3

PREJUDICE AND DISCRIMINATION - I

Unit Structure
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction: Understanding Prejudice and Discrimination:
Introduction
3.1.1 Racial Attitudes and Prejudice
3.1.2 Causes of Prejudice
3.1.3 Characteristics of Prejudice
3.1.4 Types of Prejudice
3.1.5 Assessment of Prejudice
3.2 Discrimination
3.2.1 Development and Maintenance of Prejudice and
Discrimination
3.2.2 Methods of Reducing Prejudice and Discrimination
3.3 Summary
3.4 Questions
3.5 References

3.0 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
 Define prejudice;
 Describe the nature of prejudice;
 Understand the characteristics of prejudice;
 Explain the nature of discrimination.
 Analyze the factors responsible for the development and maintenance
of prejudice and discrimination

3.1 INTRODUCTION: UNDERSTANDING PREJUDICE

AND DISCRIMINATION
Prejudice is an important term in Social Psychology. Social Psychologists
tried to define prejudice from different viewpoints. Some psychologists
define prejudice as a preconceived irrational judgment, while others define
it as an expression of dislike against members of some religion, race or
group. According to Secord and Backman, “Prejudice is an attitude that
predisposes a person to think, perceive, feel and act in favorable and
unfavorable ways towards a group or its individual members.”

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 According to Baron & Byrne, “Prejudice is generally a negative attitude Prejudice And Discrimination - I
towards the members of some social, ethnic or religious group.” Prejudice
whether it is negative or positive it decides an attitude and has all three
components of attitude i.e., affective, cognitive and behavioral.
According to Allport (1954) prejudice is composed of generalized beliefs
and attitudes that are inherently negative. Prejudice is a strong negative
feeling about an individual based on generalizations one has about that
individual‟s group. One can have negative and positive prejudice toward
the ingroup or outgroup. The ingroup represents the group to which the
individual belongs and Outgroup is the alien group to which
misconceptions or stereotypical reactions are linked.
Prejudice has also been identified as an attitude. As an attitude, prejudice
is viewed as having cognitive, affective, and behavioral components.
There are so many debates on this topic. In short Prejudice usually
 Occurs between groups.
 involves a positive or negative evaluation of a group.
 is a biased perception of a group.
 is based on real or imaginative characteristics of a group.
Racism and prejudice research has been guided by theory. Studies with a
focus on prejudice initially relied on psychodynamic perspectives. Gordon
Allport's seminal book, The Nature of Prejudice (Allport, 1954), also was
highly influential in the study of prejudice as it served as the foundation
for subsequent conceptualizations. The social-cognitive perspective
(Hamilton, 1981) has led to studies of people's cognitions as they relate to
people, groups, or social situations. Social identity theory also has
influenced studies of paths by which stigma influences a target's self-
concept.

3.1.1 Racial Attitudes and Prejudice:

Racial attitudes and prejudice have been major area of study in the
psychology of race. Perhaps, as evidence of the importance and relevance
of this field of study, Nelson 12009) recently published the Handbook of
Prejudice, Stereotyping, and Discrimination, in which past research and
theory are presented and synthesized.

3.1.2 Causes of Prejudice:

According to Oskamp‟s review of four possible factors that cause
prejudice proposed by Duckitt (1992) is given below-
1. Genetic and evolutionary predispositions - at this level, intermediate
or short-term interventions are relatively nil because of their
biological foundation.
2. Societal, organizational, and inter-group patterns of contact and norms
for intergroup relations-. This level is considered the most influential
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Multiculturalism Theory ground for inducing changes in interactions with others, for e.g., laws,
regulations, and norms of unequal access, which maintain the power
of dominant groups over subordinate ones.
3. Mechanisms of social influence that operate in group and
interpersonal interactions -This level of etiology focuses more on
heuristic influences such as mass media, the public education system,
and organizational work roles. For e.g., influences from the mass
media, the educational system, and the structure and functioning of
work organizations.
4. Personal differences in susceptibility to prejudiced attitudes and
behaviors, and unacceptability of specific intergroup attitudes. At this
level, the personal differences are based on personality factors that
would make an individual susceptible to prejudice or non-prejudice
messages and attitudes.
Oskamp (2000) urges the importance of influential societal and
organizational laws and regulations by citing the 1954 decisions of the
U.S. The Supreme Court outlawed segregation in public schools and equal
opportunity and affirmative Intergroup relations are generally affected
when norms and personal influences are considered. Psychologists usually
focus on group influences and interpersonal interactions to resolve
prejudiced beliefs, attitudes, and interactive patterns.
Stephan and Stephan (2000) propose a theoretical approach reviewed by
Oskamp (2000) on the causes of prejudice. In essence, the theory adds to
Duckitt's by including fears and threats as other major causes of prejudice.
Oskamp (2000) restates Stephan and Stephan (2000) four main bases of
prejudice:
1. realistic threats posed by an outgroup;
2. symbolic threats from an outgroup e.g., perceived group differences in
morals, values, standards, beliefs, and attitudes
3. intergroup anxiety in interactions with outgroup members for e.g.,
apprehension about negative experiences such as being embarrassed,
rejected;
4. negative stereotypes of the outgroup for e.g., negative expectations of
particular behaviors that will cause conflict and/or uncomfortable
interactions. (Oskamp, 2000).
All four bases are intertwined and operate in combination with one
another. Prejudice reduction interventions should address all of these for
effective results. Additionally, cognitive or knowledge-based interventions
can lessen feelings of threat whether they are realistic or symbolic.
Interactive interventions can lessen negative stereotyping and intergroup
anxiety (Oskamp, 2000).

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Researchers have linked stereotyping to prejudice (Lewin, 1948; Stephan, Prejudice And Discrimination - I
1999; Sue & Sue, 2003), and they have found ways to measure
stereotyping and prejudice. Nowadays, stereotyping is considered a natural
consequence of cognition (Fiske, 1998). It is important to understand that
children are exposed at a very young age to stereotyping and prejudices.
Initially, they are exposed to their parent‟s beliefs and values, which in
turn may affect the internalizing of stereotypes and prejudices, thus
causing negative outgroup perceptions. However, there is contradictory
evidence regarding such negative perceptions (Aboud & Doyle, 1996).
children can develop their own biases from other individuals who may
influence them, even if their parents are more tolerant towards outgroup
differences.
Furthermore, children receive overt and covert information from the media
through movies, television, reading materials, video and computer games,
and other types of media experiences. Clearly, it is recognized that the
media are often less objective and/or may make mistakes in reporting
certain incidents of crimes which involve a particular ethnic group-thus
influencing the stereotyping and developing attitudes toward specific
ethnic groups. Stereotypes are therefore maintained through social
cognition. Judgments are reached (whether they are accurate or not) and
quick evaluations are made of an individual or group. Consequently,
cognitions must change in order to destroy the induced cognitive
stereotype (Nelson, 2002).
Practitioners are alerted to recognize that stereotyping is a "cognitive”
process. It is not related to any psychological fact or the result of deviant
characteristics (Nelson, 2002). Frequently, stereotyping has been
perceived as part of the mind's normal propensity to categorize (a
cognitive classification of similar objects in the environment) stimuli from
the environment (Duckitt, 1992; Nelson, 2002). Researchers have
questioned whether certain individuals are more prone to prejudiced
personalities than others. At present, there is no evidence that indicates
they are.
Current research tends to view prejudice as a cognitive process that
adheres to social categorization (Duckitt, 1991). Conversely, in their more
recent book on prejudice prevention, Ponterotto, Utsey, and Pedersen
(2006) discuss a fairly new construct in psychology, the multicultural
personality. Research taken from counseling psychology, social
psychology, organizational psychology, feminist studies, and African-
centered psychology proposes that multicultural personality disposition
may be predictive of psychological well- being and assist in intercultural
ease (Ponterotto et al., 2006). A recent comprehensive definition of the
multicultural personality described by Ponterotto et al. (2006) identifies
several characteristics:
• The individual has attributes of emotional stability.
• The individual is confident in their ethnic identity.
• The individual welcomes cultural diversity.
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Multiculturalism Theory • The individual is eager to learn about new cultures.
• The individual interacts well with culturally diverse people.
• The individual spiritually connects to others.
• The individual is able to work with culturally diverse people.
Most impressive is the individual's ability to understand his or her biases,
openness to exploring other worldviews, and recognition of the effects of
racism and homophobia. This is a new area of research that, when
validated, will bring further understanding of personality types. An
assessment instrument that is deemed psychometrically adequate and
recommended by Ponterotto et al. (2006) is the Multicultural Personality
Questionnaire (MPQ-Van der Zee & Van Oudenhoven, 2000, 2001).
In short, what children observe and how they are treated will impact their
behaviors and influence the formation of their identity.

3.1.3 Characteristics of Prejudice:

Psychologists have identified the following characteristics of prejudice:
Prejudice is acquired: Like attitude, prejudice is acquired through the
process of learning and socialization. When born a child is like a blank
slate and is free of any kind of prejudice. It is only when the process of
socialization begins that a child starts imitating their parents and their likes
and dislikes. Norms, values, customs, and traditions of the society of
which they are members make him prejudiced toward members of other
groups. Acquisition of prejudice is facilitated by classical conditioning,
instrumental conditioning, and observational learning.
Prejudice is functional: Prejudice helps the individual justify his
hostilities, repressed desires and strengthens feelings of self-esteem and
prestige. It helps individuals justify their exploitation, and discrimination
of members of other groups.
Emotional overtones: Prejudice is always colored with emotions. It is
either for or against some group, community, or religion. If favorable, the
person would show too much affection, love, care, and sympathy for
members of another group. But if unfavorable the person would show
hatred, dislike, and hostility.
Prejudice is irrational: Prejudice does not lend itself to reason, wisdom,
and relevance. The individual does not change his prejudice in the face of
information and evidence to the contrary.
Prejudice has no connection with reality: It is primarily based on hearsay,
incomplete and wrong information, customs, and traditions of the society.
It can‟t stand the test of logic and reasoning.

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3.1.4 Types of Prejudice: Prejudice And Discrimination - I

Prejudices are of different types depending upon the social conditions of

the individual. Sociologists and Psychologists explained the following
main types of prejudices:
• Racial prejudice: This is aimed at members of another race. For
example, Negros have been the subject of racial prejudice at the hand
of whites. Similarly, Jews were a target of prejudice by Nazis in
Germany.
• Sex prejudice: This is for centuries women have been the target of
prejudice. They have been thought of as weak, dependent, and
intellectually less gifted than men.
• Caste prejudice: Indian social structure is the best example of such
prejudice. Our society is divided into numerous castes and each caste
is believed to have specific characteristics.
• Religious prejudice: In religious prejudice, an individual holds a
positive attitude toward his own religion and an unfavorable attitude
toward other religions. Consequently, misunderstandings and
misconceptions about people of other religions crop up. Some other
prejudices are political prejudice, communal prejudice, etc.
3.1.5 Assessment of Prejudice:
School psychologists are advised to assess prejudiced attitudes to reduce
prejudice in children and youth. The abundant research on prejudice has
led to the development of assessment measures designed to evaluate
prejudicial attitudes and racism. Presently, racial prejudice self-report
measures focus on cognitive and affective aspects of prejudice. The
review by Ponterotto et al. (2006) covers some of the various
psychometric scales developed to assess prejudiced attitudes and racism;
they are all considered to have adequate psychometric properties (i.e.,
reliability and validity).
Psychometric Instruments:
The Quick Discrimination Index (QDI) (Ponterotto, Burkard, et al., 1995;
Utsey & Ponterotto, 1999): It is a Likert-type scale that was designed to
address cognitive and affective aspects of prejudice. It comprises three
factors that measure cognitive attitudes toward racial diversity,
interpersonal-affective attitudes regarding racial diversity, and general
attitudes toward women's equality. It can be used with adolescents and
adult populations.
Modern Racism Scale (McConahay, 1986): It measures whites' racial
attitudes toward blacks. Includes six- and seven-item versions of
unidimensional factors. It is appropriate for adolescents and adults.

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Multiculturalism Theory Institutional Racism Scale (Barbarin & Gilbert, 1981): This scale
measures institutional racism and is appropriate for adolescents and adults.
Includes six factors and 72 items.

School-Based Prejudice Reduction Interventions:

Over the last several decades, several researchers have developed various
strategies for reducing prejudice. This section reviews informative
readings that describe several effective techniques for reducing prejudice
and bias.
• Dramatic plays: it was described by Gimmestad, B. J., & de Chiara, E.
(1982). This research paper describes four plays about ethnic groups
(blacks, Puerto Ricans, Jews, and Chinese), and related classroom
activities to increase knowledge, improve attitudes about ethnic
groups, and reduce prejudice.
• Prevention of prejudice in elementary school students: it was
described by Rooney-Rebeck, P., & Jason, L. (1986) in the Journal of
Primary Prevention. This article advocates the use of cooperative
group peer tutoring to improve interethnic relations among young
children.
• Research on reducing prejudice: it was described by Pate, G. S.
(1988) in the journal Social Education. This article discusses various
strategies for prejudice reduction (e.g., audiovisual strategies, films,
drama, television, cognitive approaches, and cooperative learning
approaches).
Teacher training aimed at the elimination of prejudice. The training
program includes curriculum materials, videotapes, and support manuals.
The A World of Difference project is tailored to the specific needs of the
school. This teacher training project is an excellent opportunity for school
psychologists to participate in and advocate for prejudice reduction
educational programs.

3.2 DISCRIMINATION
Discrimination is the differential treatment of individuals belonging to a
particular social group or community or religion. It is generally the
behavioral expression of prejudice. Generally, the person discriminated
against is denied some privilege or right that is accorded to other members
of society who do not belong to the minority group.
The extent to which the members of the minority group feel discriminated
against and dislike or feel hostile toward the majority group is a function
of the relation between their comparison level and that of the majority
group.
If the minority group has the same comparison level as the majority
group, it will feel dissatisfied and hostile. But if the comparison is
sufficiently low relative to the majority group no adverse feelings would

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occur. However, „minority groups‟ use of comparison level relative to the Prejudice And Discrimination - I
majority group depends upon past experiences, the outcomes available in
alternative relations, and structural and cultural factors. Sometimes
discrimination occurs without the accompanying feeling of prejudice. For
example, a proprietor may refuse to accept a patron member of a minority
group because he feels it would injure his business. He may not be
prejudiced toward those people but he gives priority to his business.
3.2.1 Development and Maintenance of Prejudice and Discrimination:
Psychologists have categorized the causal and maintenance factors of
prejudice as given below:
Historical facts: Prejudice and discrimination develop out of a history of
economic conflict as well as from political power distribution among
groups of people. Historical incidents led to the development of an attitude
that slowly takes the form of prejudice. In our society prejudice against
women is one such example. Women have always been considered weak,
and dependent, and such prejudice developed and atrocities were
perpetrated on women and they kept tolerating them thinking it to be their
duty.

Status and Power Structures:

The structure of relations between two groups in terms of relative status
and power sometimes gives rise to prejudice. For example, where a
dominant group holds another group in a condition of slavery, slaves are
likely to be considered lazy, irresponsible, and lacking initiative. These
beliefs emerge from the fact that slaves act upon orders from their masters
and are not given an opportunity to demonstrate initiative or
responsibility. Thus, their beliefs about them are consonant with their
behavior, which is controlled by the structure of relations.

Situational Factors:
The number of situational factors in the immediate environment of the
individual also leads to the development of prejudice.

Social learning:
Every individual during the process of socialization learns and acquires
beliefs, values, and attitudes through parents, school, and religion. These
agents of socialization invariably transmit prejudices held by them to the
child. Besides childrearing practices adopted by parents have been shown
to help develop prejudice and discrimination. The scarcity of job avenues
and the abundance of applicants is one important economic factor for the
development of prejudice.

Conformity to Norms:
Once prejudice and discrimination against the outgroup are well
established, the accompanying cognitions and feelings concerning the
outgroup acquire a normative quality. They are shared by members of the
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Multiculturalism Theory ingroup and the members expect each other to hold such attitudes. The
factors underlying conformity to the norms of prejudice may be explained
in terms of the varying reward-cost outcomes ensuing from conformity or
nonconformity. If prejudice and discrimination against other groups are
the norms, then the overt expression of prejudice and discrimination will
receive approval from other members of the group.

Interaction Patterns:
Several interaction patterns increase cohesion and thus strengthen the
power of the group to enforce conformity to norms of prejudice and
discrimination. Any factor that makes members more dependent on the
group is likely to increase cohesion. Interaction patterns within the
ingroup may also increase the economic dependence of members upon
each other. Finally, if interaction within each group predominates over
interaction across group lines, the development of patterns of thinking,
feeling, and behaving uniquely to each group is fostered.

Psychodynamic factors:
Researches reveal that a number of psychological factors also give rise to
prejudice.

Frustration and Aggression:

Frustration also gives rise to prejudice. The underlying theory in it is
displaced aggression. According to this theory when an individual finds
some obstacle between him and his goal, he gets frustrated and becomes
aggressive toward the obstacle. Since the interfering agent is stronger and
more powerful and has the power to punish him this frustration and
aggression is displaced toward some weaker object. Thus, the weak person
or group becomes a scapegoat.

Authoritarian Personality:
Among psychological factors of prejudice authoritarian personality has
received much attention from psychologists. People with authoritarian
personalities exhibit rigid thinking. These tendencies predispose
individuals toward prejudice. Besides these people value people on the
scale of power, people above them in the power scale are attributed all
good characteristics, and people below them on the power scale are treated
as inferior and deserve to be exploited and hated.

Personality needs:
A variety of personality needs may support prejudice and discrimination.
One such need is “intolerance for ambiguity”. Persons differ in the extent
to which they are disturbed by confusing or ambiguous situations. Some
persons like to have everything in black and white i.e., they are unable to
tolerate the least uncertainty or complexity in situations while some
persons are least disturbed by confusing or uncertain situations. In general,
it has been found that individuals who are more intolerant of ambiguity are
also likely to be more prejudiced because prejudice for them serves to
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clarify ambiguity and uncertainty embedded in the situation. Similarly, a Prejudice And Discrimination - I
need to achieve superior status may be supported by prejudice, which
provides a group of persons lower in status than oneself. The need for
security may be satisfied through the rejection of outgroups.

3.2.2 Methods of Reducing Prejudice and Discrimination:

Psychologists have suggested a number of methods for reducing prejudice
which is as follows:

Intergroup Contact:
Allport was the first psychologist to realize the importance of intergroup
contact between a prejudiced person and the target person. Such
interactional situations provide the two parties an opportunity to know
each other from close quarters and understand each other thereby reducing
misunderstandings and misconceptions. However, for intergroup contact
to be effective certain conditions are to be met. Intergroup contact is an
effective method of reducing prejudice only in those conditions where
both the parties have equal status. Intimate and honest contact between the
concerned parties motivates the person to perceive members of the target
group more as humans than as stereotypes. Intergroup contact method is
more successful in situations where the success of both parties is
dependent on each other i.e., when a common goal is to be achieved. In
such a situation both parties are forced to understand each other in a better
manner.

Education:
Social psychologists emphasize that appropriate education has an
important role to play in the reduction of prejudice, particularly racial
prejudice. In it both informal and formal education is important. As far as
informal education is concerned parents ought to be encouraged not to
indulge before children in things which knowingly or unknowingly
promote prejudice. As for formal education, its syllabus and curriculum
should be designed to promote harmony between different sections of
society. It should aim at developing healthy minds. It has been found that
higher and better formal education leads to decreased prejudice and
increased liberalism. Recently, psychologists have devised a new method
called cultural assimilator. In this method, a group of prejudiced persons is
explained about traditions, norms, beliefs, and value systems of people of
other communities and races so that they can appreciate those
communities and races in the light of recent information. A number of
social psychologists have successfully used this method.

Incongruent role:
It has been found that when a person is made to play a role contrary to his
prejudice it leads to a reduction in prejudice after some time. It happens
because playing such a role creates dissonance in the individual. This
dissonance gives rise to tension compelling the individual to change his
prejudice and restore the balance between his behavior and attitude. For
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Multiculturalism Theory example, if a person prejudiced against a particular community is
entrusted with the task of the welfare of that community, he is left with no
alternative but to change his prejudice because he is not able to change his
role.

Anti Prejudice propaganda:

Mass media has been helpful in reducing prejudice. In one of the studies,
it was found that films and documentaries aimed at reducing prejudice
have been successful in reducing prejudice by 60 percent. Some other
psychologists have reported anti-prejudice propaganda to be more
effective than formal education.

Social legislation:
This is another method of reducing prejudice. Governments in different
countries have adopted and enacted several legislations which prohibit the
expression of prejudice in any form. Any public manifestation of prejudice
is unlawful and liable to punishment.

Personality change techniques:

This is because, for prejudice reduction to be effective, a person must have
a balanced personality and open mind. However, in cases where prejudice
is an integral part of the personality, it becomes imperative to seek the
help of therapeutic treatment. A number of psychotherapies have been
developed to help such persons. For example, play therapy is an important
tool for detecting prejudice at an early stage and bringing reformation in
the personality of children.

3.3 SUMMARY
In this unit, we studied prejudice and its nature. What are the different
types of prejudices and what havoc do they play with society and
individuals. We also studied the characteristics of prejudice. Then we
studied discrimination, and what it means and we also discussed prejudice
and discrimination. It was followed by a detailed discussion on the causes
of the development and maintenance of prejudice.
This chapter has highlighted the importance of prejudice reduction.
However, its central aim has been to entice the nascent multicultural
school psychologist to initiate, intervene in, and advocate for the
implementation of prejudice reduction programs and strategies at the
school and community levels. In conjunction with the initial intention of
imparting awareness and knowledge of the causes of prejudice, the review
of racial/ethnic identity development models and the assessment of
prejudice and programs. were examined specifically to encourage
practitioners to see how these approaches hold a critical relationship to
school-based clinical practice. In the last, we discussed methods of
reducing prejudice.

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3.4 QUESTIONS Prejudice And Discrimination - I

1. Write long answers:

a) What do you understand by the term prejudice? What are the different
types of prejudice?
b) Write an essay on factors of the development and maintenance of
discrimination and prejudice.
c) Discuss the psychological factors that give rise to prejudice and
discrimination
d) Explain how authoritarian personality and personality needs
contribute to the development of prejudice and discrimination?

3.5 REFERENCES
 Aronson, E., Wilson, T. D., & Akert, R. M. (2010). Social Psychology
(7th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
 Crisp, R. J., & Turner, R. N. (2010). Essential Social Psychology (2nd
ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
 3. Gamst, G.C., Liang, C.T.H., Der Karabetian , A. (2011). Handbook
of Multicultural Measures, La Verne: SAGE

*****

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 4
PREJUDICE AND DISCRIMINATION - II
Unit Structure
4.0 Objectives
4.1 Introduction: Rights-Based Approach
4.1.1 Need for Human Rights
4.1.2 Human rights responsibilities
4.1.3 Human rights principles
4.1.4 The Limitations and Value of human rights
4.1.5 HRBA and psychological practice
4.1.6 HRBA and applied psychology training and Pedagogy
4.1.7 Applied Psychologists as a Practitioner
4.1.8 Challenges to the Assimilationist Notion of Citizenship
4.2 Equity and social Justice
4.2.1. Equity, Balancing Unity and Diversity
4.2.2. Literacy, Social Justice, and Citizenship Education
4.2.3. The Bellagio Diversity and Citizenship Education Project
4.3 Summary
4.4 Questions
4.5 References

4.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit, you will be able to:
 Describe the Right Based Approach
 Understand the Equity
 Explain Social justice.

4.1. INTRODUCTION: RIGHTS-BASED APPROACH

Human rights and applied psychology share one key focus, amongst
others: health and well-being. Whilst human rights and psychology share
many values, their limitations are intertwined, and human rights are
contested. Yet, human rights offer a tool that can help defend the human
rights of those we work with and support.
A human rights-based approach (HRBA) is defined, as one which draws
on a human rights framework and some key principles of human rights
and considers their relevance to psychological practice, research,
advocacy, and pedagogy.

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Human rights are international legal standards, conceived and constructed Prejudice And Discrimination - II
following World Wars I and II, first with the establishment of the United
Nations, an intergovernmental organization, then by the development and
adoption of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948 (UDHR).
The UDHR, together with the International Covenant on Civil and
Political Rights (1966) with its two Optional Protocols and the
International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights (1966)
formed the International Bill of Rights. The UDHR is the origin of the
other nine international legal treaties, which together with various regional
conventions, declarations, principles of law, agreements and judicial
decisions, form international human rights law. Whilst the doctrine of
human rights, as derived from international human rights law, promotes
human rights as norms that share key features, they are perhaps more
accurately to be understood as minimal moral claims, encoded and
established in legal language. They are the outcome of a political
enterprise of international consensus-building on morality, on what
governments should and should not do to those under their jurisdiction.
This political process has included the establishment of human rights
machinery, regional and international systems and peer review structures
to ensure accountability between States within the international
community.

4.1.1. Need for Human Rights:

One compelling justification for human rights is that they seek to protect
against threats to fundamental human interests, and that ―an account of
human rights requires reflection both on what are the most basic human
interests and on which political, social, and legal abuses are most
dangerous to those interests‖ (Nickel, 2004).In psychology, human rights
have often been ignored as peripheral: inequalities and injustices which
happen ‗out there‘, in ‗other‘ countries or by the ‗other‘, rather than by us,
and within our psychological practices and institutions.
The term human rights framework refers broadly to human rights
responsibilities, commitments, and principles, which are based on
international human rights law.

4.1.2. Human rights responsibilities:

Human rights responsibilities rest with the State which is obliged to
protect the rights of its citizens.
The responsibilities include:
1. The recognition that every individual, by virtue of being human, has
human rights. This includes people who use psychological/health
services, their carers and family members who are rights-bearers; and
staff working in State institutions or State Commissioned services
who are both rights-bearers and duty-bearers.
2. The State and public authorities, as duty-bearers, have a responsibility
to respect, protect and fulfill the human rights of each individual. It
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Multiculturalism Theory includes the State, policy-makers, hospital managers and health
professionals) who work within State institutions, inspectors,
regulatory bodies and others. The term public authority covers private
organizations, including non-governmental or private organizations,
which are commissioned to carry out a public function on behalf of
the State.

3. Accountability for human rights:

This requires duty-bearers to provide mechanisms to ensure the social
determinants of health are known, understood and addressed; to monitor
discrimination and disparities in access to healthcare and support; and to
identify the most vulnerable and marginalized. It helps duty-bearers to
explain their practices and to make necessary changes. It also allows
rights-bearers, including those who use services and their carers, to
understand how service providers have fulfilled their duties.

4. Implementation of human rights:

Human rights are legally enforceable entitlements, which should be put
into practice. In healthcare, this means adhering to human rights
commitments and principles in service design and delivery, organizational
strategies and priority-setting, policies, commissioning and funding
processes; in the organizational culture, clinical practices, and in all
monitoring and evaluation activities of health services.
The right to health, first established in the United Nations International
Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR, article 12)
is important for all health professionals. This is not a right to be healthy,
but the right to access healthcare providing equality of opportunity for
everyone to enjoy the highest attainable level of physical and mental
health. the right to health includes (a) Equal and timely access to basic
health services, the provision of health-related education and information
and services which are available, accessible, acceptable and of good
quality; (b) obligations for States to address the underlying determinants
of health, which include adequate nutrition and housing, healthy working
and environmental conditions, gender equality and health-related
education and information; and (c) freedoms, such as the freedom from
torture or other cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment and
freedom from non-consensual medical treatment and experimentation.
To understand how rights work in practice it is essential to understand that
different types of rights set out in the European Convention on Human
Rights allow for different types of lawful interference with them, under
certain circumstances. Absolute rights, such as the right to not be tortured
or treated in a cruel, inhuman, or degrading way, addresses any treatment
which causes severe pain or suffering, physical and/or mental. The
consideration of whether treatment amounts to torture or to cruel,
inhuman, or degrading treatment depends on the particular circumstances
of each case. As an absolute right, it cannot be limited or restricted in any
way or derogated from under any circumstance or situation – whether
during a war, emergency, healthcare, etc.
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An absolute right cannot be balanced against the needs of another Prejudice And Discrimination - II
individual or public interests, except where two absolute rights need to be
balanced. The right to a fair trial and to not receive punishment without
the law is also a limited right; and it applies to both civil and criminal
matters, detention under mental health legislation, employment matters
and dismissal from employment and expulsion from a profession or
withdrawal of license to practice a profession. Both rights can be limited
in certain circumstances although any restriction has to be explicit, lawful,
carefully justified by those responsible, and finite. Qualified rights are
those which may need to be balanced against the rights of others and in the
interests of the wider community, or public good, to achieve a fair
outcome (as decided by courts).
For example, the right to respect private and family life, home, and
correspondence, highly relevant to healthcare, is a qualified right. It
includes protecting an individual‘s private life; protecting (keeping
confidential) personal. information, including medical, financial, and other
personal records, including the storing, sharing, and dissemination of such
information; and the right to access one‘s own personal information (such
as health records).

4.1.3. Human Rights Principles:

Many of the principles underpinning human rights are similar to those
embedded in ethical codes for psychologists (e.g., Meta-Code of Ethics of
the European Federation of Psychologists‘ Associations, EFPA, 2005;
Universal Declaration of Ethical Principles for Psychologists), which are
also provided as a universally applicable framework (Gauthier et al.,
2010)). Of the numerous human rights principles embedded in many
international treaties and articles, twelve principles are summarized to
illustrate their relevance to psychological practice and all healthcare
(Table 2). The interdependence, indivisibility and inter-relatedness of
rights, together are an overarching human rights principle (Vienna
Declaration and Programme of Action, 1993), emphasizing the need to
consider rights together, since the violation of one right can impair other
rights.
Another cross-cutting human rights principle is the need for gender and
cultural appropriateness. In the context of patients‘ rights, the WHO states
that ―everyone has the right to have his or her moral and cultural values
and religious and philosophical convictions respected‖ (WHO, 1994,
article 1.5). The right to health also requires health facilities, goods and
services to be ―culturally appropriate, i.e., respectful of the culture of
individuals, minorities, peoples and communities, sensitive to gender and
life-cycle requirements‖ (UN, 2000, para.12(c)).
A gender-based approach recognizes ―that biological and socio-cultural
factors play a significant role in influencing the health of men and
women‖ and ―where a gender perspective is integrated into health-related
policies, planning, programmes and research to promote better health for
both women and men‖ (UN, 2000, para.20).

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Multiculturalism Theory Similarly, equality and non-discrimination are important human rights
principles, relevant to all healthcare (UN, 2009a). States have an
obligation to prohibit discrimination and a positive obligation to ensure
equality of opportunity for the enjoyment of the right to health by persons
with mental health problems (ICESCR, Article 2(2)); UN, 2009 a, b).
States are also obliged to prohibit and eliminate discrimination on all
grounds in access to health services and address underlying social
determinants and prohibit and eliminate racial discrimination and
guarantee the right of everyone to public healthcare (International
Covenant on the Elimination of all forms of Racial Discrimination
(ICERD), article 5). The principle of non-discrimination extends to those
with mental health difficulties (UN 2017a) and requires States parties to
―recognize that persons with disabilities [physical or mental] have the
right to the enjoyment of the highest attainable standard of health without
discrimination on the basis of disability‖ (CRPD, Article 25).
The reliance on the person‘s ability to pay can be seen as discrimination
against those without the adequate financial means to access the equal
quality of psychological healthcare. Yet, there are different qualities of
psychological care provided to different social groups and to those from
socially disadvantaged groups (e.g., low-income families, ethnic minority
people or refugee people); and differential access to psychological
therapies, dependent on the national health structures and health-financing
systems.

4.1.4 The Limitations and Value of Human Rights:

There are many obstacles to the implementation of human rights globally,
including geopolitical and economic national interests, lack of political
will, weak or absent civil society, corruption, lack of an independent
judiciary, harassment of human rights defenders, lack of awareness and
understanding of human rights, fear of threats, marginalisation,
persecution, detention, torture, and ill-treatment. The reasons are multiple,
complex, and variable, differing from country to country.
At the theoretical and philosophical levels, human rights remain deeply
contested (for example, Ignatieff, 2001, An-Nai‘im, 2016, Panniker, 1982,
Shachar, 2001). Human rights are arguably a substitute for traditional,
institutionalized morality. the classification of some rights as absolute, and
hence as conclusively valid, always, is also contested (Gewirth, 1981).
Hence, whilst human rights are posited as minimum moral guarantees
encompassing fundamental principles of humanity, their context-
boundedness undermines claims to universality across contexts, cultures,
ethnicities, religions, political and philosophical backgrounds and history.
Human rights continue to evolve encompassing a wider set of values,
arguably consistent with ‗pluralist universalism‘ (Parekh, 1999), or
interpreting universalist values through a cultural lens, more akin to
‗relative universality‘ (e.g., Donnelly, 2007). However, cultural rights
arguments can also be problematic in their propensity to reproduce
patriarchal domination (e.g., Shachar, 2001), both in the construction and

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application of human rights, such that girls and women continue to be Prejudice And Discrimination - II
most at risk of harm and rights violations.
Ignatieff (2001) suggests, what is important is what human rights can do
for people, an approach that assumes that no one would want to contest the
view that all human beings deserve to be free of violence, poverty,
insecurity, and that each of us should be allowed to pursue a ‗good life‘
with peace, freedom, and safety. The recognition that every individual is
worthy of respect and protection as a human being, and even more so
when a person is vulnerable to marginalization, exploitation, or harm, is
one of the core values central to both human rights and psychology.
The World Health Organisation holds that a ―human rights-based
approach [HRBA] to health provides strategies and solutions to address
and rectify inequalities, discriminatory practices and unjust power
relations, which are often at the heart of inequitable health outcomes‖
(WHO, 2015). The aims of HRBA are that States ensure that ―all health
policies, strategies, and programmes are designed with the objective of
progressively improving the enjoyment of all people to the right to health‖
(WHO, 2015).
In mental health, an HRBA is advocated by UN bodies. The UN‘s High
Commissioner for Human Rights, noting that stigma, discrimination,
violations of human rights, and the denial of autonomy and legal capacity
are some of the challenges faced by those who use mental health services,
recommended policy shifts to include systematic inclusion of human
rights and the recognition of the individual‘s autonomy, agency and
dignity and attention to the underlying social determinants; elimination of
stigma and non-discrimination, as well as the application of the principles
of participation, data collection/monitoring for accountability and free and
informed consent for treatment (UN, 2017b).
The implications of HRBA for practitioners have been largely neglected,
partly due to the lack of agreed definitions of an HRBA. In the UK, the
FREDA principles of human rights (fairness, respect, equality, dignity,
and autonomy) (Curtice and Exworthy, 2010); and the PANEL principles
(people‘s right to participate in decisions that affect their lives;
accountability of duty-bearers; non-discrimination and prioritization of
vulnerable groups; empowerment of rights-holders; and legality) (Dyer,
2015), are put forward as part of an HRBA to health services. An HRBA
to applied psychology and mental health can be described as the adoption
of human rights as a conceptual framework for all aspects of healthcare,
from policy, research, practice, and monitoring; an approach that places
physical, psychological, and social health firmly within the context of
security, social justice, equality, and non-discrimination. Hence, an HRBA
frames health not just as needs but as rights to safety, various protections,
and freedoms, whereby every individual and community can enjoy health
and well-being.
For all psychologists and mental health professionals, the structural reality
and operations of power cannot be denied; power is embedded in our

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Multiculturalism Theory professional knowledge production, methods, practices, and professional,
academic, and regulatory institutions. The dynamics of power between
psychologists and those we seek to support are also inevitable. In some
cases, the site of psychological assessment, formulation, therapy, or other
research or other psychological activities is the very source of
disempowerment and discrimination, raising human rights issues.
An HRBA also requires identification of the social determinants of health,
social inequalities, patterns of discrimination and human rights violations
which happen ‗out there‘ and within health services and practices. It
requires an honest examination and acknowledgment of how and when our
practices and services lead to adverse consequences;

4.1.5 HRBA and psychological practice:

An HRBA implies that psychologists can promote human rights principles
and awareness in everyday professional practice with individuals, groups,
and communities, in different settings and services.

HRBA and advocacy:

An HRBA in psychology includes two levels of advocacy, individual-level
(specific to an individual case - individual or family); and policy-level
advocacy, both consistent with the role of psychologists as human rights
defenders.

4.1.6 HRBA and Applied Psychology Training and Pedagogy:

The adoption of an HRBA to psychology depends largely on the
commitment of diverse professional bodies and psychology training
institutions to prioritize and meaningfully engage with human rights. The
broad components of any human rights training would ideally include
knowledge and a critical appraisal of human rights and their relevance to
psychology; skills in applying human rights principles, alongside ethical
principles, in clinical practice, services, research, and advocacy. Human
rights education is important for all health professionals (UN, 2017a, para.
45) and ideally should be integrated at every level of the curriculum
prequalification; and post-qualification, it should be valued as a
continuous process of learning and professional development.

4.1.7 Applied Psychologists as practitioner:

The role of applied psychologists can be conceptualized as practitioner-
activists. The label of activism directly challenges traditional
psychological approaches which focus primarily on the psychological
manifestations and consequences of social adversity and rights violations.
In adopting an HRBA, it is important to recognise that every aspect of
psychological practice which is aimed at changing processes, whether
individual, interpersonal, familial, community, organizational or societal,
is activism factors and conditions which impact adversely on
psychological health and the well-being of individuals, families and
communities. The practitioner-activist seeks to uphold and promote the

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rights of all people to be treated as human beings with dignity. As Prejudice And Discrimination - II
practitioner activists, psychologists acknowledge and seek to understand
and theorize the relationship between social context, social injustices and
human rights violations, and health; they commit to an HRBA in
psychological practice, research, service design, and delivery. This in turn
demands that practitioner-activists name, expose and seek to understand
the dynamics of power as well as address the root causes of suffering and
its impact. A practitioner-activist works in collaboration with others, such
as legal and advocacy practitioners, to engage in advocacy-related
activities which seek to promote and defend human rights and to help
prevent human rights violations, enabling access to justice and healthcare.
This requires more than human rights education, it demands changes in
our theories, methods of knowledge-production, professional training,
regulatory bodies, and in our practice so that human rights-based practice
is a core, foundational competency

4.1.8 Challenges to the Assimilationist Notion of Citizenship:

An assimilationist conception of citizenship education existed in most of
the Western democratic nation-states prior to the rise of the ethnic
revitalization movements of the 1960s and 1970s. A major goal of
citizenship education in these nations was to create nation-states in which
all groups shared one dominant mainstream culture. The ethnic
revitalization movements of the 1960s and 1970s strongly challenged the
assimilationist conception of citizenship education. These movements,
triggered by the Civil Rights Movement in the United States, echoed
throughout the world. French and Indians in Canada, West Indians and
Asians in Britain, Indonesians and Surinamese in the Netherlands, and
Aborigines in Australia joined the series of ethnic movements, expressed
their feelings of marginalization, and worked to make the institutions
within their nation-states responsive to their economic, political, and
cultural needs.
Indigenous peoples and ethnic groups within the various Western
nations—such as American Indians in the United States, Aborigines in
Australia, Maori in New Zealand, African Caribbeans in the United
Kingdom, and Moluccans in the Netherlands—wanted their histories and
cultures to be reflected in their national cultures and in school, college,
and university curricula (Eldering and Kloprogge 1989; Gillborn 1990;
Smith 1999).
Multicultural education was developed, in part, to respond to the concerns
of ethnic, racial, and cultural groups that felt marginalized within their
nation-states (Banks and Banks 2004). The right of ethnic and cultural
minorities to maintain important aspects of their cultures and languages
has been supported by philosophers and educators since the first decades
of the 1900s. Julius Drachsler (1920) and Horace M. Kallen (1924)—of
immigrant backgrounds themselves—argued that the southern, central,
and eastern European immigrants who were entering the United States in
large numbers had a right to retain parts of their cultures and languages

45
Multiculturalism Theory while enjoying full citizenship rights. Cultural democracy, argued
Drachsler, is an essential component of a political democracy.
In the first decades of the 1900s, Rachel Davis DuBois established school
ethnic heritage programs for European immigrant groups. Leonard
Covello was the principal of a community school that incorporated the
culture of Italian-American students (C. Banks 2004). More recently, Will
Kymlicka (1995), a Canadian political theorist, maintained that ethnic and
immigrant groups should have the right to maintain their ethnic cultures
and languages as well as participate fully in the civic cultures of
democratic nation-states.

4.2 EQUITY AND SOCIAL JUSTICE

4.2.1. Equity, Balancing Unity and Diversity:
Cultural, ethnic, racial, language, and religious diversity exist in most
nations in the world. A delicate balance of diversity and unity should be an
essential goal of democratic nation-states and of teaching and learning in
democratic societies (Banks et al. 200l). Unity must be an important aim
when nation-states are responding to diversity within their populations.
They can protect the rights of minorities and enable diverse groups to
participate only when they are unified around a set of democratic values
such as justice and equality (Gutmann 2004).
Citizenship education must be transformed in the 21st century because of
the deepening racial, ethnic, cultural, language, and religious diversity in
nation-states throughout the world. Citizens in a diverse democratic
society should be able to maintain attachments to their cultural
communities as well as participate effectively in the shared national
culture. Unity without diversity results in cultural repression. Diversity
and unity should coexist in a delicate balance in democratic, multicultural
nation-states.

4.2.2. Literacy, Social Justice, and Citizenship Education:

Literacy as defined and codified in the high-stakes tests that are being
implemented in most states in the United States is often interpreted as
basic skills in reading, writing, and mathematics. Although it is essential
that all students acquire basic skills in literacy, basic skills are necessary
but not sufficient in our diverse and troubled world.
Literate citizens in a diverse democratic society should be reflective,
moral, and active citizens in an interconnected global world. They should
have the knowledge, skills, and commitment needed to change the world
to make it more just and democratic. The world‘s greatest problems do not
result from people being unable to read and write. They result from people
in the world from different cultures, races, religions, and nations being
unable to get along and work together to solve the world‘s intractable
problems such as global warming, the HIV/AIDS epidemic, poverty,
racism, sexism, and war.

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Multicultural literacy consists of the skills and abilities to identify the Prejudice And Discrimination - II
creators of knowledge and their interests (J. Banks 1996), to uncover the
assumptions of knowledge, to view knowledge from diverse ethnic and
cultural perspectives, and to use knowledge to guide action that will create
a humane and just world.

4.2.3. The Bellagio Diversity and Citizenship Education Project:

Citizenship education needs to be changed in significant ways because of
the increasing diversity within nation-states throughout the world and the
quests by racial, ethnic, cultural, and religious groups for cultural
recognition and rights (J. Banks 2004; Castles 2004). The Center for
Multicultural Education at the University of Washington has implemented
a project to reform citizenship education so that it will advance democracy
as well as be responsive to the needs of cultural, racial, ethnic, religious,
and immigrant groups within multicultural nation-states.
The first part of this project consisted of a conference, ―Ethnic Diversity
and Citizenship Education in Multicultural Nation-States,‖ held at the
Rockefeller Foundation‘s Study and Conference Center in Bellagio, Italy,
June 17–21, 2002 (Bellagio Conference). The conference, which was
supported by the Spencer and Rockefeller Foundations, included
participants from 12 nations: Brazil, Canada, China, Germany, India,
Israel, Japan, Palestine, Russia, South Africa, the United Kingdom, and
the United States. The papers from this conference are published in
Diversity and Citizenship Education: Global Perspectives
One of the conclusions of the conference was that world migration and the
political and economic aspects of globalization are challenging nation-
states and national borders. At the same time, national borders remain
tenacious; the number of nations in the world is increasing rather than
decreasing. The number of United Nations member states increased from
80 in 1950 to 191 in 2002 (Castles 2004). Globalization and nationalism
are contradictory but coexisting trends and forces in the world today.
Consequently, educators throughout the world should rethink and redesign
citizenship education courses and programs.
Citizenship education should help students acquire the knowledge,
attitudes, and skills needed to function in their nation-states as well as in a
diverse world society that is experiencing rapid globalization and quests
by ethnic, cultural, language, and religious groups for recognition and
inclusion.
Another conclusion of the Bellagio Conference was that citizenship and
citizenship education is defined and implemented differently in various
nations and in different social, economic, and political contexts. It is also a
contested idea in nation-states throughout the world. However, there are
shared problems, concepts, and issues, such as the need to prepare students
in various nations to function within, as well as across, national borders.
An international group should identify these shared issues and problems
and formulate guidelines for dealing with them. In response to this
Bellagio Conference recommendation, the Center for Multicultural
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Multiculturalism Theory Education at the University of Washington created an international
consensus panel that is developing principles and identifying concepts for
educating citizens about democracy and diversity in a global age (J. Banks
et al. in press).
Increasing Diversity and Global Citizenship Education Citizens in this
century need the knowledge, attitudes, and skills to function in their
cultural communities and beyond their cultural borders. They also should
be able and willing to participate in the construction of a national civic
culture that is a moral and just community. The national community
should embody democratic ideals and values,
The community cultures and languages of students from diverse groups
were to be eradicated in the assimilationist conception of citizenship
education that existed in the United States prior to the Civil Rights
Movement of the 1960s and 1970s. One consequence of assimilationist
citizenship education was that many students lost their original cultures,
languages, and ethnic identities. Some students also became alienated
from family and community. Another consequence was that many students
became socially and politically alienated from the national civic culture.
Members of identifiable racial groups often became marginalized in both
their community cultures and the national civic culture because they could
function effectively in neither. When they acquired the language and
culture of the Anglo mainstream, they often were denied structural
inclusion and full participation in the civic culture because of their racial
characteristics (Alba and Nee 2003; Gordon 1964).
The Development of Cultural, National, and Global Identifications
Assimilationist notions of citizenship are ineffective in this century
because of the deepening diversity throughout the world and the quests by
marginalized groups for cultural recognition and rights. Multicultural
citizenship is essential for today‘s global age (Kymlicka 1995). It
recognizes and legitimizes the rights and needs of citizens to maintain
commitments both to their cultural communities and to the national civic
culture. Only when the national civic culture is transformed in ways that
reflect and give voice to the diverse ethnic, racial, language, and religious
communities that constitute it will it be viewed as legitimate by all of its
citizens. Only then can citizens develop clarified commitments to the
nation-state and its ideals. Citizenship education should help students to
develop thoughtful and clarified identifications with their cultural
communities and their nation-states. It also should help them to develop
clarified global identifications and deep understandings of their roles in
the world community.
Global education‘s major goals should be to help students understand the
interdependence among nations in the world today, to clarify attitudes
toward other nations, and to develop reflective identifications with the
world community

48
Nonreflective and unexamined cultural attachments may prevent the Prejudice And Discrimination - II
development of a cohesive nation with clearly defined national goals and
policies. Although we need to help students develop reflective and
clarified cultural identifications, they also must be helped to clarify their
identifications with their nation-states. Blind nationalism, however, will
prevent students from developing reflective and positive global
identifications. Nationalism and national attachments in most nations are
strong and tenacious.
An important aim of citizenship education should be to help students
develop global identifications. They also must develop a deep
understanding of the need to take action as citizens of the global
community to help solve the world‘s difficult global problems. Cultural,
national, and global experiences and identifications are interactive and
interrelated in a dynamic way. Students should develop a delicate balance
of cultural, national, and global identifications. A nation-state that
alienates and does not structurally include all cultural groups in the
national culture runs the risk of creating alienation and causing groups to
focus on specific concerns and issues rather than on the overarching goals
and policies of the nation-state. To develop reflective cultural, national,
and global identifications, students must acquire the knowledge, attitudes,
and skills needed to function within and across diverse racial, ethnic,
cultural, language, and religious groups.
The Stages of Cultural Identity Self-acceptance is a prerequisite to the
acceptance and valuing of others. Students from racial, cultural, and
language minority groups that have historically experienced
institutionalized discrimination, racism, or other forms of marginalization
often have a difficult time accepting and valuing their own ethnic and
cultural heritages. Teachers should be aware of and sensitive to the stages
of cultural development that all of their students—including mainstream
students, students of color, and other marginalized groups of students—
may be experiencing and facilitate their identity development.
Stage 1 - ―Cultural Psychology Captivity‖: During this stage, individuals
internalize the negative stereotypes and beliefs about their cultural groups
that are institutionalized within the larger society and may exemplify
cultural self-rejection and low self-esteem.
Stage 2 - ―Cultural Encapsulation‖: Individuals within this stage often
have newly discovered their cultural consciousness and try to limit
participation to their cultural group. They have ambivalent feelings about
their cultural group and try to confirm, for themselves, that they are proud
of it.
Stage 3 - ―Cultural Identity Clarification‖: individuals are able to clarify
their personal attitudes and cultural identity and to develop clarified
positive attitudes toward their cultural group. In this stage, cultural pride is
genuine rather than contrived.

49
Multiculturalism Theory Stage 4 - ―Biculturalism‖: In this stage, individuals have a healthy sense
of cultural identity and the psychological characteristics to participate
successfully in their own cultural community as well as in another cultural
community. They also have a strong desire to function effectively in two
cultures.
Stage 5 - ―Multiculturalism and Reflective Nationalism‖: Individuals at
this stage have clarified, reflective, and positive personal, cultural, and
national identifications and positive attitudes toward other racial, cultural,
and ethnic groups.
Stage 6 - ―Globalism and Global Competency‖: At this stage, individuals
have reflected and clarified national and global identifications. They have
the knowledge, skills, and attitudes needed to function effectively within
their own cultural communities, within other cultures within their nation-
state, in the civic culture of their nation, and in the global community.
Gutmann (2004) argued that the primary commitment of these individuals
is to justice, not to any human community
Strong, positive, and clarified cultural identifications and attachments are
a prerequisite to cosmopolitan beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors.

4.3 SUMMARY
Human rights set high international standards, yet the numerous political,
economic, cultural, and other obstacles to the realization of human rights
may mean that for the foreseeable future, human rights remain partially
achievable and aspirational. For applied psychologists, often working with
those who are particularly vulnerable and disadvantaged, an HRBA
provides a framework and resources which complement our professional
and ethical obligations. Equity and Social Justice are really important. In
short, an HRBA enables psychologists to use their knowledge and skills,
as practitioner-activists, to help respect, promote and defend human rights.
The Bellagio Diversity and Citizenship Education Project promote social
justice.

4.4 QUESTIONS
Write long answers:
a) Explain Human rights responsibilities
b) Explain Rights Based Approach Introduction
c) Explain The Bellagio Diversity and Citizenship Education.

4.5 REFERENCES
 Banks, J. A. (2004) Teaching for Social /justice, Diversity and
Citizenship in a Global World. The Educational Forum.68,289-298.

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 Cerna, C. (1994). Universality of human rights and cultural diversity: Prejudice And Discrimination - II
Implementation of human rights in different social-cultural contexts.
Human Rights Quarterly, 16, 751-752. DOI: 10.2307/762567
 Curtice, M. and Exworthy, T. (2010). FREDA: A human rights-based
approach to healthcare. The Psychiatrist, 34, 150-156. DOI:
10.1192/pb.bp.108.024083
 Donnelly, J. (2007). The relative universality of human rights. Human
Rights Quarterly, 29(2), 281-306. DOI: 10.1353/hrq.2007.0016
*****

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