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Transducers

Measurements and Instrumentation (Kenyatta University)

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KENYATTA UNIVERSITY

UNIT: EMM 313 (MEASUREMENT

AND INSTRUMENTATION)

SUBJECT :GROUP REPORT

TOPIC :TRANSDUCERS

GROUP MEMBERS

NAME REG NO SIGNATURE

WAMBUI TEVIN J79/0908/2020
BILL TINDO J79/0924/2020
BENNIE KIBET J79/14650/2018
ENOCK BAYA J79/0903/2020
VICTOR SIGIRA J79/0930/2020
JACKSON GATERU J79/0917/2017

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Table of Contents
INTRODUCTION ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 3
TYPES ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 4
power souce ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 4
1. Active transducers --------------------------------------------------------------------------- 4
2. Passive transducers -------------------------------------------------------------------------- 5
output signal ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 4
1. digital transducers --------------------------------------------------------------------------- 5
2. analog transducers --------------------------------------------------------------------------- 5
primary and secondary ------------------------------------------------------------------------ 4
1. primary transducers ------------------------------------------------------------------------- 6
2. secondary transducers ---------------------------------------------------------------------- 6
operating principle ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 4
1. Resistive transducers ------------------------------------------------------------------------ 6
2. Capacitive transducers ---------------------------------------------------------------------- 7
Transducers and inverse transducers --------------------------------------------------------- 7
Examples of transducers ----------------------------------------------------------------------- 8
APPLICATIONS------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 8
1. Sensors --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 8
2. Actuators ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 10
3. communication systems ------------------------------------------------------------------ 11
ELECTRICAL AND NON-ELECTRICAL TRANSDUCERS ------------------------ 13
Passive Electrical Transducers. ------------------------------------------------------------ 14
Resistive Transducers. ----------------------------------------------------------------------- 15
Inductive Transducers.----------------------------------------------------------------------- 16
Applications of Inductive Transducers. ---------------------------------------------------- 18
Capacitive Transducers. --------------------------------------------------------------------- 19
Applications of Capacitive Transducers. -------------------------------------------------- 20
Active Electrical Transducers. -------------------------------------------------------------- 21
Piezoelectric Transducers. ------------------------------------------------------------------ 21
Photoelectric Transducers. ------------------------------------------------------------------ 22
DISPLACEMENT TRANSDUCERS ----------------------------------------------------- 23
Applications of Displacement Transducers ----------------------------------------------- 28

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OPTO-ELECTRIC TRANSDUCERS ----------------------------------------------------- 29

Applications of Opto-electric Transducers ------------------------------------------------ 30
Advantages of Opto-electric Transducers ------------------------------------------------- 30
THERMAL TRANSDUCERS ------------------------------------------------------------- 31
Applications of Thermal Transducers ----------------------------------------------------- 34
Advantages of Thermal Transducers ------------------------------------------------------- 34
Disadvantages of Thermal Transducers --------------------------------------------------- 34
Conclusion ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 35
References ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 35

INTRODUCTION

A transducer is a device that converts one form of energy into another.

Transducers are used in a variety of applications including sensors, actuators and

communication systems.

The history of transducers is linked to technology's evolution and the need to convert

energy or signals into another. Transducers have played a crucial role in various fields

of science and technology since the early 20th century. Advancements in materials

science, ultrasound scanners, capacitive, inductive, resistive sensors, and micro

fabrication techniques have revolutionized various applications. Today, they continue

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to evolve with advancements in microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) technology

technology and artificial intelligence.

The first transducer was a hydrophone, invented in 1916 by Paul Langevin. It was a

device that could convert sound waves into electrical signals and vice versa.

Hydrophones were originally used to detect submarines during World War I, but they

have since been used in a variety of other applications, such as underwater

communication, sonar, and medical ultrasound.

TYPES

The classification of transducers depends on a number of factors:

 Power source

1. Active transducers
These require an external power source to operate.Examples include:

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 Microphones

 Loudspeakers

 piezoelectric transducers

2. Passive transducers

These do not require an external power source to operate.Examples include:

 Thermocouples

 Photodiodes

 Strain gauges

 Output signal

1. digital transducers

Produce a digital output signal. Examples include:

 Temperature sensors

 Pressure sensors

 Position sensors

2. analog transducers

Produce an analog output signal .Examples include:

 Microphones

 Loudspeakers

 Thermocouples

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 Primary and secondary transducers

1. primary transducers

These convert a physical quantity directly into an electrical signal

Examples include:

 Thermocouples

 Piezoelectric transducers

 Photodiodes

2. secondary transducers

These convert a physical quantity into an electrical signal using a primary

transducer.

Examples include :

 Linear variable differential transformers (LVDTs)

 Resistance temperature detectors (RTDs)

 Operating principle

1. Resistive transducers

These work by changing their resistance in response to a change in the physical

quantity being measured.

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Examples include:

 Strain gauges

 Potentiometer

2. Capacitive transducers

These work by changing their capacitance in response to the quantity being

measured.

Examples include:

 Pressure sensors

 Humidity sensors

Transducers and inverse transducers

A transducer can be used in two different ways :as a transducer or as an inverse

transducer.

As a transducer, a transducer converts one form of energy into another .for

example a microphone converts sound energy into electrical energy.

As an inverse transducer, the transducer converts one form of energy into

another in the opposite direction.for example a loudspeaker converts electrical energy

into sound energy.

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Examples of transducers

 Microphone

Converts sound energy into electrical energy.

 Loudspeaker

Converts electrical energy into sound energy.

 Thermocouple

Converts temperature into an electrical voltage.

 Piezoelectric transducer

Converts mechanical energy into electrical energy or vice-versa.

 Strain gauge

Converts mechanical energy into electrical resistance.

 LDVT

Converts linear displacement into an electrical voltage.

 RTD

Converts temperature to an electrical resistance.

APPLICATIONS

1. Sensors

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They are used in sensors to measure a variety of physical quantities such as

temperature, pressure, flow and displacement.

How transducers are used in sensors

 Temperature transducers: These transducers convert temperature into an electrical

signal. This signal can then be used to measure the temperature of a liquid, solid, or

gas.

 Pressure transducers: These transducers convert pressure into an electrical signal. This

signal can then be used to measure the pressure of a fluid or gas.

 Flow transducers: These transducers convert the flow rate of a fluid or gas into an

electrical signal. This signal can then be used to measure the flow rate of the fluid or

gas.

 Level transducers: These transducers convert the level of a liquid or solid into an

electrical signal. This signal can then be used to measure the level of the liquid or

solid.

 Position transducers: These transducers convert the position of an object into an

electrical signal. This signal can then be used to measure the position of the object.

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2. Actuators

They are used in actuators to control a variety of devices such as valves, motors and

pumps.

 Piezoelectric transducers: These transducers use the piezoelectric effect to convert

electrical signals into mechanical motion. The piezoelectric effect is a phenomenon

where certain materials, such as quartz and lead zirconate titanate (PZT), generate a

voltage when they are subjected to mechanical stress.

 Electromagnetic transducers: These transducers use the electromagnetic force to

convert electrical signals into mechanical motion. The electromagnetic force is a force

that is generated between two magnetic fields.

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 Shape memory alloy (SMA) transducers: These transducers use the shape memory

effect to convert electrical signals into mechanical motion. The shape memory effect

is a phenomenon where certain materials, such as nickel-titanium (NiTi), can return to

their original shape after being deformed.

3. communication systems

They are used in communication systems to convert electrical signals to other forms

of energy such as radio waves, light waves and ultrasound waves.

Some examples of transducers used in communication systems include:

 Microphones: Microphones convert sound waves into electrical signals. This allows

us to record and transmit sound over long distances.

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 First microphones

Recent ones

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 Speakers: Speakers convert electrical signals into sound waves. This allows us to

listen to recorded sound and to receive voice and music signals over the phone or

radio.

 Antennae: Antennae convert electrical signals into radio waves. This allows us to

transmit and receive data over long distances without the need for wires.

 Light emitting diodes (LEDs): LEDs convert electrical signals into light waves. This

allows us to transmit data using optical fiber cables and to display information on

electronic displays.

 Photodiodes: Photodiodes convert light waves into electrical signals. This allows us to

receive data transmitted using optical fiber cables and to detect light levels.

ELECTRICAL AND NON-ELECTRICAL TRANSDUCERS

Electrical transducers convert non-electrical energy into electrical energy. They are

used in a wide variety of applications, such as sensors, actuators, and communication

devices.

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Non-electrical transducers convert electrical energy into other forms of energy, such

as mechanical energy, light energy, or heat energy. They are used in a wide variety of

applications, such as motors, speakers, and lasers.

Advantages of Electrical Transducers Over Non-electrical Transducers

1. Mass and inertia effects are minimized.

2. Amplification or attenuation is minimized.

3. Effect of friction is minimized.

4. They are compact in size.

5. Remote indication is possible.

6. Power consumption is less and loading errors are minimized.

Limitations of Electrical Transducers Over Non-electrical Transducers

1. They need external power supply and are of high cost.

2. Instrument electrical properties may change the actual reading of the variable

which is to be measured.

Passive Electrical Transducers.

The type of transducer that requires some additional source of power to produce the

output.i.e., requires an external power source to work.

These are transducers that are based on variation of parameters (Resistance,

Inductance, Capacitance) due to application of any external stimulus. The external

stimulus could be a linear or rotary displacement, pressure, force, torque, vibration,

velocity, and acceleration.

There are three passive electric transducers.

 Resistive Transducers

 Inductive Transducers

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 Capacitive Transducers

Resistive Transducers.
A passive transducer is said to be a resistive transducer when it produces the

variation (change) in resistance value.

The formula for resistance, R of a metal conductor.

𝜌𝑙
𝑅=
𝐴

Where, 𝜌 is the resistivity of conductor.

𝑙 is the length of conductor.

A is the cross-sectional area of the conductor.

The resistance value depends on the three parameters 𝜌, 𝑙 & 𝐴. So, we can make
the resistive transducers based on the variation in one of the three
parameters 𝜌, 𝑙 & 𝐴. The variation in any one of those three parameters changes the
resistance value.

Resistive transducer

Some of the advantages of resistive transducers are that they can use both AC or DC

for calculating the change in resistance, they are quite affordable and can be easily

available in the market and they can be used to give very quick results.

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Some of the major disadvantages of resistive transducers are that a lot of power is

wasted in moving the sliding contacts and the sliding contacts can produce a lot of

noise.

Applications of Resistive Transducers.

1. A resistive transducer is mainly used to measure the temperature in various kinds

of applications. When there is a change in temperature, the temperature coefficient

of the resistive transducer changes which can be used to determine the change in

temperature.

2. The resistive transducer can function as a potentiometer where the resistance of

the transducer can be varied by changing the length of the conductor.

3. A resistive transducer can be used in the calculation of the displacement. When

we apply strain on the resistor, the resistance changes. This characteristic can be

used in the measurement of displacement, force, and pressure.

Inductive Transducers.

Inductive transducers are those in which the self-inductance of a coil or the mutual
inductance of a pair of coils is altered in value due to a variation in the value of the
quantity under measurement. The measurements could be a linear or rotary
displacement, pressure, force, torque, vibration, velocity and acceleration.
The inductance changes are brought about by the movement of a concentric magnetic
core.
These transducers are found to have high sensitivity and its application is in
measurement of thickness and displacement.
The formula for inductance, L of an inductor.
𝑁2
𝐿=
𝑆
(Equation 1)
Where, N is the number of turns of coil.
S is the reluctance of coil.
The following formula for reluctance, S of coil.

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𝑙
𝑆=
µ𝐴
(Equation 2)

Where, 𝑙 is the length of magnetic circuit.

μ is the permeability of core.

A is the area of magnetic circuit through which flux flows.

Combining Equation 2 into Equation 1,

𝑁2
𝐿=
𝑙
( )
µ𝐴

𝑁 2 µ𝐴
𝐿=
𝑙

(Equation 3)

From Equation 1 & Equation 3, we can conclude that the inductance value depends on

the three parameters 𝑁, 𝑆 & µ. So, we can make the inductive transducers based on

the variation in one of the three parameters 𝑁, 𝑆 & µ. Because the variation in any

one of those three parameters changes the inductance value.

The advantages of the inductive transducer include the following.

 The inductive transducers can work in any environmental conditions like

humidity and high temperatures.

 These have high accuracy and stable operating range with good lifespan.

 These can be operated in high switching rates in industrial applications.

 These type transducers can be operated in wide ranges used in various

applications.

The disadvantages of the inductive transducer include the following.

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 The working and operating range of inductive transducers depend on the

construction and temperature conditions.

 It depends on the magnetic field of the coil.

Applications of Inductive Transducers.

Inductive transducers are used in:

 Potential meters.

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 Proximity sensors to measure position, dynamic motion, touchpads, etc.

 Detection of metals and missing parts.

 Pressure and airflow sensors.

 Galvanometers.
 Accelerometers.

Capacitive Transducers.

A passive transducer is said to be a capacitive transducer when it produces the

variation (change) in capacitance value.

The following formula for capacitance, C of a parallel plate capacitor.

𝜀𝐴
𝐶=
𝑑

Where, 𝜀 is the permittivity or the dielectric constant.

𝐴 is the effective area of two plates.

𝑑 is the effective distance between two plates.

The capacitance value depends on the three parameters 𝜀, 𝐴 & 𝑑. So, we can make

the capacitive transducers based on the variation in one of the three parameters

𝜀, 𝐴 & 𝑑. Because the variation in any one of those three parameters changes the

capacitance value.

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Some of the advantages of capacitive transducers are that they are very sensitive,

they give high resolution, and they use less power.

Some of the disadvantages of capacitive transducers are:

 They are temperature sensitive, so any modification within temperature can

affect their performance badly.

 The output impedance of this transducer is fairly high because of less

capacitance value which leads to a loading effect.

 The cable connecting across the transducer causes an error.

 The frame of the capacitor requires earthing for reducing the effect of the stray

magnetic field.

 The metallic parts of the transducers require insulation.

Applications of Capacitive Transducers.

Capacitive transducers are used in:

 Used to measure pressure and force.

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 Used to measure both linear as well as angular displacements through high

sensitivity.

Active Electrical Transducers.

Active electrical transducers are a type of transducer which can generate an output

signal in the form of voltage or current without the need of external power supply.

It is also known as self-generating transducer since the active transducer can

generate its output itself.

The active transducer obtains the energy required to produce the output signal from

the physical quantity that is to be measured.

We have three types of active transducers, which are mentioned below:

 Piezoelectric Transducer

 Photoelectric Transducer

 Thermo Electric Transducer

Piezoelectric Transducers.
A piezoelectric transducer is a device that works with the piezoelectric effect to

measure variations in acceleration, strain, pressure, force, or temperature by

transforming this energy into an electrical one.

Piezoelectric effect is the ability of certain materials to generate an electric charge in

response to applied mechanical stress.

The primary function of a piezoelectric transducer is to produce an electrical quantity.

This electrical quantity is equivalent to the input of the pressure. Three substances that

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produce a piezoelectric effect are Quartz, Rochelle salts, and Tourmaline. The

impact of piezoelectric can be displayed through these three substances.

Quartz is used as piezoelectric transducer, as it exhibits the moderate piezoelectric

effect and having moderate mechanical strength among those three piezoelectric

substances.

The output voltage, 𝑉0 of above pressure transducer will be,

𝑄
𝑉0 =
𝐶
Where, 𝑄 is the
𝐶 is the

Photoelectric Transducers.
The photoelectric transducer alters light energy into an electrical one. It is composed

of semiconductor material. The photoelectric transducer utilizes a photosensitive

element, which removes the electrons when the beam of light absorbs through it.

This transducer’s primary function is to generate an electrical quantity that is equal to

the illumination of light input.

This transducer works in two states when the light falls on the transducer; then, it

produces electrons. Likewise, this transducer produces a current thanks to the

attraction of the electrons to the anode.

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Displacement Transducers

Displacement transducers are devices that convert mechanical displacement into an

electrical signal. They are used in a wide variety of applications, such as machine

control, robotics, and medical instrumentation.

Types of Displacement Transducers

There are many different types of displacement transducers, each with its own

advantages and disadvantages. Some of the most common types include:

1. Linear variable differential transformers (LVDTs): LVDTs use a

transformer to measure the displacement of a core. They are very accurate and

have a wide range of motion, but they can be expensive.

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Working principle of an LVDT displacement transducer:

When the primary coil is excited with an AC voltage, it produces an alternating

magnetic field. The magnetic field from the primary coil induces a voltage in the

secondary coils. The magnitude of the induced voltage in each secondary coil

depends on the position of the movable core.

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When the movable core is at the center of the LVDT, the magnetic field from the

primary coil is evenly distributed between the two secondary coils. This results in

the two secondary coils producing equal voltages.

As the movable core moves away from the center of the LVDT, the magnetic field

from the primary coil becomes more concentrated on one side of the secondary

coils. This results in the secondary coils producing unequal voltages.

The difference in voltage between the two secondary coils is amplified and used

to measure the position of the movable core.

2. Potentiometers: Potentiometers use a resistor with a sliding contact to

measure displacement. They are relatively inexpensive and easy to use, but

they are not as accurate as LVDTs and have a limited range of motion.

The linear potentiometer is a device in which the resistance varies as a

function of the position of a slider, shown below.

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With the supply voltage (Vs), the output voltage (Vo) will vary between zero

and the supplyvoltage.

•For linear potentiometer, the output is a simple linear function of the slider

position. That is:

𝑥
𝑉𝑜 = 𝑉𝑠
𝐿

3. Optical encoders: Uses light shone through a coded disk to track the

movement of a shaft. The encoder provides feedback based on the interruption

of light.

The graphic below outlines the basic construction of an optical incremental rotary

encoder.

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Broken down in steps, this is how an optical encoder provides motion feedback

information:

1. A beam of light emitted from an LED passes through a Code Disk, a

transparent disk patterned with opaque lines (much like the spokes on a bike

wheel).

2. The light beam is picked up by a Photo detector Assembly, also called a photo

diode array or a photo sensor.

3. The Photo detector Assembly responds to the light beam, producing a

sinusoidal wave form, which is transformed into a square wave or pulse train.

4. This pulse signal is simple:

light = on

no light = off

5. The pulse signal is then sent to the counter or controller through the

Electronics Board.

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6. The counter or controller (not pictured) then sends the signal to produce the

proper function (stop, go, rotate, etc.).

4. Inductive transducers: Inductive transducers use a coil of wire to measure

displacement. They are relatively inexpensive and easy to use, but they are not

as accurate as LVDTs or optical encoders. Their working principles have been

previously discussed in this presentation.

Applications of Displacement Transducers

Displacement transducers are used in a wide variety of applications, including:

 Machine control: Displacement transducers are used to control the position of

machine tools and other industrial equipment.

 Robotics: Displacement transducers are used to control the movement of

robots.

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 Medical instrumentation: Displacement transducers are used in medical

devices such as MRI machines and ultrasound scanners.

OPTO-ELECTRIC TRANSDUCERS
Opto-electric transducers convert light energy into electrical energy. They are used in

a wide variety of applications, such as sensors, actuators, and communication devices.

Types of Opto-electric Transducers

There are many different types of opto-electric transducers, each with its own

advantages and disadvantages. Some of the most common types include:

 Photodiodes: Photodiodes are semiconductor devices that convert light

energy into electrical current. They are used in applications such as light

detectors, solar cells, and optical communication devices.

 Photo transistors: Photo transistors are semiconductor devices that amplify

the current generated by a photo diode. They are used in applications such as

light detectors, optical communication devices, and proximity sensors.

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 Optical encoders: Optical encoders use light to measure the position or speed

of an object. They are used in applications such as machine control, robotics,

and medical instrumentation. This has been previously discussed under

Displacement Transducers.

Applications of Opto-electric Transducers

Opto-electric transducers are used in a wide variety of applications, including:

 Sensors: Opto-electric transducers are used in sensors to measure light

intensity, distance, speed, and other physical quantities.

 Actuators: Opto-electric transducers are used in actuators to control the

movement of objects.

 Communication devices: Opto-electric transducers are used in communication

devices to transmit and receive light signals.

Advantages of Opto-electric Transducers

Opto-electric transducers have several advantages over other types of transducers,

including:

 They are non-contact, which means that they do not need to touch the object

being measured.

 They are immune to electromagnetic interference.

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 They are fast and accurate.

 They have a long lifespan.

Disadvantages of Opto-electric Transducers

Opto-electric transducers also have some disadvantages, including:

 They can be sensitive to noise.

 They can be expensive.

 They can be fragile.

THERMAL TRANSDUCERS
Thermal transducers convert temperature changes into electrical signals. They are

used in a wide variety of applications, such as temperature sensors, thermostats, and

fire alarms.

Types of Thermal Transducers

There are many different types of thermal transducers, each with its own advantages

and disadvantages. Some of the most common types include:

1. Resistance temperature detectors (RTDs): RTDs are resistors whose

resistance changes with temperature. They are used in applications such as

temperature sensors and thermostats.

Working principle:

When the temperature of a metal increases, the resistance to the flow of

electricity increases as well. An electrical current is passed through the sensor,

the resistance element is used to measure the resistance of the current being

passed through it. As the temperature of the resistance element increases the

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electrical resistance also increases.

2. Thermocouples: Thermocouples are two wires made of different metals that

produce a voltage when there is a temperature difference between the two

wires. They are used in applications such as temperature sensors and fire

alarms.

Working principle:

When two wires composed of dissimilar metals are joined at both ends and

one of the ends is heated, there is a continuous current which flows in the

thermoelectric circuit. If this circuit is broken at the center, the net open circuit

voltage (the Seebeck voltage) is a function of the junction temperature and the

composition of the two metals. Which means that when the junction of the two

metals is heated, or cooled, a voltage is produced that can be correlated back

to the temperature.

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3. Pyroelectric transducers: Pyroelectric transducers generate an electric

charge when they are heated or cooled. They are used in applications such as
fire alarms and infrared cameras.

Working principle:
Pyroelectric transducers typically consist of a pyroelectric material

sandwiched between two electrodes. When the temperature of the pyroelectric

material changes, the electric charge generated by the pyroelectric effect is

collected by the electrodes. The resulting electric signal can then be amplified

and processed to measure the temperature change.

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Applications of Thermal Transducers

Thermal transducers are used in a wide variety of applications, including:

 Temperature sensors: Thermal transducers are used to measure temperature in

a variety of applications, such as industrial processes, medical devices, and

environmental monitoring.

 Thermostats: Thermal transducers are used in thermostats to control the

temperature of buildings and other facilities.

 Fire alarms: Thermal transducers are used in fire alarms to detect the presence

of fire.

Advantages of Thermal Transducers

Thermal transducers have several advantages over other types of transducers,

including:

 They are relatively inexpensive.

 They are rugged and reliable.

 They have a long lifespan.

Disadvantages of Thermal Transducers

Thermal transducers also have some disadvantages, including:

 They can be slow to respond to changes in temperature.

 They can be affected by electromagnetic interference.

 They can be susceptible to damage from moisture and other environmental

factors.

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Conclusion
Transducers are electronic devices that transfer one type of energy to another.Sensors,

actuators and communication systems are only a few of the applications for

them.Many technologies we rely on today would not be conceivable without

transducers.The many types pf transducers, their operating principles and their

applications have been reviewed in this report.

Transducers ,in conclusion are critical components of many current technoligies and

understanding the many types and operating principles allows us to better develop an

d implement systems that interact with the environment in novel and fascinating ways.

References
Doebelin, E. O., & Manik, D. N. (2007). Measurement Systems: Application and

Design.

Figliola, R. S., & Beasley, D. E. (2006). Theory and Design for Mechanical

Measurements.

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