CHHATRAPATI SHIVAJI MAHARAJ UNIVERSITY

PANVEL, NAVI MUMBAI

PROGRAM- B.A/B.Sc Psychology

COURSE- Developmental Psychology
SEMESTER – IV
SUBJECT CODE- PSYB4020
FACULTY – Mr.Akash Kumar

SYLLABUS
Mr Akash Kumar,Assistant Professor of Psychology, CSMU, Navi Mumbai
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 UNIT 1: Introduction (a) Concept of Human development (b) Theories,
Themes and research designs.

UNIT 2: Periods of Life span development (a) Prenatal development (b)

Birth and infancy (c) Childhood (d) Adolescence (e) Adulthood

UNIT 3: Domains of Life span development (a) Cognitive development :

Piaget and Vygotsky (b) Language development (c) Physical
development (d) Emotional development (e) Moral development (f)
Personality development

UNIT 4: Socio-cultural contexts of Life span development a) Peers,

Media & Schooling b) Human Development in the Indian context

Reading List:
Berk, L. E. (2010). Child Development (9th Ed.). New Delhi: Prentice
Hall.
Mitchell, P. and Ziegler, F. (2007). Fundamentals of development: The
Psychology of Childhood. New York: Psychology Press.

1. Development: Meaning and Principles of Development

Mr Akash Kumar,Assistant Professor of Psychology, CSMU, Navi Mumbai

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Meaning of Development
Development refers to the progressive and continuous process of change and
growth that occurs throughout the lifespan, from conception to old age. It
encompasses physical, cognitive, social, and emotional changes that are influenced
by genetic, environmental, and cultural factors. The study of development is crucial
in understanding how and why people change over time and what factors contribute
to healthy or maladaptive growth.

Related to growth and development, there are four areas in which a child’s growth
and development take place and these are discussed below.

1. Physical: Physical growth is perhaps the most obvious. Children grow in height
and weight over the years and their appearance changes to a great extent during
puberty. Children also develop certain physical abilities during their progression
towards adulthood, including crawling, walking, running and (possibly) writing. Their
motor coordination gradually becomes well refined.

2. Psychological and cognitive: Children also develop psychologically and

cognitively as their brains absorb more information and they learn how to use that
information. Literally, children have to learn how to think on purpose and to process
or organise all the information that comes to them from the environment. They learn
how to solve problems, to talk, and to complete mental tasks such as remembering
telephone numbers or using computers.

3. Social and emotional: Children grow socially and emotionally. They learn how to
interact, play, work, and live with other people such as family, friends, teachers, and
significant others. They learn how to understand both their own feelings and that of
others’ emotions. They also learn ways of dealing with strong emotions. In order to
function well as independent adults, children develop a sense of self-esteem as they
go through the long process of figuring out one’s identity. They also develop a sense
of morality as they learn the difference between right and wrong.

4. Sexuality and gender identity: Children also develop sexually and form a gender
identity. This development is unique because it spans development across the other
physical, psychological, and social channels. Early on, children learn how their
bodies works or looks and what it means to be a boy or a girl; they learn how boys
and girls are different. As they grow older and enter adolescence and puberty, they
continue to learn how their bodies work sexually and how to responsibly handle their
sexuality so as to balance their sexual desires and appropriate behaviour. They
continue to decide for themselves what it means to be masculine or feminine
throughout their lifespan

Principles of Development

Mr Akash Kumar,Assistant Professor of Psychology, CSMU, Navi Mumbai

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 1. Development is Lifelong
o Development does not stop at a particular age but continues from
infancy through old age. Throughout the lifespan, people undergo
different developmental stages characterized by specific challenges
and achievements. For example, while young adults may focus on
establishing intimate relationships, older adults might be concerned
with leaving a legacy or maintaining life satisfaction.
2. Development is Multidimensional
o Development consists of various interrelated aspects, such as physical
(bodily growth and changes), cognitive (thought processes and
intellectual abilities), and socio-emotional (relationships, emotions, and
social skills). Changes in one domain can influence another. For
example, physical changes during puberty can impact an adolescent’s
social experiences and emotional state.
3. Development is Multidirectional
o As people age, some areas of development may improve while others
decline. For instance, while an older adult may experience a decline in
reaction speed, their vocabulary and wisdom may continue to grow.
This principle highlights that development involves a complex interplay
of both progression and regression, rather than a linear trajectory.
4. Development is Plastic
o Plasticity refers to the capacity for change in response to positive or
negative experiences. For example, even in older adulthood,
individuals can learn new skills or recover from brain injuries, although
there may be constraints. This adaptability means that environmental
factors, such as education and personal experiences, can significantly
shape developmental outcomes.
5. Development is Contextual
o People develop within different contexts, each of which exerts unique
influences on their development. These contexts include:
 Historical Context: The era in which an individual lives
influences their experiences (e.g., growing up during a war or in
the digital age).
 Cultural Context: Culture shapes norms, values, and traditions,
affecting how individuals grow and adapt.
 Socioeconomic Context: Family income, education, and
occupation influence access to resources that promote or hinder
development.
6. Development is Influenced by Multiple Factors

Mr Akash Kumar,Assistant Professor of Psychology, CSMU, Navi Mumbai

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 o Development is a result of the dynamic interaction between biological
and environmental factors. Biological influences include genetics and
brain development, while environmental factors encompass
parenting styles, education, culture, and peer interactions. For
example, a child with a genetic predisposition for high intelligence may
only reach their full potential if they grow up in an enriched
environment.
7. Development Follows a Sequential Pattern
o Development generally follows a predictable order, where skills and
abilities build upon each other. For instance, in motor development,
babies typically learn to lift their heads before sitting up, then crawl,
and eventually walk. Though the timing of these milestones may vary
among individuals, the general sequence remains consistent.
8. Development Proceeds from General to Specific
o Early behaviors and skills are often broad and undifferentiated but
become more refined over time. For example, infants initially make
whole-body movements before they can control specific limbs or
fingers. Similarly, a baby might express discomfort by crying generally
but will later learn to use words to express particular needs or feelings.

CRITICAL PERIOD AND SENSITIVE PERIOD DURING DEVELOPMENT

There are certain periods of development known as difficult periods or critical

periods. It is said that children who do not get certain kind of environmental stimuli
during their time of receptivity, may not develop normally. For instance, during
prenatal development, the critical period for the development of ears and arms is
around 6 weeks after conception. If the mother uses substances during this period, it
may result into malformation of the organs. A sensitive period is a point of
development where the presence or absence of particular stimuli may hinder
development, but the deficts can be overcome by later experiences. Children learn to
trust their parents or caregivers if they are consistently loving, affectionate and give
the child care and love unconditionally. In such cases, the child learns to trust their
parent(s) or caregivers and from their onwards it is transferred to other adults in the
environment. However, if the child is neglected and abused, not given the care,
affection and love, they may develop distrust of parent(s) or caregiver and this
distrust will be transferred to other adults in the environment. It must be remembered
that even though the child’s development may have been adversely affected, if given
an opportunity to be with siginificant others who care and love the child, the latter
develops the capacity to trust other adults too in course of time.

Mr Akash Kumar,Assistant Professor of Psychology, CSMU, Navi Mumbai

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STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT

Often, developmental stages are defined by milestones. The term milestone refers to
the development that has to take place according to the age of the child.

For instance, almost all children start standing and walking at the age of 1 year and
more, start saying a few words by the time they are one and half to two years, etc.

That a developmental stage has been successfully passed is indicated by the child
mastering the developmental tasks of the particular period of development. Often,
special milestones mark children’s accomplishments, such as walking in infancy and
entering school in early childhood, and these milestones can help mark children’s
movement inside and between developmental stages. Individuals pass various
stages throughout their life. There are systematic progressions in a certain order
through a series of phases. Step by step they move closer to some form of adult
status. This movement can be seen as involving changes in intellectual and physical
powers (example, changes in intelligence, expertise and ability to reason) and the
impact of life events and experiences).

The main developmental periods of a human being are:

1. Prenatal: starts at conception and ends at birth. It has three stages: germinal
stage; embryonic stage and fetal stage.

2. Infancy or Toddlerhood: starts at birth and continues until 2 years.

3. Early childhood: starts from 2 years until 6 years of age.

4. Middle and late childhood: starts at 6 years and continues till the onset of puberty.

5. Adolescence: begins with the onset of puberty until 18 years.

6. Emerging adulthood: starts around 18 years until 25 years (psited by Jeffrey

Arnet in 200).

7. Early adulthood: starts around 25 years until around 45 years.

8. Middle adulthood: starts around 45 years until 65 years.

9. Late adulthood: starts at 65 years onward.

2. Obstacles in Studying Developmental Changes

1. Individual Differences:
People differ in genetic makeup, environment, culture, and life
experiences, making it challenging to generalize findings. For example, two

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 children of the same age may show significant differences in language skills
due to varied levels of exposure and genetic predispositions.

2. Representative Sample:
The representative sample is the first obstacle for studying the developmental
period. The different age levels of the participants, is the main concern for the
researcher. The data collection from the school children is easy for the
researcher but in the case of new born or infant, it is not that much easy. They
often face strong parental objection. Getting older adolescents and young
adults who are not attending school to volunteer as a participants is also
difficult because they may not be available for study at any one particular
place. The difficulty arises with the young adult, middle aged adults, or old
age person, when many persons shy away from the testing situation. They do
not want to disclose their personal details to the researcher, even when they
are paid off. Introduction to Human Development .

3.Establishing rapport with the participant:

Establishing personal rapport with the participant is the second difficult task
for the researcher. It is rather difficult to get full personal details about the
participant. It is also observed that personal rapports vary from one stage to
another stage. Even school children and college students, who often fill tests
as a part of their class work, mostly fill false information. There is no
guarantee to the information being accurate. As a result, it is questionable
whether data obtained from the participants is the true picture of their attitude,
feelings, and values. This obstacle may be reduced only by the personal
rapport with the participant.

4.Appropriate Methodology:

Adaptation of an appropriate methodology is the main concern of a

researcher. We take different age-group participants in a study, sometimes
our target group may be one child, sometimes the participant may be an adult
or sometimes the participant maybe an older adult. Because of the wide age
range of participants and the variety of different areas of development that
must be studied to give a composite picture, assorted methods have to be
used. Cross-sectional method is the problem for researcher. Cultural changes
always play a role in the patterns of physical and mental development of a
child. These changes affect values of the participant.

5.Accuracy of data:

Accuracy of data is the fourth obstacle in studying the life span

developmental psychology. The data obtained from the studies should be
accurate. Inaccuracy of the data may show the picture of false information of
Mr Akash Kumar,Assistant Professor of Psychology, CSMU, Navi Mumbai
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 normal development at a particular age given by the participants. The data
may vary in many cases, such as in regard to intelligence being studied by
different methods, or using observational method for studying the behaviour,
well-being, life satisfaction or happiness. The data varies for different age
levels. The accuracy of such measures is questionable. Even through the
longitudinal approach has a methodology advantage over the cross-sectional
approach, the problem of accuracy is still ever present. 5.

6.Ethical aspects:

The ethical aspect are of concern in the study of developmental psychology,

as the rights of the participant is to be considered by the researcher, even if
they are being paid by the researcher for the study. Consent of the
participants, if adult and consent of parents/ guardians, if a child, is an
important and necessary step before data collection. These considerations
apply to all participants irrespective of one’s age.

RESEARCH METHODS FOR DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

As you know development is a continuous process a child. It occurs over a life

time period; thus, special techniques are employed to study developmental
psychology. These techniques are discussed here:
1. Longitudinal research: For the study of developmental pathways in the
same age-group or an individual, over a period of time, this method is
useful. The same-age group individual is tested repeatedly over a period
of time. It is a long-term study hence, requires a great deal of time and
effort. Attrition is high in this method.

Advantages: Provides valuable insights into developmental trends and the long-
term effects of early experiences.
Mr Akash Kumar,Assistant Professor of Psychology, CSMU, Navi Mumbai
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 Disadvantages: Time-consuming, expensive, and susceptible to participant
dropout, which can lead to incomplete data.

2. Cross-sectional research: This method studies the development changes by

testing individuals of different ages at the same time only once. This method helps to
get the norms or standards of typical pattern of development for different age. This is
faster and cheaper method than longitudinal method. It does not loose subjects who
dropout of the study since the subjects are tested only once. Example for this
method is eating behaviour of 5 years old.

Advantages: Efficient and less time-consuming than longitudinal studies, making

it easier to collect data from a large sample.

Disadvantages: Does not provide information about individual developmental

changes and may be influenced by cohort effects, where differences are due to
generational influences rather than age.

3. Sequential method: To overcome the drawback of longitudinal and cross-

sectional method this method is used. This is the best method which
combines the longitudinal and cross-sectional method. In this, sample are
tested more than once and the results are analysed to determine the
differences that show up overtime for the different groups of participants. This
method gives a more realistic assessment.

4. Time lag method: This method is used in studying the development of

different age groups in different years to determine the effect of historical
events on behaviour. This method is rarely used in developmental
psychology, because it takes a longer time and large numbers of participants
are required, who are of the same age at the time of testing.

5. Observation Studies
 Definition: Researchers observe and record behaviors in natural or controlled
settings without interfering. This can be either naturalistic observation (in real-
life environments) or structured observation (in a lab setting).
 Advantages: Allows for the study of behavior in a real-world context,
providing rich and detailed data.

Mr Akash Kumar,Assistant Professor of Psychology, CSMU, Navi Mumbai

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  Disadvantages: Observer bias can occur, and people may alter their
behavior if they know they are being watched (known as the Hawthorne
effect)

ISSUES IN DEVELOPMENT PSYCHOLOGY

A number of major issues have emerged in the study of human development. These
issues include the following: Is development due more to genetics or environment?
Does development occur slowly and smoothly, or do changes happen in stages? Do
early childhood experiences have the greatest impact on development, or are later
events equally important? Let us try to get an answer.

1. Continuity vs Discontinuity: The question of whether development is solely and

evenly continuous, or whether it is marked by age-specific periods. Developmental
psychologists who advocate the continuous model describe development as a
relatively smooth process, without sharp or distinct stages, through which an
individual must pass. That is, development is conceived of as a process of the
gradual accumulation of a behaviour, skill, or knowledge. In contrast, those who hold
to the second view would suggest that developmental change is best characterised
as discontinuous in nature. They describe development as a series of discrete
stages, each of which is characterised by what had gone on in the past and how well
the child was able to master the developmental tasks of that period etc. These
theorists suggest that behaviours or skills often change qualitatively across time, and
that new organisations of behaviours, skills, or knowledge emerge in a rather abrupt
or discrete fashion.

2. Stability vs Change: Another issue which is of importance to developmental

psychologists is the issue of stability versus change. The question here is whether
development is best characterised by stability, for example, does a behaviour or trait
such as shyness stay stable in its expression over time; or change, for example
could a person’s degree of shyness fluctuate across the life span? Aspects of
development like, attachment bond to one’s parents on personality traits one found
to be stable. While as, teaperament can change because of environmental factors.

3. Nature vs. Nurture: Whether the behaviour ultimately developed by the child is
due to hereditary factors or environmental factors, is of great importance to
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psychologists. The debate over the relative contributions of inheritance and the
environment is one of the oldest issues in both philosophy and psychology. This
debate concerns the relative degree to which heredity and learning affect the
behaviour of the individual. Both genetic traits and environmental circumstances are
involved in an individual’s development, although the amount of influence the two
have, is not clearly evident. In fact, it may be stated that the individual and his/her
circumstances decide how much of the behaviour is influenced by heredity factors
and how much by environmental factors. Today, most psychologists believe that it is
an interaction between these two forces that causes development. Some aspects of
development are distinctly biological, such as sexual development during puberty.
However, the onset of puberty can be affected by environmental factors such as diet
and nutrition.

Theoretical Approaches of Development:

JEAN Piaget
How do humans think? How do they make sense of their world? How does
knowledge about the world grow from infancy to adulthood? How do humans come
to ‘know’ the world better as they grow-up? What is the process in which thinking
develops or becomes more complex and sophisticated as we grow from child to
adult? These are some questions which we would attempt to understand through the
theory proposed by a thinker called Jean Piaget. His ideas are critical in
understanding not only the development of thinking but also many issues about
knowledge.

Piaget’s views indicate that there is no knowledge that is pre-existing in the world
such that it can be ‘taught’ to a child. Nor does knowledge comes innately (on its
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own) to the child. Knowledge develops when she acts on the world. He writes, “...in
order to know objects, the subject must act upon them and therefore transform them”
(Piaget 1970, p.104). His theory also helps in understanding how children ‘construct’
knowledge. Thus, it is also known as a theory in ‘Constructivism’.

Processes central in Cognitive Development:

Piaget’s theory has three central concepts

a) Schemes for organization:Piaget proposed that people are born with a

tendency to organize their thinking into schemes (schema). These schemes are
psychological (mental) categories in which people organize knowledge. These
schemes develop and become more complex with experience as one grows from
infant to an adult. For example, suppose Raman, a child in his early childhood,
sees a dog for the first time? When he first time sees a dog does he ‘know’ that
the animal he sees is a dog? He does not, however, his experience of observing
the dog for first few times, helps him in developing a scheme for understanding
dogs. For first few times when he sees a dog, he is unable to understand what it
is. He observes the dog. He finds that it has four legs, a tail, it is furry, it makes a
barking sound, and the like. His mother tells him that what he sees is a dog.
Now, he has this character scheme to understand dogs. When he will next see a
dog he will recognize it. We have similar mental schemes for everything we
‘know’. These schemes continuously develop with new experience and become
more complex.

b) Adaptation:Adaptation, as you may have studied in Biology, is a process

through which living beings adjust with their environment. If you recall we read
above that Piaget was a Biology student, so many of his concepts are drawn
from Biology. Just as human beings adapt to environment, their thinking also
adapts to the changes they experience. These changes lead to changes in the
mental schemes. Two basic processes are involved in adaptation: assimilation
and accommodation. Assimilation takes place when people try to understand
something new by fitting it into what we already know. Accommodation occurs
when a person must change existing schemes to respond to a new situation. Let
us take two cases in continuation with the scheme to understand dogs:

Case 1: Raman who now ‘knows’ the animal-type called dog, sees a cat for the
first time. He sees that the animal has a tail, is furry, and has four legs – just like
his scheme to understand dog. He now calls the cat a dog. What has Raman
done? He has used an existing scheme/knowledge of dog to make sense of a
new animal he sees. Despite the fact that cat does not look exactly the same like
dog he understands the cat as a dog. This fitting of new experience into already
existing scheme is called Assimilation. This is one process in adaptation of
thinking.
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 Case 2: Now one day Raman has a new experience with cats. He finds out that
the cat does not make a barking noise – it makes a different noise. This doesn’t
match his scheme. He gradually notes more differences between the two animal
types. One day when he calls cat a dog in an interaction with his mother, the
mother corrects him. She says, “Raman, this is not a dog, it is a cat”. Now
Raman must change his existing scheme for understanding dog (in which he
includes cat). He will now have a different scheme for understanding cats. This
modifying of existing schemes (and developing of new ones) in order to make
sense of new experience is called Accommodation. This is the second process in
adaption.
c) Equilibration:When Raman could no more fit his observation of cat into the
existing scheme ‘dog’, he must have felt some mental confusion or a situation of
imbalance. This is known as cognitive disequilibrium. He would have wanted to
remove this imbalance and regain balance. And in this process of trying to regain
balance, a new mental scheme got developed – he constructed new
knowledge(about cats and also about dogs).This process of searching for a
balance to make sense of a new experience is called Equilibration. It was this
process which led the child to a better and more sophisticated knowledge of his
experience. All these processes are influenced by child’s experience and activity,
social interactions, and biological process of becoming mature (maturation).

Stages in Cognitive Development:

Piaget’s theory proposes that Cognitive Development universally follows a pattern of

four stages. As a person progresses to higher stages, her/his thinking becomes
more refined and evolved. The first three stages span from birth to about eleven
years; that is mainly during early to late childhood. Fourth stage is the highest stage
of cognitive development and is primarily located during pre-adolescence age till
adulthood. As per the theory, all people may not reach the highest stage. Also
Cognitive Development does not happen from one stage to another, within each
stage there is an order of development. These are l l l l

Sensori-motor Stage

Preoperational Stage

Concrete operational Stage

Formal operational Stage

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Sensorimotor stage: This stage spans from birth to two years. As the name of the
stage suggests, children during initial part of this stage, primarily make sense of the
world through their senses – touching, tasting, listening, seeing, and sensing. The
child’s behaviour includes more reflexes or natural responses like sucking, crying. As
they progress in age they are able to do more complex physical actions like crawling,
moving body, babbling. They gradually become capable of engaging in goal directed
activities by the end of this stage. They are able to chase somebody, they are able to
put take out their toys from a box and put them back. The developments that take
place in this stage include: l l l

Co-ordinating reflexes

Greater control over body movements

Co-ordinating simple motor actions

Another important development that takes place during this stage is object
permanence. In the initial years of this phase, the infant’s thinking is not developed
enough to understand that objects continue to exist even if he cannot see/sense
them. You must have seen that it is very easy to distract a baby and take away some
object from her. However, by the time she reaches 2 years of age, she is able to look
for her toys, even if she can’t see them. This is called object permanence. Language
also starts developing during this age. From the first babbling to the first signs of
language, appear but they more significantly develop in the next stage.

Preoperational stage: This stage spreads from two years to seven years. It is
crucial for elementary school teachers to understand this stage as the child starts
attending school during later part of this stage. The mental processes described in
previous stage are fairly developed by this stage. The development proceeds on the
basis of these processes. Despite the fact that the child has schemes for many
actions, there are several limitations in ability to think like adults. The child can do an
action only physically but not mentally. That is the child cannot mentally imagine
doing an action or reversing it. The capacity to mentally do and reversing an action is
known as operations or operational thinking. Since this second stage comes before
development of such thinking, it is known as preoperational. This is the stage which
prepares for such operational thinking. First step in this direction is development of a
language system. Children learn to name and identify objects even when they don’t
really see them. Like for example they can see the picture of an apple and identify it.
They become capable of symbolic actions like pretending to drink tea from an empty
cup.

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This task is based on the principle of Conservation. This principle says that even if
there is a change in the appearance of the object, its characteristics remain the
same.Rinku doesn’t seem to have this concept. She is unable to see that broadness
might set-offorcompensate the height.Rinku is only focussing on the height of the
water level.That is, she can only focus on one dimension/aspect at one time. She is
unable to decentre or consider more than one aspect at the same time (not
considering the breadth). She is also not able to reverseher thinking (not being able
to see that water was equal when transferred from the identical glasses). There are
some other related concepts (like classification and seriation) involved in the ability
to conserve,which the child has not fully developed. We will read more about them in
the next stage of the theory.

Not only are children of this age able to decentre aspects or dimensions, they are
also not able to decentre their view. That is they cannot take cognizance of other
people’s view. Like a five year old child thinks that because he enjoys running
around, his mother also enjoys it. Thus, he forces the mother to run with him. This is
known as egocentrism or centring on own view point only.

Further, we all would have seen children in the age-group three to six years, despite
being in group, not listening to each other and talking on unrelated matters; may be
even talking to oneself. This is also an outcome of egocentrism, it is called collective
monologue. It is one reason why children in classes one and two might appear
‘selfish’, and less capable of ‘respecting’ teachers’ instructions. But the teacher must
understand that this is not intentional, it is a developmental feature of the stage
which they are experiencing. The important learning here is that conservation,
decentring and reverse thinking, are basic operations on which mathematical
concepts and learning of grammar, reading and writing is based. At the pre-
operational the child is not developmentally prepared to apply these abilities.

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 Concrete operational stage: This stage spans from seven years to eleven years.
That is, middle school years. In this phase children become capable of decentring
and reversing actions mentally. Therefore, they can apply conservation principle.
Now, they will be able to understand that the amount of water in taller and flatter
vessel could be equal even if it is at a higher level in terms of height in taller
vessel.This leads to the ability to think in following ways.

Children can understand that if we add and subtract same amount from a given thing
then there is no change, or there is a compensation for the change.

They are also able to do classification of objects based on one feature (say pick up
all square objects from several shapes).

They develop capacity of applying a logic requiring seriation. That is, make sense of
a series like A<B<C. Children can understand that B can be greater than A but
smaller than C at the same time

Children develop ability to engage in thinking based on reversibility. That is, s/he will
be able to understand that if 4 + 2 = 6, then 6 – 2 = 4. In short, the child at this age
overcomes most of the limitations of the previous stage. That is, the child gradually
develops ability to understand others perspective (moving ahead from egocentrism).
S/he initiates movement from perceptual or observable towards more symbol based
logical thinking, but the thinking is still based on the material world. The ability of
reversibility in thinking opens new avenues for learning. Therefore, the system of
logic fairly develops to become much more adult-like. The child is now able to
engage in operational thinking to some extent. However, the child’s thought is still
based on the material reality. That is, her/his logic is still tied to concrete world– s/he
cannot think in abstraction. That is why this stage is called concrete operational.

Formal operational stage: This stage starts from around eleven years and goes on
till adulthood. Remember, it was stated in the beginning that this stage is of highest
order in development of thinking, and that many people never reach this stage. This
is the age when the child is in late elementary classes. In this phase as the name
suggests children are able to engage in operational thinking. That is, they gradually
become capable of abstract thinking. That is, their thought is no longer tied only to
concrete things; they can think and engage with symbols (like numbers). It is
important to note that mathematics and grammar are subjects that demand higher
abstract thinking as the student has to work with symbols and with ideas that may
not be visible in concrete reality. It is only in this stage that children’s capacity to
think mathematically emerge. Such thinking demands ability for hypothetical
(assumptions based), and deductive reasoning.

You must have heard of the syllogism

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All men are mortal.

Socrates is a man.

Socrates is mortal.

This involves deductive logic. The conclusion that Socrates is mortal is derived (or
deduced) from the first major premise about all humans, and second minor premise.
It is only after children develop such thinking, they will be able to understand
questions like, “let us assume that x = y” or make sense of poetry. The teacher can
now provide for tasks that involve more abstract reasoning, which involve more
creative expression. However, the teacher must not forget that just because a child
is eleven, s/he will develop ability for abstract thinking. It is a process that happens at
its own pace, and may not necessarily happen. So the teacher has to select, and
organize the subject matter as per the developmental needs of different children.
This means that s/he will have to understand his/her learners closely and identify
their developmental needs. This will demand from her working closely with children,
observing them while they are engaged in activities, talking to them, and facilitating
an environment where every child is able to express.

Theories of Development

1. Sociocultural Theory of Cognitive Development

Lev Vygotsky’s theory of development, known as the Sociocultural Theory of

Cognitive Development, emphasizes the fundamental role of social interaction

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and cultural context in shaping cognitive development. Below is an overview of the
key concepts of his theory:

Key Points :

1. Social Interaction as the Foundation of Learning

o Vygotsky argued that cognitive development arises from social
interactions between a child and more knowledgeable individuals, such
as parents, teachers, or peers.
o Learning is a socially mediated process where knowledge is
transferred through communication, collaboration, and shared
activities.

2. The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

o The ZPD refers to the difference between what a child can achieve
independently and what they can achieve with guidance or
collaboration.
o Learning happens most effectively when tasks fall within the ZPD, as
they are challenging but achievable with assistance.
3. Scaffolding
o Scaffolding involves providing structured support to help a child
achieve a task within their ZPD.
o As the child becomes more competent, the support is gradually
reduced, enabling the child to become independent.
4. Cultural Tools and Mediation
o Vygotsky emphasized the role of cultural tools (e.g., language,
symbols, and technology) in shaping thought processes.
o Language, in particular, is a crucial tool for mediating cognitive
development, as it enables communication, planning, and problem-
solving.
5. Language and Thought
o Vygotsky highlighted the link between language and thought, stating
that thought is internalized language.
o He proposed that language development occurs in three stages:

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  Social Speech: Used to communicate with others.
 Private Speech: Self-directed speech that guides actions
(common in young children).
 Inner Speech: Internalized thought that occurs silently in the
mind.

Comparison with Piaget

 Piaget focused on stages of development driven by individual exploration,

while Vygotsky emphasized the social and cultural context of learning.
 Piaget viewed development as preceding learning, whereas Vygotsky
believed that learning leads to development.

2. Freud’s Psychosexual Theory of Development

Oral Stage (Birth to 18 months)

Freud’s oral stage is the first of his five psychosexual stages of development.
According to Sigmund Freud, this stage occurs from birth to around 18 months of
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age and focuses on the infant’s interactions with the world through their mouth.
During this stage, infants derive pleasure from oral activities such as sucking, biting,
and tasting.

Freud believed that how a child experiences gratification during the oral stage can
have long-lasting effects on their personality development. If a child experiences
either too much or too little gratification during this stage, they may develop fixation
or conflicts that could influence their behavior in later stages of life.

Overall, Freud’s oral stage highlights the importance of early childhood experiences
in shaping an individual’s psychological development and personality traits.

Anal Stage (18 months to 3 Years)

Freud’s anal stage is the second of his five psychosexual stages of development.
This stage occurs during the ages of 18 months to 3 years and centers around the
child’s focus on bowel and bladder control. According to Freud, during this stage,
children experience pleasure from learning to control their bodily functions and
particularly enjoy activities related to elimination.

Freud believed that conflicts or issues arising during the anal stage could have a
lasting impact on an individual’s personality development. For example, if a child
experiences harsh toilet training methods or too much pressure to control their bowel
movements, they may develop traits such as rigidity, orderliness, or even
rebelliousness in response.

Understanding Freud’s anal stage can provide insights into how early childhood
experiences can shape an individual’s psychological tendencies and behaviors later
in life. It emphasizes the importance of considering early developmental stages when
exploring personality traits and patterns in adulthood.

Phallic Stage (3 to 6 Years)

Freud’s phallic stage is the third of his five psychosexual stages of development.
This stage occurs around the ages of 3 to 6 years old and is characterized by a
focus on the genitals as a source of pleasure. According to Freud, during this stage,
children become aware of anatomical differences between boys and girls and
develop feelings for their opposite-sex parent (the Oedipus complex for boys and
Electra complex for girls).

The phallic stage is a crucial period in Freudian theory as it sets the foundation for
gender identity formation and socialization. It also involves conflict resolution related
to sexual desires toward the parent of the opposite sex and identification with the
same-sex parent.

Freud believed that unresolved conflicts or issues during the phallic stage could lead
to psychological problems later in life, such as relationship difficulties or gender
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identity issues. Understanding this stage can provide insights into how early
childhood experiences shape an individual’s understanding of sexuality,
relationships, and self-identity.

Latent Stage (6 to Puberty)

The latent stage is the fourth of Freud’s psychosexual stages of development. This
stage occurs during the ages of around 6 years old to puberty. Unlike the preceding
stages, which are marked by intense focus on specific erogenous zones, the latent
stage is characterized by a period of relative calm and stability in terms of sexual
impulses.

During the latent stage, children’s sexual energies are sublimated or repressed as
they focus more on developing social skills, cognitive abilities, and relationships
outside their family. Freud believed that this phase allows children to consolidate
their sense of identity, values, and beliefs without being preoccupied with sexual
desires.

The latency period is considered a time for intellectual growth and skill development
rather than sexual exploration. It serves as a bridge between early childhood
experiences and adolescent psychosexual development when sexual urges become
prominent again during puberty.

Understanding the latent stage provides insights into how individuals navigate
periods of relative stability in their psychosexual development before transitioning
into adolescence. It underscores the importance of exploring not only overt
behaviors but also underlying psychological processes during different stages of
human growth and development.

Genital Stage (Puberty Onward)

The genital stage is the fifth and final psychosexual stage in Freud’s theory of
development. This stage typically begins at puberty and continues through
adulthood. According to Freud, during the genital stage, individuals experience a
renewed focus on sexual desires and relationships. However, in this stage they do
so with a matured perspective.

Anna Freud wrote, “the physiological process which marks the attainment of physical
sexual maturity is accompanied by a stimulation of the instinctual processes, which
is carried over into the psychic sphere in the form of an influx of libido.” She
continued, “the relation established between the forces of the ego and the id is
destroyed, the painfully achieved psychic balance is upset, with the result that the
inner conflicts between the two institutions blaze up afresh” (Freud, 1937).

In the genital stage, there is an emphasis on forming healthy intimate relationships

based on mutual respect and love rather than solely seeking physical gratification.

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Individuals seek to establish romantic partnerships that fulfill emotional needs while
also expressing their sexuality in socially acceptable ways.

Freud believed that successfully navigating the challenges of the earlier stages of
development would lead to healthy adult functioning during the genital stage.
Individuals who have resolved conflicts from previous stages are better equipped to
form meaningful connections with others. Moreover, they could experience intimacy
without being hindered by unresolved issues or fixations.

Overall, the genital stage represents a culmination of psychosexual development. In

this final stage, individuals strive for mature sexual relationships characterized by
emotional depth, trust, and mutual satisfaction. Understanding this final stage
provides insights into how individuals navigate complex interpersonal dynamics as
they progress through different life stages.

Stage Fixation

Freud believed that successfully resolving the conflicts at each stage was crucial for
the development of a healthy adult personality. If these conflicts are not resolved, the
individual may become fixated and exhibit traits or behaviors associated with that
stage throughout their life.

In Freud’s psychosexual theory, the concept of fixation refers to a persistent focus of

the id’s pleasure-seeking energies at an early stage of psychosexual
development. This occurs when an issue or conflict in a psychosexual stage remains
unresolved. Consequently, the unresolved conflict prevents the individual from
moving onto the next stage of development.

Freud wrote, “Every step on this long path of development can become a point of
fixation, every juncture in this involved combination can be an occasion for a
dissociation of the sexual instinct” (Freud, 1949, p. 160).

Here’s how fixation can manifest across the different stages.

Oral Fixation

Freud’s psychosexual theory, an oral fixation is believed to develop during the oral
stage of a child’s development, which occurs from birth to about 18 months. The
theory characterizes this stage by the infant finding pleasure through oral activities
such as sucking and eating.

A person may develop an oral fixation due to various experiences during this stage:

 Early or Late Weaning: If caregivers wean a child too early or too late, the
child may not adjust properly to new methods of feeding. Consequently, this
may lead to an oral fixation.

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  Neglect: A child whose caregivers neglect and underfed may lack sufficient
oral stimulation. This neglect can contribute to an oral fixation later in life.

 Overprotection and Overfeeding: Conversely, a child whose caregivers

overprotected and overfed may experience excessive oral stimulation.
Accordingly, this may also lead to an oral fixation.

These experiences can result in unresolved needs. They typically manifest as

behaviors associated with oral fixation in adulthood, such as nail-biting, smoking,
overeating, and excessive drinking.

Anal Fixation

In Freud’s psychosexual theory, an anal fixation may develop during the anal
stage of development, which occurs approximately between the ages of 18 months
and three years. This stage is characterized by the child’s experience with toilet
training and the pleasure associated with bowel and bladder control.

Experiences that can lead to an anal fixation include:

 Overly Strict Toilet Training: If parents are too strict or punitive during toilet
training, a child may become overly obsessed with orderliness and tidiness,
leading to an anal-retentive personality.

 Overly Lenient Toilet Training: Conversely, if parents are too lenient and the
child’s toilet training is messy or inconsistent, the child may develop an anal-
expulsive personality. Psychoanalytic theory characterizes the anal-expulsive
personality by messiness and lack of self-discipline.

 Early or Harsh Punishment: Children who are punished for not using the toilet
properly or who are started on toilet training too early may feel a loss of
control. Consequently, this loss of control may lead to an anal-retentive
personality in adulthood.

 Praise and Rewards: If a child is praised and rewarded for using the toilet
properly, they are more likely to pass through this stage
successfully. However, excessive focus on this praise can also contribute to
fixation if the child becomes overly dependent on external validation.

These experiences during the anal stage can have a lasting impact on personality
traits and behaviors. The theory posits that these issues are related to control,
orderliness, and cleanliness in adulthood.

Phallic Fixation

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Experiences that may lead to a phallic fixation in adult behavior, according to Freud’s
psychosexual theory, typically occur during the phallic stage of development, which
is around ages three to six. Freud characterized this stage by the child’s increased
interest in their own genitals and the differences between males and females.

Here are some experiences that could contribute to a phallic fixation:

 Oedipus Complex: For boys, experiencing the Oedipus complex, which

involves a desire for the mother and rivalry with the father, can lead to fixation
if not resolved properly.

 Electra Complex: For girls, the analogous Electra complex, which includes
penis envy and competition with the mother for the father’s attention, can
result in fixation.

 Identification with Same-Sex Parent: Failure to identify with the same-sex

parent, which is a key developmental task during this stage, might lead to a
phallic fixation.

 Overemphasis on Gender Roles: Excessive pressure or focus on traditional

gender roles during this stage can also contribute to fixation. The theory
posits that this may interfere with the natural resolution of the stage’s conflicts.

 Parental Attitudes: Parents who are either overly punitive or overly indulgent
regarding their child’s exploration of their body and questions about gender
differences can contribute to fixation.

Adults with a phallic fixation may exhibit behaviors such as vanity, exhibitionism, and
a need for dominance or attention. They might also have difficulties with authority
and competition.

Criticism to Freud’s Psychosexual Stages of Development

Sigmund Freud’s psychosexual theory, while groundbreaking, has faced several

criticisms over the years. Here are some of the key points of critique:

 Gender Bias: Critics often call attention to the inherent gender bias within
Freud’s theories. Freud’s theory focuses almost entirely on male development
with little mention of female psychosexual development.

 Scientific Validity: The theory is difficult to test scientifically. Concepts such as

the libido are impossible to measure. Therefore, research cannot empirically
test them. The research that has been conducted tends to discredit Freud’s
theory.

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  Cultural and Historical Context: Critics argue that Freud’s ideas were a
product of his time and culture. Accordingly, we may not universally apply
them in modern society.

 Methodology: History suggests that Freud worked mostly with troubled adults
in developing this theory. Notably, his lack of work with children may have
skewed his observations and conclusions.

 Overemphasis on Sexuality: Some critics believe that Freud overemphasized

the role of sexuality in psychological development and the formation of
neuroses.

 Determinism: Freud’s theory suggests that early childhood experiences

determine adult personality. Many find this objectionable because it
undermines the role of free will and the ability to change in adulthood.

3. Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory of Development

Overview:

Erikson proposed eight stages, each defined by a psychosocial conflict that

influences personality development.

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Stages:

1. Trust vs. Mistrust (0–1 year):

Here’s the conflict:
 Trust: If the caregiver is reliable, consistent, and nurturing, the child
will develop a sense of trust, believing that the world is safe and that people
are dependable and affectionate.
This sense of trust allows the child to feel secure even when threatened and extends
into their other relationships, maintaining their sense of security amidst potential
threats.
 Mistrust: Conversely, if the caregiver fails to provide consistent, adequate
care and affection, the child may develop a sense of mistrust and insecurity.
This could lead to a belief in an inconsistent and unpredictable world, fostering a
sense of mistrust, suspicion, and anxiety.
Under such circumstances, the child may lack confidence in their ability to influence
events, viewing the world with apprehension.

o Goal: Develop trust in caregivers and the world.

o Success: Leads to hope and security.
o Failure: Mistrust, insecurity, or fear.
2. Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt (1–3 years):
Here’s the conflict:
 Autonomy: If encouraged and supported in their increased independence,
children will become more confident and secure in their ability to survive.
They will feel comfortable making decisions, explore their surroundings more freely,
and have a sense of self-control. Achieving this autonomy helps them feel able and
capable of leading their lives.
 Shame and Doubt: On the other hand, if children are overly controlled or
criticized, they may begin to feel ashamed of their autonomy and doubt their
abilities.
This can lead to a lack of confidence, fear of trying new things, and a sense of
inadequacy about their self-control abilities.

o Goal: Develop independence (e.g., toilet training).

o Success: Autonomy and confidence.
o Failure: Self-doubt or shame.
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 3. Initiative vs. Guilt (3–6 years):
Here’s the conflict:
 Initiative: When caregivers encourage and support children to take the
initiative, they can start planning activities, accomplish tasks, and face
challenges.
The children will learn to take the initiative and assert control over their environment.
They can begin to think for themselves, formulate plans, and execute them, which
helps foster a sense of purpose.
 Guilt: If caregivers discourage the pursuit of independent activities or dismiss
or criticize their efforts, children may feel guilty about their desires and
initiatives.
This could potentially lead to feelings of guilt, self-doubt, and lack of initiative.

o Goal: Initiate activities and take responsibility.

o Success: Sense of initiative and leadership.
o Failure: Overwhelming guilt or fear of trying.
4. Industry vs. Inferiority (6–12 years):
Here’s the conflict:
 Industry: If children are encouraged by parents and teachers to develop
skills, they gain a sense of industry—a feeling of competence and belief in
their skills.
They start learning to work and cooperate with others and begin to understand that
they can use their skills to complete tasks. This leads to a sense of confidence in
their ability to achieve goals.
 Inferiority: On the other hand, if children receive negative feedback or are not
allowed to demonstrate their skills, they may develop a sense of inferiority.
They may start to feel that they aren’t as good as their peers or that their efforts
aren’t valued, leading to a lack of self-confidence and a feeling of inadequacy.

o Goal: Master academic and social skills.

o Success: Competence and achievement.
o Failure: Feelings of inferiority and inadequacy.

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 5. Identity vs. Role Confusion (12–18 years):
Here’s the conflict:
 Identity: If adolescents are supported in their exploration and given the
freedom to explore different roles, they are likely to emerge from this stage
with a strong sense of self and a feeling of independence and control.
This process involves exploring their interests, values, and goals, which helps
them form their own unique identity.
 Role Confusion: If adolescents are restricted and not given the space to
explore or find the process too overwhelming or distressing, they may
experience role confusion.
This could mean being unsure about one’s place in the world, values, and
future direction. They may struggle to identify their purpose or path, leading to
confusion about their personal identity.

o Goal: Develop a coherent sense of self and personal identity.

o Success: Strong identity and direction.
o Failure: Confusion about one’s role in life.
6. Intimacy vs. Isolation (18–40 years):
Here’s the conflict:
 Intimacy: Individuals who successfully navigate this stage are able to form
intimate, reciprocal relationships with others.
They can form close bonds and are comfortable with mutual dependency. Intimacy
involves the ability to be open and share oneself with others, as well as the
willingness to commit to relationships and make personal sacrifices for the sake of
these relationships.
 Isolation: If individuals struggle to form these close relationships, perhaps
due to earlier unresolved identity crises or fear of rejection, they may
experience isolation.
Isolation refers to the inability to form meaningful, intimate relationships with others.
This could lead to feelings of loneliness, alienation, and exclusion.

o Goal: Form meaningful, intimate relationships.

o Success: Deep connections and love.
o Failure: Loneliness or isolation.
7. Generativity vs. Stagnation (40–65 years):

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Here’s the conflict:
 Generativity: If individuals feel they are making valuable contributions to the
world, for instance, through raising children or contributing to positive changes
in society, they will feel a sense of generativity.
Generativity involves concern for others and the desire to contribute to future
generations, often through parenting, mentoring, leadership roles, or creative output
that adds value to society.
 Stagnation: If individuals feel they are not making a positive impact or are not
involved in productive or creative tasks, they may experience stagnation.
Stagnation involves feeling unproductive and uninvolved, leading to self-absorption,
lack of growth, and feelings of emptiness.

o Goal: Contribute to society (e.g., through work, family, or community).

o Success: Feeling of purpose and legacy.
o Failure: Stagnation and self-absorption.
8. Integrity vs. Despair (65+ years):
Here’s the conflict:
 Ego Integrity: If individuals feel they have lived a fulfilling and meaningful life,
they will experience ego integrity.
This is characterized by a sense of acceptance of their life as it was, the ability to
find coherence and purpose in their experiences, and a sense of wisdom and
fulfillment.
 Despair: On the other hand, if individuals feel regretful about their past, feel
they have made poor decisions, or believe they’ve failed to achieve their life
goals, they may experience despair.
Despair involves feelings of regret, bitterness, and disappointment with one’s life,
and a fear of impending death.

o Goal: Reflect on life with a sense of fulfillment.

o Success: Wisdom and acceptance.
o Failure: Regret and despair.

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4. Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory

Overview:

Bronfenbrenner emphasized that development is influenced by multiple

environmental systems interacting with the individual.

Systems:

1. The Microsystem

The microsystem is the first level of Bronfenbrenner’s theory and is the things that
have direct contact with the child in their immediate environment.

It includes the child’s most immediate relationships and environments. For example,
a child’s parents, siblings, classmates, teachers, and neighbors would be part of their
microsystem.

Relationships in a microsystem are bi-directional, meaning other people can

influence the child in their environment and change other people’s beliefs and
actions.

The interactions the child has with these people and environments directly impact
development.

The child is not just a passive recipient but an active contributor in these bidirectional
interactions.

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Example: Supportive parents who read to their child and provide educational
activities may positively influence cognitive and language skills. Or, children with
friends who bully them at school might develop self-esteem issues.

2. The Mesosystem

The mesosystem is where a person’s individual microsystems do not function

independently but are interconnected and assert influence upon one another.

The mesosystem involves interactions between different microsystems in the child’s

life. These interactions can have significant impacts on the child’s development.

Example: A child whose parents are actively involved in their school life, such as
attending parent-teacher conferences and volunteering for school events, may
perform better academically.

This is because the interaction between the family microsystem and the school
microsystem (forming the mesosystem) creates a supportive environment for
learning.

Another example could be the interaction between a child’s peer group and family.

If a child’s friends value academic achievement, this attitude might influence the
child’s behavior at home, leading to more time spent on homework and studying.

3. The Exosystem

The exosystem is a component of the ecological systems theory developed by Urie

Bronfenbrenner in the 1970s.

It incorporates other formal and informal social structures such as local

governments, friends of the family, and mass media.

While not directly interacting with the child, the exosystem still influences the
microsystems.

Example: A parent’s workplace policies can significantly affect a child’s

development.

If a company offers flexible working hours or work-from-home options, parents might

have more time to spend with their children, positively impacting the child’s
emotional development and family relationships.

Another example could be local government decisions.

If a city council decides to close down a community center or library due to budget
cuts, this could limit a child’s access to educational resources and after-school
activities, potentially affecting their academic and social development.

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4. The Macrosystem

The macrosystem focuses on how cultural elements affect a child’s development,

consisting of cultural ideologies, attitudes, and social conditions that children are
immersed in.

Beliefs about gender roles, individualism, family structures, and social issues
establish norms and values that permeate a child’s microsystems.

The macrosystem differs from the previous ecosystems as it does not refer to the
specific environments of one developing child but the already established society
and culture in which the child is developing.

Example: In a society that highly values individual achievement, children might be

encouraged to be more competitive and self-reliant.

This could influence parenting styles in the microsystem, with parents focusing more
on personal accomplishments and independence.

Conversely, in a culture that emphasizes collective harmony, children might be

raised to prioritize group needs over individual desires.

This could manifest in the microsystem as parents encouraging more cooperative

play and shared decision-making among siblings.

5. The Chronosystem

The fifth and final level of Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory is known as
the chronosystem.

The chronosystem relates to shifts and transitions over the child’s lifetime. These
environmental changes can be predicted, like starting school, or unpredicted, like
parental divorce or changing schools when parents relocate for work, which may
cause stress.

Aging itself interacts with shifting social expectations over the lifespan within the
chronosystem.

How children respond to expected and unexpected life transitions depends on the
support of their ecological systems.

Example: The introduction of widespread internet access and social media

represents a significant chronosystem change for many children.

This technological shift has altered how children interact with peers, access
information, and spend their leisure time, potentially affecting their social skills,
cognitive development, and even sleep patterns.

Another example could be a major historical event like a global pandemic.

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Children growing up during such a time might experience disruptions in their
education (shift to online learning), changes in family dynamics (parents working
from home), and altered social interactions (social distancing), all of which can have
long-lasting effects on their development.

5. Bowlby’s Attachment Theory

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Overview:

Bowlby believed early bonds with caregivers shape future relationships and
emotional well-being.

Phases of Attachment:

1. Pre-Attachment (0–6 weeks):

o Babies signal (e.g., crying) to attract caregivers.
2. Attachment in the Making (6 weeks–8 months):
o Infants begin to prefer familiar caregivers.
3. Clear-Cut Attachment (8 months–2 years):
o Strong attachment forms; separation anxiety is common.
4. Formation of Reciprocal Relationships (2+ years):
o Relationships become more balanced and reciprocal.
Types of Attachment:

 Secure: Trust in caregiver’s availability.

 Insecure-Avoidant: Emotionally distant behavior.
 Insecure-Resistant: Clingy and dependent, yet rejecting.
 Disorganized: Fearful and confused behavior.

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6. Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development

Overview:

Kohlberg proposed three levels of moral reasoning, each with two stages,
emphasizing the development of justice-based morality.

Levels and Stages:

Level 1 – Preconventional Morality

Preconventional morality is the first level of moral development, typically lasting until
approximately age 8.
During this level, children don’t have their own personal sense of right and wrong
yet.
At the preconventional level, moral authority comes from outside the individual.
Children accept the moral code of authority figures such as parents and teachers
rather than developing their own understanding of what is right or wrong.

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Children at this stage make moral decisions based primarily on the physical
consequences of actions:
 If an action leads to punishment, they view it as “bad”
 If an action leads to a reward, they view it as “good”
For example, a child might think they were “good” if they receive candy for behaving
and “bad” if they receive a scolding for misbehaving.
Their moral reasoning is largely self-centered, defining what is “good” in terms of
what benefits themselves.
Rather than following internalized principles, children at the preconventional level are
motivated by avoiding punishment and obtaining rewards.
Their moral standards are shaped by adults and the consequences of following or
breaking rules.
Stage 1: Obedience and Punishment Orientation
Moral decisions are driven by the desire to avoid punishment. Individuals perceive
rules as fixed and absolute, without considering intent.
Right and wrong are determined by direct consequences, especially punishment.
Stage 2: Self-Interest Orientation
Individuals recognize varying viewpoints but base decisions primarily on self-interest.
Actions are judged right if they serve personal needs or involve equal exchange
(“what’s in it for me?”).
Reciprocity is transactional, not moral.

Level 2 – Conventional Morality

The conventional level is the adolescent phase of moral development focused on
societal norms and external expectations to discern right from wrong, often grounded
in tradition, cultural practices, or established codes of conduct.
At this level, most adolescents and adults internalize the moral standards of valued
adult role models.
Authority is internalized but not questioned, and reasoning is based on the norms of
the group to which the person belongs.
Children at this stage believe that social rules and the expectations of others
determine what is acceptable or unacceptable behavior.
A social system that stresses the responsibilities of relationships and social order is
seen as desirable and must, therefore, influence our views of right and wrong.

Mr Akash Kumar,Assistant Professor of Psychology, CSMU, Navi Mumbai

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People who follow conventional morality believe that it’s important to follow society’s
rules and expectations to maintain order and prevent problems.
For example, refusing to cheat on a test is a part of conventional morality because
cheating can harm the academic system and create societal problems.
Stage 3. Good Interpersonal Relationships
Morality is guided by social approval and maintaining relationships.
Individuals aim to be seen as “good” by others, emphasizing trust, loyalty, and
conformity to social roles and expectations.
Actions reflect the desire to please others.
Stage 4. Authority and Maintaining Social Order
Individuals prioritize law, order, and societal stability.
Moral decisions uphold laws and authority, viewing societal rules as critical for
collective well-being.
Maintaining social order and fulfilling obligations is paramount.
Level 3 – Postconventional Morality
The postconventional level represents the third and highest stage of moral
development in Kohlberg’s theory.
At this level, what is considered morally right is based on an individual’s
understanding of universal ethical principles, not merely social norms or authority.
Individuals at the postconventional level make moral decisions based on what they
personally believe is right, rather than simply following the rules established by
society.
They develop their own ethical principles and values, independent of what others or
society dictates.
At this level, moral reasoning centers on abstract concepts such as fairness, justice,
and fundamental human values. People consider how their choices might affect
others and strive to make decisions that benefit everyone, not just themselves.
Individual judgment is based on self-chosen principles, with a focus on individual
rights and justice.
The values that guide postconventional morality are often abstract and include
concepts like the preservation of life and the importance of human dignity.
While these principles may be difficult to precisely define, they serve as the
foundation for moral reasoning.
According to Kohlberg, only 10-15% of people reach this advanced level of moral
reasoning, as it requires the capacity for abstract thinking necessary for stages 5 or
6 (postconventional morality).
Mr Akash Kumar,Assistant Professor of Psychology, CSMU, Navi Mumbai
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Most people derive their moral views from those around them, while only a minority
develop and think through ethical principles independently.
Stage 5. Social Contract and Individual Rights
The child/individual becomes aware that while rules/laws might exist for the good of
the greatest number, there are times when they will work against the interest of
particular individuals.
The issues are not always clear-cut.
For example, in Heinz’s dilemma, the protection of life is more important than
breaking the law against stealing.
Stage 6. Universal Principles
People at this stage have developed their own set of moral guidelines, which may or
may not fit the law.
The principles apply to everyone. E.g., human rights, justice, and equality.
The person will be prepared to act to defend these principles even if it means going
against the rest of society in the process and having to pay the consequences of
disapproval and or imprisonment.
Kohlberg doubted few people had reached this stage.
Examples of universal principles
Moral reasoning is guided by universal ethical principles like justice, equality, and
human rights.
Individuals act according to self-chosen ethical principles that transcend societal
rules. Decisions aim at justice and dignity for all, often at personal cost.
1. Equal human rights: Someone at this stage would believe in the
fundamental right of all individuals to life, liberty, and fair treatment. They
would advocate for and act according to these rights, even if it meant
opposing laws or societal norms.
2. Justice for all: A person at this stage believes in justice for all individuals and
would strive to ensure fairness in all situations. For example, they might
campaign against a law they believe to be unjust, even if it is widely accepted
by society.
3. Non-violence: A commitment to non-violence could be a universal principle
for some at this stage. For instance, they might choose peaceful protest or
civil disobedience in the face of unjust laws or societal practices.
4. Social contract: People at this stage might also strongly believe in the social
contract, wherein individuals willingly sacrifice some freedoms for societal
benefits. However, they also understand that these societal norms can be
challenged and changed if they infringe upon the universal rights of
individuals.
Mr Akash Kumar,Assistant Professor of Psychology, CSMU, Navi Mumbai
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 5. Respect for human dignity and worth: Individuals at this stage view each
person as possessing inherent value, and this belief guides their actions and
judgments. They uphold the dignity and worth of every individual, regardless
of social status or circumstance.
Heinz Dilemma
The Heinz dilemma is a moral question proposed by Kohlberg in his studies on moral
development.
It involves a man named Heinz who considers stealing a drug he cannot afford to
save his dying wife, prompting discussion on the moral implications and justifications
of his potential actions.
Lawrence Kohlberg (1958) agreed with Piaget’s (1932) theory of moral
development in principle but wanted to develop his ideas further.
He used Piaget’s storytelling technique to tell people stories involving moral
dilemmas. In each case, he presented a choice to be considered, for example,
between the rights of some authority and the needs of some deserving individual
unfairly treated.
After presenting people with various moral dilemmas, Kohlberg categorized their
responses into different stages of moral reasoning.
Using children’s responses to a series of moral dilemmas, Kohlberg established that
the reasoning behind the decision was a greater indication of moral development
than the actual answer.
One of Kohlberg’s best-known stories (1958) concerns Heinz, who lived somewhere
in Europe.
Heinz’s wife was dying from a particular type of cancer. Doctors said a new drug
might save her. The drug had been discovered by a local chemist, and the Heinz
tried desperately to buy some, but the chemist was charging ten times the money it
cost to make the drug, and this was much more than the Heinz could afford.
Heinz could only raise half the money, even after help from family and friends. He
explained to the chemist that his wife was dying and asked if he could have the drug
cheaper or pay the rest of the money later.
The chemist refused, saying that he had discovered the drug and was going to make
money from it. The husband was desperate to save his wife, so later that night he
broke into the chemist’s and stole the drug.
Should Heinz have broken into the laboratory to steal the drug for his wife? Why or
why not?

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(a) Prenatal Development (Conception to Birth)
1. Begins at conception and lasts until birth (about 38-40 weeks)
o The moment the sperm fertilizes the egg, a zygote is formed, marking
the start of human life.
o This period is critical because it sets the biological foundation for the
baby’s growth.
2. Divided into germinal (0-2 weeks), embryonic (3-8 weeks), and fetal
stages (9 weeks-birth)
o Germinal stage: The zygote divides and implants in the uterus.
o Embryonic stage: The baby’s heart, brain, and spinal cord start
forming.
o Fetal stage: Growth and refinement of body parts occur.
3. Major organs and body systems start developing in the embryonic stage
o The heart starts beating around 4 weeks.
o The nervous system, lungs, and digestive system start forming.
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 4. The fetal stage focuses on growth, sensory development, and brain
maturation
o The baby begins moving inside the womb and reacting to sounds.
o Brain structures like the cerebral cortex (important for thinking)
develop.
5. Teratogens (e.g., alcohol, drugs, stress) can cause birth defects
o Exposure to harmful substances can lead to conditions like fetal
alcohol syndrome.
o High maternal stress releases cortisol, which may negatively affect
brain development.
6. The fetus can recognize maternal voices and respond to external stimuli
o Studies show that babies prefer their mother’s voice after birth.
o Sounds like music and talking can influence fetal brain activity.
7. Early brain development sets the foundation for cognitive and emotional
functioning
o Neural connections form at a rapid rate, preparing the baby for
learning.
o Poor prenatal nutrition can lead to cognitive delays later in life.
8. Hormones like cortisol from maternal stress can impact fetal brain
development
o High stress can alter the baby’s ability to handle stress later in life.
o This may increase the risk of anxiety or emotional difficulties.
9. Prenatal bonding may influence attachment post-birth
o Some research suggests that mothers who bond with their baby in
utero (e.g., talking, touching belly) may have stronger attachment
after birth.
10. Psychological theories focus on fetal learning and early sensory
experiences
 Babies can remember sounds heard in the womb after birth.
 This supports theories that learning begins before birth.

(b) Birth and Infancy (0-2 Years)

1. Marked by rapid physical growth, including brain and motor
development

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 o Babies triple their birth weight in the first year.
o Brain development is at its peak, forming new neural connections.
2. Newborn reflexes (e.g., grasping, sucking, Moro reflex) ensure survival
o These reflexes are automatic responses that help the baby feed and
protect itself.
o Example: The Moro reflex makes babies spread their arms when
startled.
3. Sensory abilities (sight, hearing, touch) develop, with vision improving
over time
o Newborns see best at 8-12 inches (the distance to their caregiver’s
face).
o They recognize familiar voices and are soothed by touch.
4. Attachment formation is crucial—Bowlby’s theory emphasizes secure
attachment
o Secure attachment leads to better emotional health later in life.
o Strange Situation Experiment (Ainsworth) showed different
attachment styles.
5. Piaget’s Sensorimotor Stage (0-2 years) highlights learning through
senses and actions
o Babies learn by exploring with their hands and mouths.
o They experiment with cause and effect (e.g., dropping a spoon
repeatedly).
6. Infants develop object permanence around 8-12 months
o Understanding that objects still exist even when out of sight.
o Before this, babies think things disappear when not seen.
7. Language acquisition starts, with cooing, babbling, and first words
around 12 months
o Babbling starts around 4-6 months (e.g., “ba-ba, da-da”).
o First words appear around 12 months (e.g., “mama,” “dada”).
8. Social referencing begins—infants look to caregivers for emotional cues
o If a baby sees a new object, they check the parent’s reaction before
touching it.
o Helps them learn about safety and social interactions.

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 9. Erikson’s Trust vs. Mistrust stage suggests early caregiving shapes
emotional security
o If caregivers respond to the baby’s needs, the baby develops trust.
o Neglect or inconsistent care can lead to mistrust and insecurity.
10. Early experiences impact brain plasticity and later cognitive abilities
 The brain is highly flexible, meaning early stimulation shapes intelligence.
 Lack of stimulation can cause developmental delays.

(c) Childhood (2-12 Years)

1. Divided into early childhood (2-6 years) and middle childhood (6-12
years)
o Early childhood focuses on play, imagination, and social learning.
o Middle childhood involves formal education and logical thinking.
2. Rapid language development occurs, with vocabulary expanding
significantly
o By age 6, children know about 10,000 words.
o They begin using complex sentences and storytelling.
3. Piaget’s Preoperational (2-7 years) and Concrete Operational (7-12
years) stages
o Preoperational Stage: Kids use symbols (e.g., pretending a box is
a car) but lack logical reasoning.
o Concrete Operational Stage: They understand math, cause and
effect, and conservation (e.g., same amount of water in different
cups).
4. Developing a sense of independence and initiative (Erikson’s stages)
o Children start making decisions and developing self-confidence.
o If criticized too much, they may feel guilt or shame.
5. Moral development begins (Kohlberg’s preconventional stage)
o Children learn right from wrong based on rewards and punishments.
6. Emotional regulation improves with age
o Kids learn to control tantrums and manage frustration.
7. Peer relationships become more important
o Friendships help develop social skills and emotional intelligence.
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 8. Self-concept and self-esteem start to develop
o Kids compare themselves to others and form beliefs about their
abilities.
9. Gender identity and roles become clearer
o Children understand cultural expectations of gender and model
behaviors.
10. Play remains crucial for cognitive and social growth
 Play helps with problem-solving, imagination, and social skills.

(d) Adolescence (12-18 Years)

1. Marked by puberty, leading to significant physical and hormonal
changes
o Puberty begins earlier for girls (10-14 years) than boys (12-16 years).
o Increased production of testosterone (boys) and estrogen (girls)
leads to body changes.
2. Brain development continues, especially in the prefrontal cortex
o The prefrontal cortex (responsible for decision-making and impulse
control) matures slowly.
o This explains risky behaviors and emotional instability in teens.
3. Identity formation becomes a central task (Erikson’s Identity vs. Role
Confusion stage)
o Adolescents explore different roles, beliefs, and careers to form a
personal identity.
o Failure to do so may result in confusion about one's future.
4. Increased independence from parents, but peer influence grows
o Friendships and social acceptance become high priorities.
o Teens may experience peer pressure, influencing risk-taking
behaviors.
5. Cognitive abilities advance (Piaget’s Formal Operational Stage)
o Teens develop abstract thinking, hypothetical reasoning, and
problem-solving skills.
o They can debate moral and philosophical issues (e.g., justice,
equality).
6. Emotional instability is common due to hormonal shifts
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 o Mood swings, anxiety, and self-doubt peak during adolescence.
o High emotional sensitivity makes them prone to self-esteem issues.
7. Moral reasoning develops (Kohlberg’s Conventional and
Postconventional Stages)
o Conventional morality: Teens follow rules based on social approval.
o Postconventional morality: Some begin to develop personal ethical
principles.
8. Romantic relationships and attraction emerge
o Adolescents start exploring intimacy and relationships.
o They develop sexual identity and orientation during this phase.
9. Mental health concerns may appear
o Depression, anxiety, and eating disorders often start in adolescence.
o Pressure from academics, peers, and self-image can lead to stress.
10. Career exploration and goal-setting begin
 Teens start considering college, jobs, and future plans.
 Some may experience an identity crisis about their ambitions.

(e) Adulthood (18+ Years)

Early Adulthood (18-40 Years)
1. Physical peak occurs in the 20s, followed by gradual decline
o Strength, coordination, and reaction times are at their best.
o By the late 30s, metabolism slows, and minor aging signs appear.
2. Intimacy vs. Isolation (Erikson’s stage) – Focus on relationships
o Individuals seek romantic partners and close friendships.
o Failing to form strong relationships can lead to loneliness and
isolation.
3. Cognitive abilities are at their peak
o Logical thinking, memory, and problem-solving are highly efficient.
o People engage in higher education and career specialization.
4. Career development and financial independence take priority
o People focus on job stability, financial security, and long-term
goals.
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 5. Marriage and parenthood may occur
o Social expectations and personal desires influence family planning.
o Parenthood brings new emotional and financial responsibilities.
6. Mental health varies, with stress often increasing
o Work, relationships, and responsibilities can cause high stress levels.
o Some adults experience quarter-life crises (anxiety about life
choices).
7. Emotional maturity and self-identity become clearer
o Adults gain a stronger sense of self and develop emotional stability.
8. Friendships may decrease, but quality improves
o Time constraints lead to fewer but deeper friendships.
9. Physical health depends on lifestyle choices
o Diet, exercise, and sleep play a big role in long-term well-being.
o Unhealthy habits in early adulthood can lead to diseases later in life.
10. Sense of purpose and life satisfaction start shaping
 Finding meaning in career, relationships, or hobbies influences well-being.

Middle Adulthood (40-65 Years)

1. Physical aging becomes noticeable
o Wrinkles, gray hair, and slower metabolism appear.
o Some experience menopause (women) or a decline in testosterone
(men).
2. Cognitive skills remain strong, but processing speed declines
o Knowledge and expertise continue to increase.
o However, reaction time slows, and memory may slightly weaken.
3. Generativity vs. Stagnation (Erikson’s stage) – Focus on contribution
o People either feel fulfilled (through work, family, mentoring) or
stagnant (lack purpose).
4. "Midlife crisis" may occur
o Some people reevaluate life choices and goals.
o Others feel a sense of urgency to accomplish dreams before aging
further.
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 5. Career shifts and peak earnings
o Many reach high positions in their careers.
o Others consider career changes due to burnout or personal growth.
6. Health concerns increase
o Hypertension, diabetes, and cholesterol issues may emerge.
o Regular health check-ups become crucial.
7. Parenting transitions (empty nest syndrome)
o Children grow up and move out, leaving parents adjusting to new
roles.
8. Social relationships evolve
o People focus more on long-term friendships and family bonds.
9. Greater focus on work-life balance
o Many seek hobbies, travel, or community involvement for
fulfillment.
10. Preparation for retirement begins
 People start saving money and planning for financial security in later
years.

Late Adulthood (65+ Years)

1. Physical decline continues
o Reduced muscle mass, weaker bones, and slower mobility occur.
2. Cognitive abilities vary
o Crystallized intelligence (knowledge, experience) remains strong.
o Fluid intelligence (problem-solving, quick thinking) may decline.
3. Integrity vs. Despair (Erikson’s stage) – Reflection on life
o People either feel satisfaction (fulfilled life) or regret (missed
opportunities).
4. Memory loss and risk of dementia increase
o Some experience mild forgetfulness, while others develop
Alzheimer’s disease.
5. Retirement brings new lifestyle changes

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 o Some enjoy relaxation, while others struggle with boredom and
purpose.
6. Social relationships shift (loss of peers, reliance on family)
o Friendships and spouse relationships become even more
meaningful.
7. Health care and dependency increase
o More visits to doctors and possible reliance on caregivers.
8. Emotional well-being depends on life satisfaction
o Those who feel they lived well experience greater peace and
acceptance.
9. Spirituality and reflection become more common
o Many focus on religion, philosophy, or legacy.
10. End-of-life preparations and acceptance
 Some plan wills, funeral arrangements, and reflect on mortality.

UNIT 4: Socio-cultural contexts of Life span development a) Peers,

Media & Schooling b) Human Development in the Indian context

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 Socio-Cultural Contexts of Development
In developmental psychology, socio-cultural contexts refer to the environments and
cultural settings that shape and influence a person's development — cognitively,
emotionally, socially, and morally. These contexts help explain why development
varies across individuals, cultures, and life situations.
Lev Vygotsky, a pioneer in this area, emphasized the importance of social interaction
and cultural tools in cognitive development, highlighting that learning is inherently
social.
1. Family
The family serves as the primary agent of socialization and has profound
implications on psychological development across the lifespan. Family dynamics,
parenting styles, and socio-economic conditions play a critical role in shaping
personality, behavior, and emotional well-being.
 Attachment Theory (Bowlby & Ainsworth): According to Bowlby’s
Attachment Theory, the bond formed between infants and their primary
caregivers shapes future emotional and social relationships. Secure
attachment leads to emotional resilience, whereas insecure attachment
(e.g., anxious or avoidant) is linked to emotional regulation difficulties,
relationship problems, and mental health issues like anxiety or
depression.
 Parenting Styles (Baumrind): Baumrind’s classification of parenting
styles outlines the four primary approaches: authoritative, authoritarian,
permissive, and neglectful.
o Authoritative parents balance warmth with control, fostering
autonomy, high self-esteem, and social competence.
o Authoritarian parents impose strict rules and expect obedience,
which may lead to obedience but can suppress creativity and
independence.
o Permissive parents are lenient, leading to difficulty in managing
behaviors or following rules.
o Neglectful parents offer minimal emotional support or guidance,
leading to poor emotional regulation, low self-esteem, and a higher risk
of delinquency.
 Socioeconomic Status (SES): A family’s economic standing influences
access to quality education, healthcare, nutrition, and emotional support.
Research indicates that children from lower SES backgrounds may face
higher stress levels, leading to cognitive and emotional delays. This also
affects the development of coping strategies and academic performance.
 Cultural and Value Transmission: Families teach cultural norms, beliefs,
and traditions, playing a key role in the development of a child’s worldview.
These early lessons form the foundation for cognitive schemas and moral
reasoning, which align with Kohlberg’s stages of moral development. The
values instilled in the family environment influence decision-making, conflict
resolution, and the ability to adapt to societal norms.

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  Emotional and Behavioral Regulation: Families serve as the first learning
environment for managing emotions and behaviors. Families that model
emotion regulation strategies tend to raise children with better coping
mechanisms, while emotionally chaotic families often lead to children with
disorganized attachment and poor self-regulation.

👥 2. Peers
Peers exert a significant influence on emotional development, identity formation,
and social behavior, particularly during childhood and adolescence. Peer
relationships help shape self-concept and interpersonal skills.
 Erikson’s Psychosocial Development: According to Erikson’s stages of
psychosocial development, peer interactions during adolescence (identity
vs. role confusion) are crucial for identity formation. Adolescents experiment
with different social roles, and peer approval or rejection profoundly impacts
self-esteem and sense of identity.
 Social Comparison Theory (Festinger): Festinger’s Social Comparison
Theory explains how individuals assess their abilities, behaviors, and social
standing by comparing themselves with peers. Positive comparisons can
enhance self-esteem, while negative comparisons (e.g., due to academic
performance, physical appearance) can lead to feelings of inferiority or
social anxiety.
 Peer Influence and Conformity (Asch): Research by Solomon Asch on
conformity demonstrates how peer pressure can influence individuals to
change their beliefs or behaviors to match those of the group. Peer groups,
especially during adolescence, may encourage risky behaviors such as
substance use, unprotected sex, or delinquency.
 Social Learning Theory (Bandura): Bandura’s Social Learning Theory
suggests that children learn through observation, imitation, and modeling.
Peers often serve as models of behavior, teaching new social skills,
language, and coping strategies, but also potential negative behaviors such
as aggression or exclusion.
 Peer Rejection and Social Isolation: Experiencing peer rejection or
bullying can have long-term psychological effects. Research shows that
rejected children often face higher rates of depression, anxiety, and lower
self-esteem, leading to difficulties in forming future relationships and
managing emotions.

📱 3. Media
In the digital age, media plays a prominent role in shaping cognitive, social, and
emotional development. The consumption of television, social media, video games,
and the internet all contribute to a child’s worldview, identity, and mental health.
 Cognitive Development: Media, particularly educational programs, can
stimulate cognitive development by enhancing problem-solving skills and

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 language acquisition. For example, Sesame Street and other children’s
programs have been shown to promote early literacy and numeracy skills.
 Violence and Aggression (Bandura): Albert Bandura’s Bobo Doll
experiment demonstrated that children can learn aggressive behaviors by
watching others, particularly through media portrayals of violence. Repeated
exposure to violent content can normalize aggression, reduce empathy, and
increase the likelihood of aggressive behavior in children.
 Social Cognitive Theory: Media plays a significant role in shaping attitudes
toward gender roles, beauty standards, and social behaviors. The portrayal of
idealized images in media (e.g., unrealistic body types or unattainable
lifestyle standards) can contribute to body image issues, low self-esteem,
and eating disorders.
 The Role of Social Media in Identity Formation: According to Erikson,
adolescence is a key time for exploring identity. Social media provides a
platform for self-expression but also for comparison and validation-
seeking. Excessive focus on likes, followers, and comments can increase
the likelihood of identity confusion and anxiety, especially when a child’s
real life doesn’t match their online persona.
 Impact on Mental Health: The excessive use of social media and digital
platforms is linked to depression, anxiety, sleep disruption, and addiction.
This is particularly true for adolescents who often experience peer pressure
and social comparison via these platforms, leading to feelings of
inadequacy.
 Media as a Tool for Learning and Support: On the positive side, media also
plays an educational role. Online communities can offer support networks
for individuals dealing with mental health issues, providing an outlet for
expression, validation, and self-help resources.

4. Schooling
School is a formalized environment where children learn academic content, social
behaviors, and emotional regulation. It provides a structured setting for cognitive,
social, and moral development.
 Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development: Schooling offers opportunities
for children to engage in formal operational thinking, which, according to
Piaget, emerges during adolescence. This stage allows for logical thinking,
problem-solving, and the development of abstract reasoning.
 Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory and ZPD: Vygotsky’s concept of the
Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) emphasizes that children learn best
when they receive guidance and support that is slightly beyond their current
abilities. In a school setting, teachers and peers can scaffold learning by
providing the right level of assistance.
 Socialization and Moral Development (Kohlberg): Schools are also
environments where moral reasoning develops. Kohlberg’s stages of
moral development suggest that children’s understanding of right and wrong

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 is influenced by interactions with peers, teachers, and other authority figures
within the school.
 Academic Pressure and Self-Esteem: The school environment often
involves comparisons through grades and performance, which can shape a
student’s self-worth. Research shows that academic failure or poor teacher-
student relationships can lead to low self-esteem, school anxiety, and
underachievement.
 Bullying and School Climate: A negative or hostile school environment can
contribute to psychological distress in children, particularly those who are
bullied or marginalized. In contrast, a positive school climate encourages
self-efficacy, emotional regulation, and a strong sense of belonging.
 Cultural and Societal Exposure: Schools also provide a space for children
to be exposed to diverse perspectives, which can increase cultural
competence and empathy. As children interact with peers from different
backgrounds, they learn how to navigate diversity and form inclusive attitudes.

Development in Indian Context

Developmental psychology in India has evolved in the context of cultural, socio-
economic, and historical factors, blending traditional Indian psychological
perspectives with Western psychological theories. The development of the field has
been influenced by social reforms, the push for educational reforms, and the
intersection of traditional knowledge with contemporary research. Here’s a detailed
timeline of developmental psychology in the Indian context, highlighting key
milestones and events:

Pre-Colonial Era (Before 1800s)

 Traditional Indian Views on Human Development:
o Indian philosophical and religious texts provided a holistic view of
human development, integrating spiritual, emotional, and cognitive
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 growth. These texts, such as the Vedas, Upanishads, and Puranas,
discussed topics like the development of self-realization (Atman),
spirituality, and the path to moksha (liberation), laying the foundation
for developmental psychology from a spiritual growth perspective.
 Role of Education and Gurus:
o Gurukul systems, where a guru (teacher) mentored students, fostered
holistic development—intellectual, emotional, and social. Moral and
ethical values were also integral in shaping a child’s personality,
including the development of virtues like ahimsa (non-violence), satya
(truthfulness), and dharma (righteous duty).
 Influence of Yoga and Meditation:
o Yoga philosophies, particularly those outlined by Patanjali in the Yoga
Sutras, emphasized the importance of mind-body balance, self-
control, and mental clarity. These teachings reflect an early
psychological approach to emotional and cognitive development,
stressing the importance of mindfulness and conscious
development.

Colonial Era (1800s - Early 1900s)

 Introduction of Western Psychology:
o The British colonial system brought Western models of education and
psychology into India. Western theories of child development (e.g.,
Freud’s psychosexual stages, Piaget’s cognitive development
theory, and Watson’s behaviorism) began influencing Indian
scholars, but they were initially seen as foreign and sometimes
incompatible with Indian cultural norms.
 First Psychological Studies in India:
o The early 20th century saw the introduction of psychology as a
formal discipline in Indian universities. Calcutta University
established the first psychology department in 1916, and Radhakamal
Mukerjee, a prominent sociologist and psychologist, began exploring
how social influences shape development, particularly in the Indian
context.
 Early Indian Psychologists:
o G. S. K. Iyer and C. G. Jung’s work began to influence Indian
scholars, albeit with limited exploration in developmental psychology.
Jungian ideas on archetypes and the collective unconscious found
some resonance in Indian myths, but empirical research was still
developing.
 Key Ideas:
o Psychology was still largely rooted in Western concepts, with limited
emphasis on developmental psychology per se.

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 o There was also growing interest in the relationship between mind and
culture, as early Indian psychologists began exploring how Western
psychological models could be adapted to local contexts.

Early 20th Century (1900s - 1950s)

 Pioneering Psychological Institutions:
o With the establishment of the Indian Psychological Association
(IPA) in 1924, a formal platform for psychological discourse was
created. Indian psychologists began focusing more on research in
child development and educational psychology.
 Integration of Western and Indian Theories:
o Indian psychologists began to engage with Piagetian developmental
stages and Vygotskian theories on social learning. These theories
were critically examined and adapted to the Indian family structure,
community dynamics, and cultural norms.
 Key Contributions to Child Development:
o B. K. Ghosh’s work in the 1940s and 1950s explored how
socialization within the Indian joint family system influenced the
emotional development of children. Ghosh’s studies emphasized
attachment theory and how the family serves as the first agent of
socialization.
 Key Ideas:
o Early exploration of parent-child relationships in the Indian context.
o Limited empirical data but growing interest in cross-cultural
psychology and adapting Western models to Indian culture.

Post-Independence Era (1947 - 1970s)

 Formalization of Developmental Psychology:
o After India gained independence in 1947, there was a push for
national progress and psychological research was seen as critical
for developmental goals. Psychology became more institutionalized in
India, with an increasing number of university departments and
professional organizations.
 Child Development and Educational Psychology:
o The post-independence period saw an increased focus on child
development and the creation of curricula designed to address the
unique needs of Indian children.
o Kuppuswamy’s theories on child development laid the foundation
for understanding cognitive and social growth in Indian children,
particularly in rural and urban settings. He emphasized educational
psychology and its impact on academic performance and social
integration.
Mr Akash Kumar,Assistant Professor of Psychology, CSMU, Navi Mumbai
Email- [email protected]
  Introduction of Western Theories in Indian Context:
o Scholars like L. N. Jha and P. V. Sukhatme explored the adaptation of
Piaget’s cognitive developmental theory and Freud’s
psychosexual stages to the Indian context, although the application of
these theories was not without challenges. There was still debate over
whether these Western theories applied to children from Indian
socio-cultural settings.
 Key Ideas:
o Growth of institutionalized psychological research focused on
cognitive, emotional, and social development in Indian children.
o An increased emphasis on educational reforms and how children’s
learning styles are shaped by social class, family, and cultural
values.

1970s - 1990s: Indigenous Research and Cultural Integration

 Indigenization of Developmental Psychology:
o The 1970s marked a significant shift towards indigenous psychology.
Indian psychologists started questioning the applicability of Western
theories in Indian contexts. This period saw a push to develop
psychological theories grounded in Indian cultural and social
realities.
 Focus on Cultural Contexts:
o Shyam Sundar and G. S. G. Iyer were some of the key figures who
explored how Indian joint families, religious practices, and
community-centered living influenced developmental outcomes like
cognitive skills, moral reasoning, and identity formation.
o Cultural psychology gained traction, with increasing studies on the
impact of caste, social hierarchies, and family expectations on
children’s development.
 Adapting Piagetian and Vygotskian Models:
o Piaget’s stages of cognitive development were explored in depth,
with studies focusing on how Indian children from rural vs. urban
backgrounds demonstrated differing cognitive abilities due to cultural
practices and access to education.
o Vygotsky’s idea of the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) was
used to explore the ways in which peer relationships and family
dynamics affect learning and problem-solving in Indian children.
 Key Ideas:
o Emergence of cross-cultural research in cognitive, social, and
moral development.

Mr Akash Kumar,Assistant Professor of Psychology, CSMU, Navi Mumbai

Email- [email protected]
 o Growing recognition of the need for Indian models of child-rearing
and development that accounted for local customs and the
collectivist society.

2000s - Present: Globalization and Technological Influence

 Globalization and Cross-Cultural Exchange:
o The global movement of ideas in the 2000s led to a blend of Indian
traditions with globalization. The internet, social media, and access
to international educational content significantly impacted Indian
children’s development.
o Developmental psychology in India saw an increase in cross-cultural
studies exploring the effects of globalization, media, and technology
on Indian youth.
 Impact of Technology on Development:
o With the rise of smartphones, social media, and online gaming,
developmental psychologists began researching how these
technologies influence cognitive development, peer relationships,
and mental health. The rise of screen time and its potential impact on
sleep, emotional regulation, and socialization in Indian children
became a key area of concern.
 Focus on Mental Health and Identity:
o The impact of mental health stigma, particularly in adolescents and
young adults, became a critical issue. Increasing studies explored
how mental health problems (e.g., depression, anxiety) were
becoming prevalent due to peer pressure, academic stress, and
family expectations.
 Emergence of Applied Developmental Psychology:
o School psychology, parenting programs, and early childhood
interventions became key areas of applied research.
o A notable increase in studies related to special education, dyslexia,
learning disabilities, and autism spectrum disorder in the Indian
context.

Mr Akash Kumar,Assistant Professor of Psychology, CSMU, Navi Mumbai

Email- [email protected]