, bilge futtocks and one or more upper futtocks
per side, reaching to the deck line. In the second method a single floor
crosses the keel and the arms of equal length are completed with a short
bottom futtock, bilge futtock and one or more upper futtocks as before. Here
the second layer of futtocks consists of a bottom futtock resting against the
keel in a notch etnd which extends just to the middle of the short bottom
futtock, together with a series of futtocks so placed that the joints fall in
the middle of the series of futtocks on the side of the floor. Fig. 26 makes
this clear.

The two series of futtocks are fastened together firmly with special
attention to fastenings in the region of the butts so that the final result is
a solid rigid frame with far more strength than a single sawn fr 2une in which
much cross grain appears.

Of the two methods described the "long and short" floors still require a
considerable amount of curvature in any vessel with a reasonable amount of
deadrise so that this method is only recommended in craft with very flat
bottoms and full sections. With the deadrise usual in most modern fishing
vessels the second method will give a stronger construction.

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4.3 Layout for half fraiwes

In the case of the half frames the floor does not rest directly on the
keel but is placed on the deadwood or horn timber. Here the frame is
constructed of two layers of futtocks with staggered butts as before but on
one side the futtocks descend to the bearding line while on the other the last
futtock rests against a straight floor (often called a strongback) which
itself rests on the deadwood or horn timber (see Fig. 29). In this case the
keels of the lower futtocks are bolted transversely through the deadwood as
shown in the figure.

As the half frames approach the bow the amount of curvature is often small
enough to permit the use of single frames instead of double without loss of
strength. If joints are required to permit? the use of straight tinijer the two
futtocks can be lapped and solidly bolted or they can be butted and cleats
used to reinforce the butts.

4.4 Frame assembly

For smaller boats a full sized pattern is made of both sides of the frame.
Futtocks and floors are then assen^led directly on the pattern, butts are cut
in to give a good joint and the two rows of futtocks fastened together. A
cross brace is added to hold the head of the frame at the correct opening and
the ccmipleted frame is removed for marking and cutting of the bevels. Using
this method the whole frame roust be transported to the band saw for cutting of
bevels and beyond a certain size this becomes inpracticable. Therefore for
larger vessels the pattern is made for a iialf frame only. Futtocks are
assembled on this half frame pattern and the bevels marked and cut. Half
fr 2unes are then joined by loolting on the floor and fastening a cross brace at
the head of the frame.

For correct placing of the floor and to ensure that the resulting whole
frame follows the shape of the lines drawn on the loft floor the asse^ly is
carried out either directly on the loft floor or more conveniently on a
framing stage erected near the building berth. This stage has a wooden
flooring on which the baseline, centreline, waterlines and diagonals are drawn
exactly as in the section view. To assemble a frame, measurements to the
outside of the frame are taken from the loft floor and marked off on the
diagonals and waterlines. Small blocks are fastened to the floor at these
points and the )ialf frames moved into position against the blocks. The
dimension from the baseline to the bottom of the floor is laid off and the
floor placed in position and bolted. A cross brace is fastened while the
frame is still in position and then the whole assembly can be moved off the
staging for setting up which is discussed in the next section.

4.5 Frames for V Bottcaa Construction

In V bottom construction framing is somewhat simplified as futtocks can be

cut from straight grained timber and double futtocks to reinforce cross
grained timber are not necessary.

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The frame futtocks are joined at the chine either by halving the two
futtocks and securing them by means of a gusset or alternatively by butting
them and using gussets on both sides of the futtocks. These gussets are
through bolted in heavy construction or screwed and glued in lighter craft.

Gussets should be carefully laid out when lofting to ensure that

sufficient length is available to permit a good number of staggered fastenings
so that futtocks are firmly held together at this critical point (see Fig. 30).

5. SETTING UP AND GENERAL (INSTRUCTION DETAILS

5.1 Setting up

With the backbone completed an<3* frames under construction setting up can
now begin.

The backbone should be marked with the various waterlines taken from the
patterns as these will provide useful reference points from which to stretch
baselines for measurements inside the hull as construction proceeds. The
position of each frame should be marked and squared across the keel. As has
already been mentioned frames forward of the widest section should be set up
with their after faces on the section line while those aft of this point have
their forward face on the line. The designer usually makes provision for this
in his drawing when indicating the spacing but if not care should be taken to
draw in the spacing correctly.

5.1.1 Foundations

Next a suitable foundation is required on which to set up the backbone.

For a straight keel fishing boat such as is shown in the drawings, either
posts may be sunk in the ground at suitable intervals or heavy timbers can be
placed cross-ways at right angles to a straight line which will represent the
centreline of the boat (see Fig. 31). In the first case a horizontal baseline
is esteiblished by stretching a cord or wire close to the bottoms of the line
of posts and then the posts are cut off at the correct height to take the
slope of the keel exactly as it was drawn on the loft floor. In the second, a
baseline is stretched over the timbers and packing pieces added to give the
correct slope. The posts or bearers should be positioned so that they do not
interfere with the drilling of bolt holes for the floor timbers later in the
construction.

5.1.2 Backbone

The backbone is then raised on the foundation euid cleats fastened

alongside the posts or across the bearers to hold the keel in position. In
the case of larger boats it will not be possible to assemble and raise the
backbone in one piece so that stem and horn timbers will be added once the
keel is firmly fixed in position. The whole structure is then braced in
position after checking with a plumbob that the stem and stern post are truly
vertical

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5.1.3 Square frames

Frames can now be set up. It is usual to start with the frame on the
midship section and work either forward or aft from this position. This first
freuse should be carefully erected to be both vertical and exactly at right
angles to the keel. As the keel has a slope and the frame is erected vertical
to the baseline it will be necessary to bevel the bottom of the floor at the
point of contact with the keel. This bevel is calculated from the mold loft
and cut before erection of the frame. The frame is then hoisted into position
and a plumbob suspended from the centreline of the cross brace. When the
plumbob is exactly over the centreline of the frame at the base then the frame
is vertical and can be shored in position. Before continuing, the position
must be checked to ensure that the frame is exactly at right angles to the
keel (see Fig. 32). Cords can be run from the sheer line at each side of the
frame to a position on the centreline of the keel at say 6-8 frames spaces
distance. The frame is at right angles to the keel when the distances from
the fixed point on the keel to the sheer points are exactly equal. When these
dimensions are correct and the plumbob shows the frame is vertical, shoring of
the frame is completed to hold it rigidly in position. The frames forward and
aft of this midship frame can then iie erected using spacing sticks to measure
the correct distances. It is advisable to plumb arid square a further two or
three frames as the work proceeds as a check against accumulative errors in
spacing. As each frame is positioned a heavy boat nail or drift bolt should
be driven through the floor to hold the frame in its position. Care should of
course be taken to position these drifts so that they do not interfere with
the bolts which will be driven through the keelson, floor and keel after
setting up is conpleted. As soon as a number of square frames are up, the
placing of battens (or ribbands) should Isegin, to hold the fraunes firmly in
place and bring them properly into alignment. If the frames are well built
then proper attention to the placing of ribbands will ensure good alignment
and greatly reduce the amount of trimming necessary to fair the framing for
planking. When the square frames have been completed the keelson is laid and
the keel, floor and keelson drilled for the keel bolts. As with bolts in the
backbone these should be countersunk into the keel and the holes plugged. It
is a wise precaution to place a twisted strand of oakum or caulking cotton
soaked in paint under the washer to eliminate possible le 2Jrs through the bolt
holes. The transom and its frame are next raised, plumbed and fastened in
position.

5.1.4 Half frames

At the bow and stem there will be a number of frames which do not cross
the keel but )iave their heels notched into the deadwood or horn timber. These
are known as hialf frames, while the frames which cross the keel are known as
square frames. In this case the heels of the frames should hie notched into
the deadwoods' sternpost and horn timhier.

To assist in correct positioning of these frames, curved timljers called

harpins giving the shape of the inside of the planking can be fitted. For
example at the bow two of these pieces are placed on suitable waterlines
extending from the bow to the last square frame and past it for several frames
to allow proper fastening. The tx>w end is notched to fit in the rabbet (see
Fig. 33). The position of each frame is marked on the harpins and using
these as a guide it is possible to fit the half frames accurately to the

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notches. When both half frames are in position the keels are through bolted
to the deadwood and a cross brace fastened to the heads of the frames and the
ribbanding is completed to hold the alignment of the framing. In smaller
vessels it is possible to fasten a straight grained timber called a strongback
across the half frames at the correct position and suitably bevelled so that
it will rest on the deadwood, stem knee or horn timber as the case may be. A
cross brace holds the whole assembly at the head and then the frame is slid
down into notches already prepared. In this case harpins can be dispensed
with and the frame plumbed as usual. When the frames are all in position
stringers and clamp should be fastened in place to hold the vihole structure
strongly so that the frames are not distorted during planking.

5.1.5 Fitting Chines in V Bottom Construction

Fitting of longitudinals at the chine angle is one of the major

differences between sawn frame round bottom and V bottom construction. The
fitting of a rabbeted chine log cw be awkward if it is not carefully lofted
at each frame. Alternative solutions for both light and heavier construction
which are simpler to fit are shown in Fig. 34.

5.2 General construction details

In tropical countries the heat generated inside a planked up hull can be

very great so that it is recommended that the maximum amount of the interior
work be done before planking is cammenced. Not only clamps and stringers but
shelf, knees, breasthooks, engine stringers and bearers, transverse bulkheads
and even certain of the interior joinery can be fitted before planking. The
only thing to watch in this latter case is that no obstruction is caused to
the placing of the clamps which will be necessary to pull the planking into
place, nor to the placing of butt blocks for planking butts if this method of
joining planking is used.

5.2.1 Stringers emd clamps

Very little comment is needed on the placing of stringers, clamps, etc.,

as these are straightforward (^rations. Scarfs for these members can be
either edge or flat scarfs (see Fig. 35) but flat scarfs are perhaps stronger
as the through fastenings to the frames pass through both parts of the scarf
while in edge scarfs the edge bolting is all that holds the two members
together. Clamps should be bolted to every frame vhile stringers can be
bolted to every second or third frame and spiked to the intermediates.

Shelves, necessary in larger vessels, are a little more difficult to fit.

They are secured to the inside faces of the clamps with the top usually flush
with the top edge of the clamp. It is necessary to make these members of
several pieces edge-scarfed together. The shape can be picked up from the
mold loft floor and care must be taken to bevel the face resting against the
cleuip so that the shelf is at the correct angle to take the deck beam when it
is fitted (see Fig. 36). Shelves are fastened to the clamps by edge bolts
between the frames, with sometimes a bolt through the head of each frame as
well.

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The ends of damps and stringers should be carried right forward to the
stem and aft to the transom and solidly bolted to both with the aid of
breasthooks and knees.

5.2.2 Breasthooks and knees

Breasthooks can be fitted on top of a clamp or shelf where the lower

member is thick enough to take an edge fastening but the more usual method is
to place them between the ends of the clamp or stringer with bolts through
clamp, and if possible a frame, as well as a through bolt traversing the stem
and breasthook. The head of these bolts in the stem should be countersunk and
plugged as already described. Similarly, knees are bolted to clamp or
stringer and transom.

These members are important as a solid fastening to stem and transom

ensures continuous longitudinal strength throughout the boat.

5.2.3 Deck beams

Deck beams are next made up and fitted. The pattern made up on the loft
floor is used to cut the curve of the beams and the length is calculated to
just run past the clamp into the frame bay at each beam position. Where no
shelf is fitted the beam is notched over the clasp and fastened to it by a
bolt running through the beam and edge wise through the clamp. This point has
to be watched t^en fastening clamps to be sure that no bolt in a scarf is
likely to interfere with the bolting of the beams. If a shelf is fitted the
be^^s may be bolted to the shelf instead of the clamp. Carlins are now fitted
at the deck openings and the half beams cut and fixed in position. To avoid
working of the deck and consequent leaks, tie rods should be fixed between
clamp and carlin at suitable intervals.

These are galvanised iron or steel bolts made up from rod and threaded
both ends. The nuts are taken up tight enough to hold the carlins firmly
against the half beams. When a boat is rolling and pitching in waves, forces
on the side of the boat tend to try to collapse the boat and a hinging effect
occurs at the corner of the deck. For this reason that area must be strongly
fastened emd to resist these forces vertical brackets of wood called hanging
knees are located at intervals along the hull especially around mast position
^^ld near deck openings (see Fig. 37). Similarly horizontal brackets or
lodging knees are used to prevent horizontal movement due to forces vdiich
occur i^en the boat is pitching. These are located at the ends of major deck
openings, at mast beams and winch positions and should be through bolted.
Care should be taken to ensure that the grain of the knees runs as shown in
Fig. 38.

5.2.4 Planking

Planking a sawn frame boat is no different from planking any boat;

however planking widths should not exceed 8-9 inches except perhaps for the
garboard while planks around the turn of the bilge will be much narrower.
Joints between lengths of plank can be made in several ways. In heavy
planking an edge scarf is satisfactory provided the length is adequate (4
times the width) and the nibs of the scarf fall on a frame which reinforces
them. Butt joints are more commonly used and are easier to fit and the

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reduction in plank length over the scarf joint can make a price saving over a
period. In large craft with a total frame width of 5 inches or more the
planks are butted directly on the frames but when the width of frame is less
there is not sufficient timber to ensure good fastening and the butts should
fall between frames and be reinforced by butt blocks. These should be of the
same thickness as the planking and the same length as the frame bay less 1/2
inch at each end to permit drainage. They should lap 1/2 inch or more on to
the plank above and below the butt and should be screw fastened in smaller
boats and through bolted in larger vessels. The head of the butt block should
be bevelled to permit drainage (see Fig. 39).

The spacing of butts is particularly important as butts too close together

will allow the hull to work and cause leaks, possibly even starting the
fastenings. The rule for this is that butts in adjacent planks should have
minimum of three frame spaces between them. Butts in the next plank but one
should have two frame spaces between, while butts in the same frame space
should have a minimum of three planks between them (see Fig. 40). It is a
good plan to make a diagram of the planking ^uxi plot out the position of the
butts with regard to the planking length available (as in Fig. 40).

5.2.5 Decking

Deck planking requires little explanation except for the general rule that
planking width should be kept to a maximum of 5 inches. Wide planking causes
excessive strain on the fastening and will not stay tight due to shrinkage.
Fastenings are usually galvanised boat nails and the butts between lengths of
plank should be staggered as in hull plemking, txitts in 2uljoining planks being
at least three deck beam spaces apart. In the type of construction we are
considering deck beams are usually of sufficiently large dimension to permit
the fastening of the butts on a beam without blocking. Covering boards and
waterways can be constructed in several ways. If a caulked ceiling is fitted
inside the frames then chocks must be fitted between every second or third
frame and a large enough port constructed to permit rapid drainage of water on
deck (see Fig. 41). Where a covering board extends outside the frames (as in
Fig. 42) it must be pierced to allow the heads of t)ie frames or separate
stanchions to run through. This demands careful measurement and accurate
fitting. An easier method is to notch the covering board and slide it into
place from the inside, the outer ends of the notches being filled with graving
pieces when the covering board is in place. The shape of the covering tx>ard
is lifted from the mold loft floor and it is made up in several scarfed
lengths to use the minimum of curvature in each section. Before fastening,
the inside edge is marked on the decks and blocks are set in between the deck
beams to support the covering board and take the ends of the deck planks which
are notched into the covering board where the angle of intersection would
leave a sharp pointed end (see Fig. 43). Caulking joints are cut to a depth
of 2/3 of the plank thickness ^UKi an opening of 1/8 inch.

Blockings should be provided between the beams under all deck fittings
such as winches, gallows, etc., and these and mast partners will usually be
indicated in the plans.

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