UNIT-I

NEED FOR ENERGY STORAGE

• Energy storage plays a crucial role in the modern energy
landscape due to several reasons:
• Intermittent Renewable Energy Sources:
CME364 – Wind and Solar Power: Renewable energy sources such as
wind and solar are intermittent and dependent on weather
ENERGY STORAGE DEVICES conditions. Energy storage helps store excess energy generated
during peak production times for use during periods of low or no
production, ensuring a stable and continuous power supply.
• Grid Stability and Reliability:
– Balancing Supply and Demand: Energy consumption
fluctuates throughout the day, and grid operators need to balance
supply and demand in real-time. Energy storage systems can
provide quick responses by injecting or absorbing power to
stabilize the grid and prevent disruptions.

• Peak Load Management: • Electric Vehicles (EVs) and Transportation:

– Reducing Peak Demand: Energy demand often peaks – Charging Infrastructure: The growth of electric
at specific times during the day. Energy storage allows vehicles contributes to increased electricity demand.
utilities to store energy during periods of low demand Energy storage facilitates the development of charging
and release it during peak hours, reducing the need for infrastructure by allowing for the efficient distribution
additional power plants to meet peak loads. of energy and managing the load on the grid.
• Grid Resilience and Backup Power: • Transmission and Distribution System
Optimization:
– Emergency Situations: Energy storage can serve as
backup power during grid outages or emergencies. – Reducing Transmission Congestion: Energy storage
systems strategically placed along the transmission and
This is crucial for critical infrastructure, hospitals, data distribution lines can help reduce congestion, optimize
centers, and residential areas to ensure a continuous the use of existing infrastructure, and defer the need
power supply and maintain essential services. for costly grid upgrades.
 TYPES OF ENERGY STORAGE SYSTEM
• Energy Market Participation:
– Arbitrage and Price Management: Energy storage
enables participation in energy markets by buying • Batteries:
electricity when prices are low and selling it when – Lithium-Ion (Li-ion): Widely used in electric vehicles
prices are high, allowing for economic benefits and (EVs), consumer electronics, and grid applications.
helping to balance market dynamics. – Lead-Acid: Common in automotive and uninterruptible
power supply (UPS) applications.
• Carbon Emission Reduction: – Flow Batteries: Use liquid electrolytes stored in external
– Optimizing Renewable Energy Use: Energy storage tanks, offering scalability and longer cycle life.
allows for better integration of renewable energy • Pumped Hydro Storage:
sources, reducing the need for fossil fuel-based backup
– Two-Reservoir System: Involves pumping water from a
power and contributing to the overall reduction of lower reservoir to an upper reservoir during times of low
carbon emissions in the energy sector. demand and releasing it to generate electricity during peak
demand.

• Compressed Air Energy Storage (CAES):

– Adiabatic CAES: Compresses air and stores it in
underground caverns, releasing it with added heat
for electricity generation.
– Diabatic CAES: Injects heat during compression
and extracts it during expansion.
• Flywheel Energy Storage:
– Uses a spinning rotor to store kinetic energy,
converting it back to electricity when needed.
Provides fast response times and is suitable for
short-duration energy storage.
 • Thermal Energy Storage:
– Sensible Heat Storage: Stores energy by changing
the temperature of a material (e.g., water, rocks).
– Latent Heat Storage: Stores energy through phase
changes (e.g., melting and solidifying materials).
– Thermochemical Storage: Involves reversible
chemical reactions for energy storage and release.
• Supercapacitors:
– Provide rapid charge and discharge capabilities,
making them suitable for applications requiring
short bursts of high power.

THERMAL ENERGY STORAGE:

• Hydrogen Energy Storage:

– Electrolysis: Converts electricity into hydrogen gas
for storage.
– Fuel Cells: Convert hydrogen back into electricity
when needed.
• Molten Salt Energy Storage:
– Stores thermal energy by heating and melting a
salt, releasing it to produce steam and generate
electricity when needed
MOLTEN SALT ENERGY STORAGE: HYDROGEN FUEL CELL:

• Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage

Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage is a
technology that utilizes superconducting coils to store
electrical energy in the form of a magnetic field,
offering high efficiency and rapid energy response..
• Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage (SMES) is a
technology that utilizes the principles of
superconductivity and magnetic fields to store and
release electrical energy. In SMES systems, electrical
currents are induced in superconducting coils to
generate strong magnetic fields. This magnetic energy
is then stored in the superconducting state, which
allows for virtually lossless energy storage and quick
release when needed:
 Gravitational Energy Storage:
Gravitational Energy Storage:

• Gravitational energy storage is a form of energy

storage that utilizes the gravitational potential
energy of a heavy mass lifted to a higher
elevation. During periods of excess energy, the
system raises the mass, storing potential energy.
When energy is needed, the mass is lowered, and
the potential energy is converted back into
electricity. This technology aims to provide a way
to store and release energy efficiently on
demand. One example is using large weights or
containers filled with materials lifted by cranes or
winches.

MECHANICAL ENERGY STORAGE FLYWHEEL ENERGY STORAGE:

DEVICES
• Mechanical energy storage systems store and release energy in the form
of mechanical work or motion. Here are two common types of
mechanical energy storage systems:
• Flywheel Energy Storage:
– Principle: Flywheel energy storage systems store energy by
accelerating a rotor (flywheel) to high speeds and release it by
decelerating the rotor.
– Components:
• Rotor: A heavy, high-speed spinning disk.
• Axle: Supports and allows the rotor to spin.
• Magnetic Bearings: Minimize friction and allow the rotor to
spin without physical contact.
– Charging (Energy Input): Electric motor spins up the flywheel,
transferring electrical energy into kinetic energy stored in the rotating
mass.
FLYWHEEL ENERGY STORAGE:

– Discharging (Energy Output): The spinning rotor is

connected to a generator, converting the kinetic
energy back into electricity when needed.
– Advantages:
• Rapid response time for both charging and discharging.
• Long cycle life with minimal degradation.
• Suitable for short-duration energy storage and applications
requiring frequent cycling.
– Applications:
• Grid stabilization and frequency regulation.
• Uninterruptible power supply (UPS) systems.
• Hybrid and electric vehicles for regenerative braking.

• Pumped Hydro Storage: • Charging (Energy Input): Water is pumped

• Principle: Pumped hydro storage involves lifting from the lower reservoir to the upper reservoir
and lowering water between two reservoirs at during periods of low electricity demand.
different elevations to store and release potential
energy. • Discharging (Energy Output): Water is released
• Components: from the upper reservoir to the lower reservoir,
– Upper Reservoir: Water is lifted to this reservoir passing through turbines to generate electricity
during periods of excess electricity. during periods of high demand.
– Lower Reservoir: Water is released from the upper • Advantages:
reservoir to the lower reservoir to generate electricity.
– High efficiency and large-scale energy storage
– Turbines and Generators: Convert the potential energy capacity.
of falling water into electricity.
– Pumps: Lift water back to the upper reservoir during – Can provide grid stability and support intermittent
periods of low electricity demand. renewable energy sources.
 Applications:
• Bulk energy storage for grid
balancing.
• Peak shaving and load leveling.
• Renewable energy integration.
• These mechanical energy storage systems play
a vital role in addressing grid variability,
enhancing energy reliability, and supporting
the integration of renewable energy sources by
providing fast and flexible storage solutions.

EFFICIENCY COMPARISON Electrochemical energy storage

• Electrochemical energy storage devices are a
subset of chemical energy storage devices that
specifically rely on electrochemical processes
to store and release energy. These devices
involve the conversion of chemical energy into
electrical energy during charging and the
reverse process during discharging. Here are
some common types of electrochemical
energy storage devices:
• Fuel Cells: • Nickel-Cadmium (NiCd) Batteries:
– Hydrogen Fuel Cells: Convert hydrogen and – Although less common today due to environmental
concerns about cadmium, NiCd batteries are
oxygen into water, releasing electricity in the rechargeable electrochemical cells that use nickel
process. Fuel cells are used in applications like oxide hydroxide and cadmium electrodes.
electric vehicles and stationary power generation, • Metal-Air Batteries:
offering clean and efficient energy conversion. – Zinc-Air Batteries: Utilize zinc and oxygen from the air
• Supercapacitors (Electrochemical Capacitors): to generate electrical energy. These batteries are
lightweight and have potential applications in electric
– Unlike traditional batteries, supercapacitors store vehicles and portable electronics.
energy through the separation of charges without • Sodium-Ion Batteries:
a chemical reaction. They provide high power – Similar to lithium-ion batteries but use sodium ions
density and rapid charge/discharge capabilities, instead. Sodium-ion batteries are being researched as
making them suitable for applications requiring alternatives, leveraging the abundance of sodium
quick bursts of energy. resources.

UNIT II • Compressed Air Energy Storage

(CAES) is a form of energy storage that
involves the use of compressed air to store and
release energy. It is a type of mechanical
energy storage system that can help balance
supply and demand in electrical grids by
ENERGY STORAGE SYSYTEMS storing excess energy generated during periods
of low demand and releasing it when demand
is high.
• Storage Phase: During times when there is
excess electricity available in the grid, typically
from renewable sources like wind or solar power,
this surplus electricity is used to power air
compressors. These compressors compress and
store air in an underground cavern or a large
above-ground vessel.
• Release Phase: When electricity demand
increases and the grid requires additional power,
the stored compressed air is released. The
compressed air is allowed to expand and drives a
turbine generator, converting the stored energy
back into electricity. This electricity is then fed
into the grid to meet demand.

Sensible Heat Energy Storage

• Advantages: Sensible heat storage systems are
• In sensible heat energy storage, thermal energy is stored by
changing the temperature of a material without changing its phase relatively simple and cost-effective. They can
(i.e., without causing it to melt or freeze). This is the most common be used with a wide range of materials and are
form of thermal energy storage.
• Process: Sensible heat energy storage typically involves heating or suitable for both small-scale and large-scale
cooling a material such as water, rocks, concrete, or molten salts to
store or release energy. applications.
• Storage Mediums: Common storage mediums for sensible heat
energy storage include water tanks, rock beds, and concrete • Disadvantages: Sensible heat storage systems
structures.
• Applications: Sensible heat energy storage finds applications in
typically have lower energy density compared
heating and cooling systems for buildings, solar thermal energy to latent heat storage systems. They may also
storage, and industrial processes where thermal energy needs to be
stored and utilized later. require larger storage volumes to store the
same amount of energy.
 Latent Heat Energy Storage
• In latent heat energy storage, thermal energy is stored by
changing the phase of a material, typically from solid to
liquid or from liquid to gas, and vice versa. This process
involves the absorption or release of latent heat, which is
the energy required to change the phase of a substance at a
constant temperature.
• Process: Latent heat energy storage involves using
materials with high latent heat capacity, such as phase
change materials (PCMs), which absorb or release large
amounts of energy during the phase transition.
• Storage Mediums: Common storage mediums for latent
heat energy storage include paraffin wax, salt hydrates, and
certain types of organic compounds

• Cylindrical Tank: This tank is filled with a special

material called sodium acetate trihydrate, which can
store and release heat energy as it changes from a solid
to a liquid and vice versa.
• Coil Heat Exchanger: Inside the tank, there's a coil-
like structure that helps in transferring heat to or from
the special material. This allows efficient heating or
cooling of the material using an external fluid, typically
water, which is used for hot water utilities.
• Micro-CHP System: If this system is coupled with a
micro-Combined Heat and Power (micro-CHP) system,
a heat exchanger is needed. This helps in transferring
the heat produced by the micro-CHP system or from the
thermal energy storage system to the water used for hot
water utilities.
 • Applications: Latent heat energy storage is used in
• The operation of the system is like this: applications where high energy density and compact
• Charging Phase: When there's excess heat storage are required, such as solar thermal energy
available, it's used to heat up the special material storage, thermal management systems for electronics,
and temperature regulation in buildings.
in the tank until it melts. This process stores • Advantages: Latent heat storage systems can store and
thermal energy in the material. release large amounts of energy in a relatively small
• Storage Phase: The melted material holds onto volume. They can also maintain a more constant
this thermal energy until it's needed. temperature during the phase transition, providing more
stable thermal energy storage.
• Discharging Phase: When heat is required, the • Disadvantages: Latent heat storage systems can be
material is allowed to cool down, causing it to more complex and expensive to implement compared
solidify again. This releases the stored thermal to sensible heat storage systems. They may also have
energy, which can then be used for heating water limited thermal conductivity, which can affect the rate
of heat transfer.
for various purposes.

• Supercapacitor Materials:
ENERGY STORAGE MATERIALS – Electrodes: Supercapacitors use high-surface-area
materials such as activated carbon, graphene, or carbon
• Battery Materials: nanotubes as electrodes.
• Anode Materials: Anodes in batteries often consist of – Electrolytes: Supercapacitors typically use aqueous or
materials such as graphite, lithium metal, or various organic electrolytes to facilitate charge storage.
metal oxides (e.g., lithium cobalt oxide, lithium iron
phosphate). • Thermal Storage Materials:
• Cathode Materials: Cathodes can include materials – Sensible Heat Storage: Materials used for sensible
like lithium cobalt oxide, lithium iron phosphate, heat storage include water, rocks, concrete, and molten
lithium manganese oxide, and nickel-cobalt-aluminum salts.
(NCA) compounds. – Latent Heat Storage: Phase change materials (PCMs)
• Electrolytes: Electrolytes in batteries can be liquid such as paraffin wax, salt hydrates, and certain organic
(e.g., organic solvents with lithium salts) or solid-state compounds are commonly used for latent heat storage.
(e.g., ceramic or polymer electrolytes).
• Hydrogen Storage Materials: • Other Energy Storage Materials:
• Physical Absorption: Hydrogen can be stored • Fuel Cells: Fuel cell materials include catalysts
in porous materials such as activated carbon, (e.g., platinum for proton exchange
metal-organic frameworks (MOFs), and porous membrane fuel cells), electrolytes (e.g.,
polymers via physical adsorption. proton-conducting polymers), and electrode
materials (e.g., porous carbon for gas diffusion
• Chemical Absorption: Hydrogen can react electrodes).
with certain materials (e.g., metal hydrides
• Thermoelectric Materials: Thermoelectric
like magnesium hydride or sodium materials, which convert heat energy directly
borohydride) to form stable compounds for into electricity, include materials such as
chemical storage. bismuth telluride, lead telluride, and
skutterudites.

Performance evaluation of energy storage systems (ESS) involves 4. Response Time: Evaluate how quickly the energy storage
assessing various aspects to ensure their effectiveness and efficiency in system can respond to changes in demand or supply of electricity.
storing and releasing energy. Here's a comprehensive guide on how to Faster response times are crucial for grid stability and meeting
evaluate the performance of energy storage systems: fluctuating energy needs.
1. Energy Efficiency: Measure the efficiency of energy conversion
5. Power and Energy Density: Assess the power and energy
during charging and discharging cycles. This involves calculating
the ratio of output energy to input energy, typically expressed as a
density of the storage system, which indicates how much energy
percentage. Higher efficiency indicates better performance and less it can store relative to its size and weight. Higher power and
energy loss. energy densities are desirable for compact and high-performance
2. Round-Trip Efficiency: It's essential to evaluate the round-trip applications.
efficiency, which accounts for energy losses during both charging 6. Self-Discharge Rate: Measure the rate at which the stored
and discharging cycles. This metric provides a comprehensive view energy dissipates over time when the system is not in use. Lower
of the system's overall efficiency. self-discharge rates are preferable as they minimize energy losses
3. Cycle Life: Determine the number of charge-discharge cycles an during standby periods.
energy storage system can undergo while maintaining its
performance within acceptable parameters. Higher cycle life
indicates a longer-lasting and more reliable system.
 1. Temperature Dependence: Evaluate how the performance of the energy
storage system varies with temperature changes. Extreme 1. Grid Integration: Assess the compatibility of the energy storage system
temperatures can affect efficiency, cycle life, and other with existing grid infrastructure and renewable energy sources. Evaluate its
performance metrics. ability to provide grid services such as frequency regulation, peak shaving,
and voltage support.
2. Safety: Assess the safety features and risks associated with the 2. Reliability and Durability: Evaluate the system's reliability under
energy storage system, including thermal runaway, fire hazards, different operating conditions and its ability to withstand mechanical stress,
and chemical leakage. Ensure compliance with safety standards thermal cycling, and other environmental factors over its expected lifespan.
and regulations. 3. Performance Under Different Operating Conditions: Test the energy
3. Cost Analysis: Conduct a comprehensive cost analysis storage system under various operating conditions, including different load
considering not only the initial investment but also operational profiles, charging/discharging rates, and environmental conditions, to
assess its robustness and versatility.
and maintenance costs over the system's lifespan. Calculate the
4. Data Monitoring and Analysis: Implement a comprehensive monitoring
levelized cost of energy storage to compare different technologies
and data analysis system to track key performance metrics in real-time and
and deployment scenarios. identify any deviations or inefficiencies. This data can inform optimization
4. Environmental Impact: Evaluate the environmental footprint of strategies and maintenance schedules.
the energy storage system, including factors such as material
sourcing, manufacturing processes, and end-of-life disposal.
Consider aspects such as recyclability and potential toxic
emissions.

THERMOCHEMICAL ENERGY STORAGE

SYSTEMS:
• Thermochemical energy storage (TCES) systems • During the charging process, heat is added to
are a type of energy storage that uses chemical the system, which drives the endothermic
reactions to store thermal energy. This is different reaction forward. This reaction stores the
from sensible heat storage, which stores thermal thermal energy in the chemical bonds of the
energy by heating or cooling a material, and latent products.
heat storage, which stores thermal energy by • When heat is needed, the stored energy can be
changing the phase of a material (such as from released by reversing the reaction in an
solid to liquid). exothermic process. The released heat can then
• TCES systems work by using a reversible chemical be used to generate electricity, provide heat for
reaction. buildings, or for other industrial processes
 • There are a number of different thermochemical reactions that can
• Charging (Energy Storage): During the day when the sun is be used for TCES. Some of the most common types of reactions
shining, the solar cooker focuses sunlight onto a container filled include:
with a substance like sodium hydroxide (NaOH) mixed with water. •Hydration/dehydration: This type of reaction involves the
This mixture undergoes an endothermic reaction, absorbing heat
from the sunlight and storing it in the form of chemical energy. The absorption or release of water molecules. For example, calcium oxide
reaction could be something like: (CaO) can react with water (H2O) to form calcium hydroxide
• NaOH+H2O→NaOH⋅H2ONaOH+H2​O→NaOH⋅H2​O (sodium (Ca(OH)2), releasing heat. The reaction can be reversed by applying
hydroxide with water → hydrated sodium hydroxide) heat to drive off the water molecules and regenerate CaO.
• Discharging (Energy Release): When cooking is needed at night or •Carbonation/decarbonation: This type of reaction involves the
when sunlight is unavailable, the stored energy is released. The absorption or release of carbon dioxide (CO2). For example, calcium
hydrated sodium hydroxide is heated, causing it to undergo an carbonate (CaCO3) can be decomposed into calcium oxide (CaO) and
exothermic reaction and release the stored heat energy. The reaction CO2 by applying heat. The reaction can be reversed by reacting CaO
might be: with CO2 at a lower temperature.
• NaOH⋅H2O→NaOH+H2ONaOH⋅H2​O→NaOH+H2​O (hydrated •Methanation/demethnation: This type of reaction involves the
sodium hydroxide → sodium hydroxide and water) conversion of CO2 and hydrogen (H2) into methane (CH4) and water.
• This process releases the stored heat, which can then be used for The reaction can be reversed by applying heat to decompose the
cooking or other purposes. methane back into CO2 and H2.

ADVANTAGES: • They are still in the early stages of development, and

there are a number of challenges that need to be
• TCES systems have a number of advantages over other addressed before they can be widely commercialized.
forms of thermal energy storage. • These challenges include developing materials with
• They can store energy at higher densities than sensible or the right properties for efficient and cost-effective
latent heat storage systems. This means that they can TCES reactions, and developing reactor systems that
store more energy in a smaller volume. can efficiently manage the heat and mass transfer
processes involved in the reactions.
• Additionally, TCES systems can store energy for longer
APPLICATIONS:
periods of time with minimal energy loss.
• Overall, TCES systems have the potential to be a
DISADVANTAGES: game-changer for the energy sector. They could
• However, TCES systems are also more complex and provide a way to store large amounts of renewable
expensive to develop and implement than other forms of energy, such as solar and wind power, and make it
available when it is needed. This could help to
thermal energy storage. integrate more renewable energy into the grid and
reduce our reliance on fossil fuels.
 TYPES OF BATTERIES:
• In a primary battery, like an alkaline battery:
• There are two main categories of batteries: primary • At the Negative Electrode (Anode): Zinc metal (Zn) reacts
batteries and secondary batteries. with potassium hydroxide (KOH) electrolyte to form zinc
oxide (ZnO) and release electrons:
 Primary batteries, also known as disposable • Zn+2OH−→ZnO+H2​O+2e−
batteries, are designed to be used once and then • At the Positive Electrode (Cathode): Manganese dioxide
thrown away. They cannot be recharged. Examples of (MnO2) reacts with water and the electrons from the anode to
form manganese dioxide hydroxide (MnOOH) and hydroxide
primary batteries include alkaline batteries, zinc- ions:
carbon batteries, and lithium metal batteries. • 2MnO2​+H2​O+2e−→2MnOOH+2OH−
• Overall Reaction: Combining the two half-reactions, the
oAlkaline batteries: These are the most common overall reaction in the battery is:
type of primary battery. They are used in a wide • Zn+2MnO2​+H2​O→ZnO+2MnOOH
variety of devices, such as toys, remote controls, • This reaction produces electrons, which flow through the
external circuit, creating an electric current that can power
and clocks. Alkaline batteries have a longer shelf devices. As the reaction progresses, the reactants are
life and higher capacity than zinc-carbon batteries. consumed, and eventually, the battery becomes depleted and
stops producing electricity.

ALKALINE BATTERY: o Zinc-carbon batteries:

o These are less common than alkaline batteries,

but they are still available in some stores. They
are less expensive than alkaline batteries, but
they also have a shorter shelf life and lower
capacity.
• Anode (Negative Electrode): The anode of a zinc carbon
battery is made of zinc. Zinc metal is chosen because of its
ability to react with the electrolyte. During the discharge
process, zinc atoms undergo an oxidation reaction, losing • Electrolyte: The electrolyte used in zinc carbon
electrons to become zinc ions: batteries is usually a paste composed of ammonium
• Zn(s) → Zn^2+(aq) + 2e^− chloride (NH4Cl) mixed with zinc chloride (ZnCl2).
• Cathode (Positive Electrode): The cathode typically This electrolyte facilitates the flow of ions between the
consists of a carbon rod surrounded by manganese dioxide anode and the cathode during the chemical reactions.
(MnO2). The manganese dioxide serves as the active The ammonium chloride helps to provide conductivity,
material for the reduction reaction during discharge. The and the zinc chloride aids in the depolarization process.
reaction at the cathode is:
• 2MnO2(s) + H2O(l) + 2e^− → Mn2O3(s) + 2OH^−(aq) • Separator: To prevent the direct contact between the
anode and the cathode, a separator made of porous
• The electrons generated at the anode flow through the material is placed between them. This separator allows
external circuit to the cathode where they reduce the ions to move between the anode and cathode while
manganese dioxide.
preventing short circuits.

 Secondary batteries
Secondary batteries also known as rechargeable
batteries, can be recharged and reused many times.
They are more expensive than primary batteries, but
they can save money in the long run. Examples of
secondary batteries include nickel-cadmium (Ni-Cd)
batteries, nickel-metal hydride (Ni-MH) batteries, and
lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries.
Nickel-cadmium (Ni-Cd) batteries: These were
once the most common type of rechargeable
battery, but they are now less popular because of
environmental concerns. Ni-Cd batteries contain
cadmium, which is a toxic heavy metal.
 WORKING OF NICKEL CADMIUM • Anode (Negative Electrode): The anode of a
BATTERY NiCd battery is typically made of a porous nickel
substrate coated with active cadmium hydroxide
• Nickel-cadmium (NiCd) batteries, also known (Cd(OH)₂). During discharge, cadmium is
as NiCad batteries, are a type of rechargeable oxidized to cadmium hydroxide, releasing
electrons and producing cadmium ions (Cd²⁺).
battery commonly used in various • Cathode (Positive Electrode): The cathode
applications. These batteries operate based on consists of a nickel hydroxide (Ni(OH)₂) active
electrochemical reactions between nickel and material mixed with a conductive additive,
cadmium electrodes immersed in a potassium usually graphite, pressed onto a nickel-plated
steel substrate. During discharge, nickel
hydroxide (KOH) electrolyte solution hydroxide is reduced to form nickel
oxyhydroxide, consuming electrons and
producing hydroxide ions (OH⁻).

• Electrolyte (Potassium Hydroxide): The electrolyte

used in NiCd batteries is a potassium hydroxide (KOH) • Recharge (Charging Process): During the
solution. This alkaline electrolyte facilitates the charging process, an external electrical power
movement of ions between the anode and cathode source is connected to the battery terminals,
during charge and discharge cycles. It also plays a role
in maintaining the overall electrochemical balance of causing a reverse electrochemical reaction.
the battery. Cadmium hydroxide at the anode is reduced
• Discharge (Power Delivery): When the battery is in back to cadmium metal, while nickel
use, electrons flow from the anode to the cathode oxyhydroxide at the cathode is oxidized back
through the external circuit, providing electrical power.
At the anode, cadmium is oxidized, releasing electrons, to nickel hydroxide. This process reverses the
which flow through the external circuit to the cathode, direction of electron flow, restoring the
where they are consumed in the reduction of nickel battery's energy storage capability.
hydroxide. This process produces electrical energy that
can power various devices.
• Advantages: NiCd batteries offer advantages
such as relatively low cost, high cycle life, good
performance at low temperatures, and robustness.
They are commonly used in applications where
high reliability and durability are essential, such
as in portable power tools, emergency lighting,
and backup power systems.
• Environmental Considerations: Cadmium, a
heavy metal, poses environmental concerns due to
its toxicity. Proper disposal and recycling of NiCd
batteries are essential to minimize environmental
impact and ensure the responsible handling of
hazardous materials.

BATTERY TESTING AND

Lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries: These are the
PERFORMANCE:
o

most common type of rechargeable battery • Battery testing is the process of evaluating the
today. They are used in a wide variety of performance and health of a battery. It is important to test
batteries regularly to ensure that they are functioning
devices, such as laptops, smartphones, and
safely and efficiently.
tablets. Li-ion batteries offer high energy
• There are a number of different types of battery tests that
density, long lifespans, and low self-discharge
can be performed, depending on the type of battery and
rates. However, they can be more expensive the information that is needed.
than other types of rechargeable batteries. Common Battery Tests:
 Voltage Test: A voltage test measures the electrical
o https://ul.org/research/electrochemical- potential of a battery. A healthy battery will have a
safety/getting-started-electrochemical- voltage that is within a specific range. A battery that has a
safety/what-are-lithium-ion low voltage may be dead or dying, while a battery that has
a high voltage may be damaged.
 BATTERY VOLTAGE TEST: • Load Test: A load test measures the ability of a battery
to deliver current. A load tester applies a load to the
battery and measures the voltage drop. A healthy
battery will be able to maintain a high voltage under
load.
• Capacity Test: A capacity test measures the amount of
charge that a battery can hold. A capacity test is
typically performed by discharging the battery
completely and then measuring the amount of current
that was required to discharge it.
• Impedance Test: An impedance test measures the
internal resistance of a battery. A battery with high
impedance will have lower performance and may be
more likely to fail

• Battery Performance Factors:  Charge Rate: The rate at which a battery is

• The performance of a battery is affected by a number of charged can affect its performance. Batteries that
factors, including: are charged too quickly may have a shorter
 Age: Batteries degrade over time, and their capacity will lifespan.
gradually decrease. • By understanding these factors, you can take steps
 Temperature: Batteries perform best at moderate to improve the performance and lifespan of your
temperatures. Extreme temperatures can damage
batteries.
batteries and reduce their performance.
 Depth of Discharge (DOD): The depth of discharge is
the percentage of a battery's capacity that is used before
it is recharged. Deep discharges can stress a battery and
reduce its lifespan.
 • Batteries for electric vehicles (EVs) are a critical component that
UNIT III powers the vehicle's electric motor, providing the energy needed for
propulsion. Here's an explanation of batteries for electric vehicles:
• Types of Batteries: Lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries are the most
common type used in electric vehicles due to their high energy
MOBILE AND HYBRID density, long cycle life, and relatively light weight compared to
other battery chemistries such as lead-acid or nickel-metal hydride
(NiMH). Within the category of lithium-ion batteries, there are
ENERGY STORAGE variations in chemistry and design tailored to different vehicle types
and performance requirements.
• Energy Density: Energy density refers to the amount of energy
SYSTEM stored in a battery per unit volume or weight. High energy density is
crucial for electric vehicles to maximize driving range without
significantly increasing weight or size. Advances in battery
technology aim to increase energy density while maintaining safety
and reliability.
 • Capacity: Battery capacity, measured in kilowatt-hours
(kWh), indicates the total amount of energy a battery
can store. Higher capacity batteries allow for longer
driving ranges between charges, which is a key factor
for consumer acceptance of electric vehicles.
• Power Output: Besides capacity, electric vehicle
batteries must provide sufficient power output to meet
the demands of acceleration, climbing hills, and other
driving conditions. Power output is measured in
kilowatts (kW) and influences the vehicle's
performance and responsiveness.

• Charging Time: Charging time is another crucial aspect of • Thermal Management: Maintaining optimal operating
electric vehicle batteries. Faster charging enables shorter pit temperatures is essential for battery performance, safety,
stops during long trips and improves the practicality of and longevity. Electric vehicle batteries incorporate thermal
electric vehicles for daily use. Rapid charging technologies, management systems to regulate temperature during
such as DC fast charging, are becoming increasingly charging, discharging, and operation to prevent
common to reduce charging times. overheating and thermal runaway.
• Cycle Life: The cycle life of a battery refers to the number • Safety: Safety is a paramount concern for electric vehicle
of charge-discharge cycles it can endure before its capacity batteries. Li-ion batteries have the potential to catch fire or
significantly degrades. Electric vehicle batteries are explode if damaged or exposed to extreme conditions.
expected to last for thousands of cycles to match the Manufacturers implement safety features such as robust
lifespan of the vehicle itself. Battery management systems cell packaging, thermal shutdown mechanisms, and
(BMS) help optimize charging and discharging to prolong sophisticated battery management systems to minimize
battery life. risks.
• Environmental Impact: Battery manufacturing and • Capacity: The Tesla Model 3 has different battery
disposal have environmental implications. Efforts are options:
underway to develop sustainable battery materials, – Standard Range: ~50 kWh
improve recycling processes, and reduce the – Long Range: ~75 kWh
environmental footprint of battery production to make
electric vehicles more environmentally friendly over – Performance: ~75 kWh
their entire lifecycle. • Voltage: The nominal voltage of Tesla Model 3
• In summary, batteries for electric vehicles are designed battery packs is around 350 volts.
to provide high energy density, long cycle life, fast • Chemistry: Tesla primarily uses lithium-ion
charging capabilities, and safety features to enable battery cells, specifically NCA (Nickel-Cobalt-
practical and sustainable electric transportation. Aluminum) chemistry.
Ongoing research and development aim to further
improve battery technology to meet the growing • Charging Rate: The Tesla Model 3 supports fast
demand for electric vehicles worldwide. charging using Tesla's Supercharger network, with
• charging rates up to 250 kW, allowing for rapid
charging speeds.

• Cycle Life: Tesla's batteries are designed to last for • Warranty: Tesla offers a warranty for its battery packs
hundreds of thousands of miles, with warranty coverage that covers defects in materials and workmanship, as
typically ranging from 8 years or 120,000 miles to well as a separate warranty for degradation of the
unlimited miles for certain variants. battery capacity over time and usage.
• Weight: The battery pack weight for the Tesla Model 3 • Safety Features: Tesla incorporates numerous safety
is approximately: features into its battery packs, including thermal
– Standard Range: ~450 kg management systems, redundant safety systems, and
– Long Range: ~480 kg physical barriers to prevent damage in the event of a
– Performance: ~480 kg collision.
• Operating Temperature Range: Tesla's battery packs • These specifications are based on information available
are designed to operate within a wide temperature
range, typically around -20°C to 60°C (-4°F to 140°F), up to my last update in January 2022. For the most
with built-in thermal management systems to ensure current and accurate information, it's best to consult
optimal performance in various conditions. official sources or contact the manufacturer directly.
 Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage
UNIT –V • Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage (SMES) is a
technology used for storing energy in the form of a
magnetic field created by the flow of direct current in a
OTHER ENERGY superconducting coil. Here's how it works:
• Superconducting Coil: The heart of an SMES system
DEVICES is a coil made from a superconducting material,
typically niobium-titanium or niobium-tin, cooled to
extremely low temperatures (usually below its critical
temperature) where it exhibits zero electrical resistance.
This means that once the current is induced in the coil,
it can flow perpetually without any loss of energy due
to resistance.

• Charging: When excess electricity is available, • Discharging: When the stored energy is
for example, during periods of low demand or
high renewable energy production, this electricity needed, the magnetic field is released by
is used to generate a strong direct current that reversing the current flow in the
flows through the superconducting coil. As the superconducting coil. This process induces an
current flows, it creates a magnetic field around
the coil. electric current in the opposite direction, which
• Energy Storage: The magnetic field generated in can be used to power electrical loads.
the superconducting coil stores energy. The • Advantages of SMES include:
strength of this magnetic field is directly
proportional to the amount of current flowing • High Efficiency: Superconducting materials
through the coil. Since superconductors can have negligible resistance, leading to minimal
sustain high currents without resistance, they can
generate very strong magnetic fields, allowing for energy loss during charging and discharging.
efficient energy storage.
• High Power Density: SMES systems can
deliver large amounts of power rapidly,
making them suitable for applications
requiring quick response times.Long
Lifespan: Properly maintained
superconducting coils can last for decades
without degradation.Fast Response Time:
SMES systems can respond to changes in
demand almost instantaneously, making them
ideal for providing grid stability and backup
power.

SUPER CAPACITORS • Charge Separation: When a voltage is applied

• Super capacitors, also known as ultra across the electrodes, positive ions from the
electrolyte are attracted to the negative electrode,
capacitors or electrochemical capacitors, are and negative ions are attracted to the positive
energy storage devices that store electrical electrode. This results in a separation of charge at
energy via the movement of ions near a high- the electrode-electrolyte interface.
surface-area electrode. Here's how they work: • Electrical Double Layer: At each electrode-
• Electrodes: A super capacitor consists of two electrolyte interface, a region called the electrical
double layer forms. This double layer consists of
electrodes typically made of activated carbon a layer of ions adsorbed onto the electrode surface
or other high-surface-area materials. These and a layer of counter ions in the electrolyte
electrodes are coated with an electrolyte adjacent to it. This arrangement creates a high
solution or a solid-state electrolyte to facilitate capacitance per unit area, allowing for the storage
the movement of ions. of large amounts of charge.
• Energy Storage: Unlike traditional capacitors, which
• Long Cycle Life: Supercapacitors typically have
store energy by accumulating charge at the electrode-
electrolyte interface, supercapacitors store energy a much longer cycle life compared to batteries
through the process of adsorption and desorption of because they do not undergo chemical changes
ions on the electrode surface. This mechanism allows during charge and discharge cycles. This makes
supercapacitors to achieve much higher energy them ideal for applications where frequent cycling
densities than conventional capacitors. is required.
• Fast Charging and Discharging: Supercapacitors can • Applications: Supercapacitors are used in a
charge and discharge rapidly compared to batteries variety of applications, including energy storage
because the storage mechanism does not involve in hybrid and electric vehicles, power backup
chemical reactions. This makes them suitable for
applications requiring quick bursts of power, such as
systems, renewable energy integration, and grid
regenerative braking in vehicles or smoothing out stabilization. They are also used as auxiliary
power fluctuations in renewable energy systems. power sources to provide short-term power during
peak demand or transient events.

Magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) power

generation
• Magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) power generation
is a method of generating electricity directly from
the movement of electrically conducting fluids
(such as plasma or ionized gases) in the presence
of a magnetic field. Here's how it works:
• Ionization: The working fluid, often a gas such as
ionized hydrogen or a plasma, is heated to a high
temperature, typically by combustion or nuclear
reactions. This heating process ionizes the gas,
meaning it becomes electrically conductive by
stripping electrons from atoms, resulting in a mix
of positively charged ions and negatively charged
electrons.
• Conduction: The ionized gas flows through a duct • Voltage Generation: The voltage induced in the
or channel, often called a MHD duct, at high
velocity. As the ionized gas moves through the electrodes is proportional to the velocity of the
magnetic field, it experiences a force known as conductive fluid, the strength of the magnetic
the Lorentz force. This force is perpendicular to field, and the conductivity of the fluid. By
both the direction of the magnetic field and the controlling these parameters, the voltage
direction of the electric current (which is induced generated can be controlled.
by the movement of the charged particles), • Heat Dissipation: After passing through the
resulting in a force that pushes the conductive
fluid in one direction. MHD duct, the ionized gas may still contain
• Electric Generation: The movement of the significant thermal energy. This heat can be
conductive fluid through the magnetic field extracted and used for other purposes, such as
induces an electric current in a set of electrodes heating water to produce steam for traditional
placed within the duct. This current can be turbine-based power generation, improving the
extracted and used as electrical power. overall efficiency of the system.

• MHD power generation offers several potential

advantages:
• High Efficiency: MHD generators can theoretically
achieve high efficiency because they directly convert
the kinetic energy of the fluid into electrical power
without the intermediate step of mechanical rotation.
• Fuel Flexibility: MHD generators can be fueled by a
variety of energy sources, including fossil fuels, nuclear
energy, or even renewable sources such as solar or
geothermal energy.
• Low Emissions: Depending on the fuel source, MHD
generators can produce lower emissions compared to
traditional combustion-based power plants, particularly
if they are fueled by clean energy sources.
 HYDROGEN STORAGE • Metal Hydride Storage: Certain metals and alloys have the
• Hydrogen storage refers to the methods and technologies used to store
ability to absorb hydrogen atoms into their crystal lattice,
hydrogen gas for various applications, including transportation, energy forming metal hydrides. This process stores hydrogen in a
storage, and industrial processes. There are several methods of hydrogen solid state at moderate pressures and temperatures. Metal
storage, each with its advantages and challenges: hydride storage offers high volumetric energy density and
• Compressed Gas Storage: Hydrogen gas can be stored under high safety benefits, as hydrogen is chemically bound to the
pressure in tanks made of lightweight and strong materials, such as carbon metal, reducing the risk of leakage. However, metal hydride
fiber composite or metal hydrides. The pressure typically ranges from 350
to 700 bar (5,000 to 10,000 psi). Compressed gas storage is relatively systems can be heavy and may have limited hydrogen
simple and mature technology but requires robust and expensive tanks to storage capacity.
withstand high pressure. Additionally, compressing hydrogen consumes
energy and can result in energy losses.
• Chemical Storage: Hydrogen can be stored in chemical
• Liquid Hydrogen Storage: Hydrogen can be cooled to cryogenic
compounds such as ammonia (NH3), methanol (CH3OH),
temperatures (-253°C or -423°F) to become a liquid. Liquid hydrogen or hydrocarbons. These compounds release hydrogen
storage offers high energy density compared to compressed gas storage, but through chemical reactions, such as hydrolysis or
it requires energy-intensive liquefaction processes and specialized reforming, when needed. Chemical storage can provide high
cryogenic storage tanks to maintain low temperatures. Liquid hydrogen energy density and easier handling compared to gaseous or
also has low density, so it requires larger tanks compared to other fuels.
liquid hydrogen, but it requires additional processing and
may involve emissions or environmental concerns
depending on the compound used.

• Hydrogen Adsorption: Some porous materials, such as

activated carbon or metal-organic frameworks (MOFs),
have the ability to adsorb hydrogen molecules onto their
FUEL CELLS
surface through weak van der Waals forces. This method
offers the potential for high storage capacities at moderate • Fuel cells are electrochemical devices that convert the chemical
pressures and temperatures. However, hydrogen adsorption energy of a fuel directly into electrical energy through an
can be reversible and dependent on factors such as electrochemical reaction. They consist of an electrolyte and two
temperature and pressure, making it challenging to achieve electrodes, an anode and a cathode. Here's how fuel cells work:
efficient storage and release. • Fuel Input: The fuel, typically hydrogen gas, is supplied to the
anode of the fuel cell. Hydrogen can be obtained from various
• Each storage method has its advantages and limitations, and sources, including natural gas reforming, electrolysis of water using
the choice of storage technology depends on factors such as renewable electricity, or other hydrogen-rich compounds.
application requirements, safety considerations, energy • Electrochemical Reaction: At the anode, hydrogen molecules (H2)
efficiency, and cost-effectiveness. Advances in materials are split into protons (H+) and electrons (e-) through a process
science and engineering continue to drive innovation in called oxidation: H2→2H++2e−H_2 \rightarrow 2H^+ + 2e^-
hydrogen storage technologies, aiming to improve H2​→2H++2e− The protons migrate through the electrolyte to the
efficiency, safety, and scalability for widespread adoption in cathode, while the electrons travel through an external circuit,
various sectors. generating an electric current that can be used to power electrical
devices.
• Electrochemical Reaction: At the anode, • Cathode Reaction: At the cathode, oxygen from
hydrogen molecules (H2) are split into protons the air reacts with the protons and electrons to
(H+) and electrons (e-) through a process called form water: 2H++2e−+21​O2​→H2​O This reaction
oxidation: H2​→2H++2e− completes the circuit and generates the electrical
• The protons migrate through the electrolyte to current.
the cathode, while the electrons travel through
an external circuit, generating an electric current • Waste Heat and Water: The only byproducts of
that can be used to power electrical devices. the fuel cell reaction are water vapor and heat.
• Ion Exchange: The electrolyte allows only the The water vapor can be released as steam,
positively charged protons to pass through while captured and recycled, or used for other purposes.
blocking the electrons. This separation of charges The waste heat generated by the fuel cell can also
creates an electrical potential difference between be captured and utilized for heating or other
the anode and cathode, driving the flow of industrial processes, increasing the overall
electrons through the external circuit, producing efficiency of the system.
electrical power.

Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells

(PEMFCs)
• Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells (PEMFCs) are
a type of fuel cell that operate at relatively low
temperatures and use a polymer electrolyte membrane
(PEM) as the electrolyte. Here's how PEMFCs work:
• Anode Reaction: Hydrogen gas (H2) is supplied to the
anode side of the fuel cell. At the anode, hydrogen
molecules undergo a catalytic reaction known as
hydrogen oxidation, where hydrogen is split into
protons (H+) and electrons (e-): H2​→2H++2e− The
protons move through the PEM to the cathode, while
the electrons are forced to travel through an external
circuit, generating an electric current.
• Electrolyte: The PEM, typically made of a
proton-conducting polymer such as a
perfluorosulfonic acid (e.g., Nafion), selectively
allows only protons to pass through while
blocking the passage of electrons. This separation
of charges creates an electrical potential
difference between the anode and cathode, driving
the flow of electrons through the external circuit,
producing electrical power.
• Cathode Reaction: At the cathode, oxygen from
the air reacts with the protons and electrons to
form water: 2H++2e−+21​O2​→H2​O

• This reaction completes the circuit and generates

the electrical current.

• Water Management: As water is produced at the • Efficiency and Applications: PEMFCs offer
cathode, it can accumulate within the fuel cell. high efficiency in converting the chemical
Proper water management is essential to maintain
optimal performance. Excess water is typically energy of hydrogen fuel into electrical power,
removed from the cell through channels or by a typically between 40% to 60%. They are used
controlled flow of air, ensuring efficient operation in various applications, including automotive
and preventing flooding of the PEM.
vehicles (fuel cell electric vehicles or FCEVs),
• Operating Temperature: PEMFCs operate at
relatively low temperatures, typically between 60 backup power systems for buildings, portable
to 80°C (140 to 176°F). This low temperature electronics, and off-grid power generation.
operation allows for rapid start-up and response
times, making PEMFCs suitable for applications
requiring quick response, such as automotive and
portable power applications.
Anion Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells
(AEMFC)
• Anode Reaction: At the anode, hydrogen molecules
• Anion Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells undergo a catalytic reaction, similar to PEMFCs, where
(AEMFCs) are a type of fuel cell that operates hydrogen is split into protons (H+) and electrons (e-
similarly to Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel H2​→2H++2e− The protons move through the AEM to the
Cells (PEMFCs), but with an anion exchange cathode, while the electrons are forced to travel through an
external circuit, generating an electric current.
membrane (AEM) as the electrolyte instead of a
proton exchange membrane. Here's how AEMFCs • Electrolyte: Unlike PEMFCs, which use a proton-
conducting membrane, AEMFCs use an AEM, which
work: selectively allows hydroxide ions (OH-) to pass through
• Fuel Input: Like other fuel cells, AEMFCs use while blocking the passage of electrons. This separation of
hydrogen gas (H2) as the fuel. Hydrogen is charges creates an electrical potential difference between
the anode and cathode, driving the flow of electrons
supplied to the anode side of the fuel cell. through the external circuit, producing electrical power.

• Cathode Reaction: At the cathode, oxygen from the air

reacts with the protons and electrons to form water:
4H++O2​+4e−→2H2​OThis reaction completes the
circuit and generates the electrical current.
• Water Management: As water is produced at the
cathode, it can accumulate within the fuel cell. Proper
water management is essential to maintain optimal
performance. Excess water is typically removed from
Alkaline Anion-Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell the cell through channels or by a controlled flow of air,
ensuring efficient operation and preventing flooding of
the AEM.
 Direct Methanol Fuel Cell (DMFC)
• Operating Temperature: AEMFCs can operate • A Direct Methanol Fuel Cell (DMFC) is a type of
at relatively low temperatures, typically similar to fuel cell that generates electricity through the
PEMFCs, between 60 to 80°C (140 to 176°F). electrochemical reaction of methanol and oxygen.
• Efficiency and Applications: AEMFCs offer Here's a basic overview of its working principle:
high efficiency in converting the chemical energy
of hydrogen fuel into electrical power, similar to • Fuel Input: Methanol (CH3OH) is supplied to the
PEMFCs. They are used in various applications, anode (the negative electrode) of the fuel cell.
including automotive vehicles, backup power Methanol is a liquid fuel that is relatively easy to
systems, portable electronics, and off-grid power store and transport, making it suitable for portable
generation. applications.

• Electrical Circuit: Electrons generated at the

anode cannot pass through the membrane.
Instead, they flow through an external electrical
• Electrochemical Reaction: At the anode, circuit, generating an electrical current that can be
methanol molecules are oxidized, releasing used to power devices.
protons (H+) and electrons (e^-). This process is • Oxygen Input: Oxygen (O2) from the air is
facilitated by a catalyst, typically platinum. The supplied to the cathode (the positive electrode) of
chemical reaction is: the fuel cell.
• CH3OH + H2O → CO2 + 6H+ + 6e^- • Electrochemical Reaction (Cathode): At the
• Ion Exchange Membrane: An ion exchange cathode, oxygen molecules react with protons that
membrane separates the anode and cathode have passed through the membrane and electrons
compartments of the fuel cell. This membrane from the external circuit to form water:
allows protons to pass through while blocking the • O2 + 4H+ + 4e^- → 2H2O
flow of electrons.
 • Overall Reaction: The overall chemical
reaction in the DMFC can be represented as
the combination of the anode and cathode
reactions:
• CH3OH + 1.5O2 → CO2 + 2H2O
• Generation of Electricity: The flow of
electrons through the external circuit creates
an electrical current, which can be used to
power electronic devices or charge batteries.

Energy storage technologies in electric and hybrid

UNIT III ENERGY STORAGE SYSTEM electric vehicles
Energy storage technologies in electric and hybrid electric 1) BATTERIES IN ELECTRIC AND HYBRID VEHICLES
vehicles
The major types of rechargeable batteries used or being
Battery, flywheel, fuel cell, ultra capacitors considered for electric and hybrid vehicle applications are as
follows:
Comparison of different energy storage technologies • Nickel-metal-hydride (NiMH)
• Lithium-ion (Li-ion)
Hybridization of different energy storage devices. • Lithium-polymer (Li-poly)
• Sodium-sulfur.
SPECIFIC ENERGY OF BATTERY The parameter for energy The Chevrolet Bolt launched in 2017 has an EPA range of 238 miles with a 60
content (energy that can be kWh Li-ion battery-pack. Vehicles with range in excess of 300 miles are
extracted from raw fuel /
considered luxury brands and require battery-packs around 100 kWh.
material for useful work)
evaluation is specific energy
or energy density.

Specific energy is the energy

per unit mass of the energy
source, and its unit is Wh/kg.

BEVs and PHEVs require high

specific energy (Wh/kg) than
that of charge sustaining
HEVs which resulted in the
universal adoption of Li-ion
battery technology

Why does EPA (United States Environmental Protection Agency) measure fuel
Why are EPA’s fuel economy tests conducted in an indoor laboratory? Wouldn’t it be
economy? better to test cars on roads or at least on an outdoor track?
Congress directed EPA to establish test methods and procedures to measure Testing vehicles in controlled laboratory conditions establishes a level playing feld
the fuel economy of passenger car and trucks, and to provide this information for all cars and ensures that the test results are consistent, accurate, repeatable,
to the public. We designed our test procedures to reflect national-average, and equitable among different vehicle models and manufacturers. Vehicles are
“real world” driving conditions. The tests are standardized for all vehicles and driven on a dynamometer (a device similar to a treadmill) using five standardized
conducted in a controlled laboratory setting, ensuring they are repeatable, driving patterns or test cycles. These test cycles represent a variety of driving
reliable, and fair. conditions including speed, acceleration, braking, air conditioning use, and
ambient temperatures. The test results from the five driving cycles are combined
If auto manufacturers each designed their own procedure for measuring and
to yield individual “city” and “highway” values, and a “combined” fuel economy
reporting mpg, consumers would not be able to make ‘apples-to-apples’ value that assumes a 55% city/45% highway split.
comparisons of mileage among different car models. By contrast, EPA’s
standardized test procedures create a level playing field for all vehicles. Vehicles are tested at a top speed of 80 mph in order to calculate the highway mpg
Consumers can rely on these values when trying to determine which vehicles estimates.
are more fuel efficient.
Source: https://www.epa.gov/aboutepa Source: https://www.epa.gov/aboutepa
BATTERY CELL STRUCTURE 1. Positive Electrode (a CATHODE): The positive electrode is an oxide or sulfide or
The energy stored in a battery is the difference in free energy between chemical some other compound that is capable of being reduced during cell discharge. This
components in the charged and discharged states. This available chemical energy electrode consumes electrons from the external circuit during cell discharge.
in a cell is converted into electrical energy only on demand using the basic Examples of positive electrodes are lead oxide (PbO2) and nickel oxyhydroxide
components of a unit cell; these components are the positive and negative (NiOOH). The electrode materials are in the solid state.
electrodes, the separators and the electrolytes.
2. Negative Electrode (an ANODE): The negative electrode is a metal or an alloy
that is capable of being oxidized during cell discharge. This electrode releases
electrons to the external circuit during cell discharge. Examples of negative
electrodes are lead (Pb) and cadmium (Cd). The negative electrode materials are
in the solid state within the battery cell.

Oxidation is the loss of electrons or an increase in the oxidation state of an atom, an ion, or of certain atoms in a molecule.
Reduction is the gain of electrons or a decrease in the oxidation state of an atom, an ion, or of certain atoms in a molecule

3. Electrolyte: The electrolyte is the medium that permits ionic conduction

CHEMICAL REACTIONS
between positive and negative electrodes of a cell. The electrolyte must have high Reduction takes place at the cathode. There, cobalt
and selective conductivity for the ions that take part in electrode reactions, but oxide combines with lithium ions to form
lithium-cobalt oxide (LiCoO2). The half-reaction is:
must be a non-conductor for electrons in order to avoid self-discharge of
batteries. The electrolyte may be liquid, gel or solid material. Also, the electrolyte CoO2 + Li+ + e- → LiCoO2
can be acidic or alkaline depending on the type of battery.
Oxidation takes place at the anode. There, the
graphite intercalation compound LiC6 forms
Advanced batteries for electric vehicles, such as sealed lead acid, graphite (C6) and lithium ions. The half-reaction is:
nickel-metal-hydride (NiMH) and lithium-ion batteries use an electrolyte that is
gel, paste or resin. Lithium polymer batteries use a solid electrolyte. LiC6 → C6 + Li+ + e-
Here is the full reaction (left to right = discharging,
4. Separator: The separator is the electrically insulating layer of material, which right to left = charging):
physically separates electrodes of opposite polarity. Separators must be LiC6 + CoO2 ⇄ C6 + LiCoO2
permeable to the ions of the electrolyte and may also have the function of storing
or immobilizing the electrolyte. Present day separators are made from synthetic
polymers.
CHEMICAL REACTIONS Regardless of the battery cell chemistry,
redox reactions take place at the electrodes
during both cell charging and discharging for
the release and absorption of electrons at the
terminals. The generalized redox reactions
are given by:

for positive electrode, and

for negative electrode.

The coefficients a, b, c and d represent the

numbers of moles associated with the Microscopic materials used for lithium-ion cathodes.
species in the reactions; the coefficient n
represent the number of electrons and ions
Watch what happens when a lithium-ion battery is short circuited (1:13 min.) involved in the redox reactions.
https://youtu.be/HCGtRgBUHX8

BATTERY PARAMETERS
Battery capacity where mR is the mass of the limiting reactant material altered at an electrode, Q is the total amount
of electric charge passing through the material, F is the Faraday number or Faraday constant, Mm
The amount of charge released by the energized material at an electrode associated with complete is the molar mass and n is the number of electrons per ion produced at an electrode.
discharge of a battery is called the battery capacity. The capacity is measured in Ah (1 Ah = 3,600 C
or Coulomb, where 1 C is the charge transferred in 1 s by 1 A current in the SI unit of charge). Mm/n is the equivalent weight of the reactant substance. The Faraday number is given by the amount of
electric charge carried by one mole of electrons. The number of molecules or atoms in a mole is given by
The theoretical capacity of a battery can be obtained by Faraday’s law of electrolysis which states the Avogadro number NA which is equal to 6.022045×10^23 mol−1. The amount of charge in one
that the mass of the elemental material altered at an electrode is directly proportional to the element’s electron which is the elemental charge is equal to e0 =1.6021892 ×10^−19 C. Therefore, the Faraday
equivalent weight for a given quantity of electrical charge. number is equal to F = NAe0 = 96,485 C/mol. The number of Faradays required to produce one mole of
substance at an electrode depends on the way in which the substance is oxidized or reduced.
The equivalent weight of the elemental material is given by the molar mass divided by the number of
electrons transferred per ion for the reaction undergone by the material. This number is known as the Therefore, the theoretical capacity of a battery (in Coulomb) is
valency number of ions for the substance. Mathematically, Faraday’s law can be written as

where x is the number of moles of limiting reactant associated with complete discharge of battery,
and is given by
 Open-circuit voltage

The battery in its simplest form can be represented by an internal voltage Ev and a series resistance Ri
Here mR is the mass of the reactant material in kg and Mm is the molar mass of that material in as shown in Figure.
g/mol.

The theoretical capacity in Ah is

The cells in a battery are connected in series and the capacity of the battery is dictated by the smallest
cell capacity. Therefore, QTbattery =QTcell. Six battery cells connected in series to form a battery The battery internal voltage appears at the battery terminals as open-circuit voltage when there is no load
are shown in Figure connected to it. The internal voltage or the open-circuit voltage (OCV) depends on the state of charge of
the battery, temperature and past discharge/charge history (memory effects) among other factors. The
open-circuit voltage characteristics are shown in Figure

Terminal voltage

Battery terminal voltage Vt is the voltage available at the terminals when a load is connected to the
battery. The terminal voltage is at its full charge voltage VFC when the battery is fully charged. For
example, with lead acid battery it means that there is no more PbSO4 available to react with H2O
to produce active material. Vcut is the battery cut-off voltage, where discharge of the battery must
be terminated. The battery terminal voltage characteristic in relationship with the SOD is shown in
As the battery is gradually discharged, the internal voltage decreases, while the internal resistance Figure
increases. The open-circuit voltage characteristics have a fairly extended plateau of linear
characteristics with a slope close to zero. The open-circuit voltage is not a good indicator of the state of
charge; state of charge of a battery pack needs to be calculated considering discharge current
characteristics, battery chemistry, temperature effects and number of charge/discharge cycles. Once the
battery is completely discharged, the open-circuit voltage decreases sharply with more discharge.
 Let us consider the experiment shown in Figure, where the battery is discharged at constant
Practical capacity current starting from time t = 0. The ammeters and voltmeters measure the discharge current
The practical capacity QP of a battery is the actual charge released by the energized material at an and the battery terminal voltage. The current is maintained constant by varying the load resistance
electrode associated with complete discharge of the battery. The practical capacity is always much RL until the terminal voltage reaches the cut-off voltage Vcut. The qualitative graphs of two constant
lower compared to the theoretical capacity QT due to practical limitations. The practical capacity of current discharge characteristics at two different current levels are shown in Figure
a battery is given as
The following data is obtained from the experiment:
I = 80A: Capacity Q80A = (80 A)tcut = 80 × 1.8 =144 Ah
I = 50A: Capacity Q50A = (50 A)tcut = 50 × 3.1 =155 Ah
I = 30A: Capacity Q30A = (30 A)tcut = 30 × 5.7 =171 Ah
where to is the time at which battery is fully charged and tcut is the time at which battery terminal
voltage is at Vcut. Therefore, Vt(tcut) = Vcut.

The practical capacity of a battery is defined in the industry by a convenient and approximate
approach of Ah instead of Coulomb (i.e., A-s) under constant discharge current characteristics, i.e.,
at a specified discharge rate (commonly referred to as C-rate) from 100% capacity to the cut-off
voltage.

The results show that the capacity depends on the magnitude of discharge current. The smaller the
magnitude of the discharge current, the higher the capacity of the battery is. To be accurate, when
the capacity of a battery is stated, the constant discharge current magnitude must also be specified.

Discharge rate State of charge (SoC)

The discharge rate is the current at which a battery is discharged under constant current characteristics. The state of charge (SoC) represents the present capacity of the battery. It is the amount of
The rate is also known as C-rate which is expressed as Qp /h-rate, where QP is rated battery capacity and capacity
h is discharge time in hours. For a battery that has a capacity of Qp Ah and is discharged over Δt h, the that remains after discharge from a top-of-charge condition. The current is the rate of change of
discharge rate is Qp/Δt charge given by

Example: Let the capacity of a battery be 100 Ah. Therefore,

where q is the charge moving through the circuit. The instantaneous theoretical state of charge
C/5-rate or 0.2C-rate is 100 Ah/5 h = 20 A and SoCT(t) is the amount of equivalent charge remaining at the positive electrode and ready to be
released by the energized material. If the state of charge is QT at the initial time to, then SoCT(to) =
2C rate is 100 Ah/0.5 h = 200 A. QT. For a time interval dt,
Typically, the nominal capacity of a battery is given at a 1C-rate, and it decreases with increasing
C-rate.
Integrating from the initial time to to the final time t, the expression for instantaneous state of
charge is obtained as
State of discharge (SoD) Battery energy

The state of discharge (SoD) is a measure of the charge that has been drawn from a battery during Energy of a battery is measured in terms of the capacity and the discharge voltage. To calculate
discharge. Mathematically, state of discharge is given as the energy, the capacity of the battery must be expressed in coulombs. 1 Ah is equivalent to
3,600 C, while 1 V refers to 1 J (J for joule) of work required to move 1 C charge from the negative
to positive electrode. Therefore, the stored electrical potential energy in a 12 V, 100 Ah battery is
(12)(3.6×105) J = 5.32 MJ. In general, the theoretical stored energy

where Vbat is the nominal no load terminal voltage and QT is the theoretical capacity in C units.
Depth of discharge (DoD) Therefore the theoretical energy is:
The depth of discharge (DoD) is the percentage of battery rated capacity to which a battery is
discharged. The depth of discharge is given by

The practical available energy is

The withdrawal of at least 80% of battery (rated) capacity is referred to as deep discharge.

Theoretical specific energy of a battery is

where to is the time at which battery is fully charged, tcut is the time in hours at which battery If the mass of the battery MB is proportional to the mass of the limiting reactant of the battery mR,
terminal voltage is at Vcut, v is the battery terminal voltage and i is the battery discharge current. EP then SET is independent of mass. The specific energy of lead acid battery is 35–50 Wh/kg at C/3
is dependent on the manner in which the battery is discharged. Practical energy in Watt-hours (Wh) rate. Since practical energy EP varies with discharge rate, the practical specific energy SEP is also
multiplied by 3,600 gives the energy in J, i.e., W-s. variable.
The term ‘energy density’ is also used in the literature to quantify the quality of a battery or other
Specific energy energy sources. The term energy density refers to the energy per unit volume of a battery. The unit
for energy density is Wh/L.
The specific energy of a battery in terms of discharge energy related to complete discharge from
fully charged condition is given by

The unit for specific energy is Wh/kg.

Battery power Using the maximum power transfer theorem in electric circuits, the battery can deliver
maximum power to a DC load when the load impedance matches the battery internal impedance.
The instantaneous battery terminal power is
The maximum power is

where Vbat is the battery terminal voltage and i is the battery discharge current. Using Kirchhoff’s
voltage law for the battery equivalent circuit of Figure, with Vbat = Vt
Since Ev and Ri vary with the state of charge, Pmax also varies accordingly.
Power versus current characteristic is shown in Figure
Maximum power output is needed from the battery in fast discharge conditions in vehicle
applications, which occur when the electric motor is heavily loaded. Acceleration on a slope is such
a condition, when the motor draws a lot of current to deliver maximum power required for traction.

The performance of batteries to meet acceleration and hill climbing requirements can be evaluated
with the help of rated power specifications, which are based on the ability of the battery to
dissipate heat. The rated continuous power is the maximum power that the battery can deliver over
prolonged discharge intervals without damage to the battery. These do not necessarily correspond to
Pmax on p-i curve of battery characteristics. The rated instantaneous power is the maximum power
that the battery can deliver over a very short discharge interval without damage to the battery.

Ragone plots
Specific power
In electrochemical batteries, there is a decrease in charge capacity (excluding voltage effects) with
The specific power of a battery is increasing currents. This is often referred to as the Ragone relationship and is described by Ragone
plots. Ragone plots are usually obtained from constant power discharge tests or constant current
discharge plots. Let us consider the experiment of Figure 5.6 again, but this time the current i is
adjusted by varying RL such that the power output at the battery terminals is kept constant. The
where P is the power delivered by battery and MB is the mass of battery. Typically, lead acid battery’s experiment stops when the battery terminal voltage reaches the cut-off voltage, i.e., Vt = Vcut. We
maximum specific power is around 280 W/kg (which corresponds to Pmax) at DoD = 80%. assume that the battery is fully charged at t = 0. The experiment is performed at several power
Similar to specific energy and energy density, the term power density is used to refer to the power
levels and the following data is recorded: (i) power p(t) = Vti = P, (ii) time to cut-off voltage tcut and
of the battery per unit volume with units of W/L.
(iii) practical energy EP = Ptcut . The plot of SP versus SE on a log–log scale is known as the
Ragone plot. The Ragone plots of several batteries along with alternative energy sources and IC
engines are given in Figure to give an idea about the relative power and energy capacities of these
different devices.
Ragone plots To a first-order approximation, we can use a linear Ragone plot (on a log-log scale) according to the
following relationship between specific power and specific energy:

where n and λ are curve-fitting constants. The above is an alternative approach of using Peukert’s
equation to describe battery characteristics.

Numerical Example

The data given in Table are collected from an experiment on a battery with mass 15 kg. Draw the Ragone
plot. Using the data points (8,110) and (67.5,10), calculate the constants of Peukert’s equation, n and λ.

TABLE- Data from Constant Power Discharge Test

BATTERY MODELING

Peukert’s equation is a widely accepted empirical relation among capacity (Q),

discharge current (I), and time (t) or among specific power (SP), specific energy
(SE), and time (t). Peukert’s equation is used in developing a fractional depletion
model (FDM) of batteries. The FDM of a battery can be used to predict the range of
an EV. The FDM can be developed using the constant current discharge approach or
the power density approach associated with the two forms of Peukert’s equation.
CONSTANT CURRENT DISCHARGE APPROACH Numerical example

Consider the constant current discharge experiment of Figure. The battery is Find the curve-fitting constants n and λ, for Peukert’s equation for the two
discharged under constant current condition from 100% capacity until cut-off measurements available from a constant current discharge experiment of a
voltage is reached. The load resistance RL is varied to change the constant battery:
current level and also to maintain the current constant for each experiment. The I vs. tcut (i) (t1,I1)=(10,18)
data are used to fit Peukert’s equation with constant current: (ii) (t2,I2)=(1,110)

where I is the constant discharge current; and λ, and n are curve-fitting constants,
with n→1 for small currents and n→2 for large currents.

Fractional Depletion Model

Using Peukert’s equation, we can establish the relationship between Q and I. The Because 0<n−1<1, for I >1, Q decreases as I increases.
practical capacity of a battery is
We know that

and

Substituting into Peukert’s equation:

SoD is the amount of charge that the battery generates to the circuit. Assume that
at t=t0, the battery is fully charged. Let us consider a small interval of time dt.

where
Therefore, The fractional depletion model (FDM) is thus obtained as

Integrating, we obtain, The FDM based on current discharge requires knowledge of the discharge current
i(t). Therefore, this model to predict the EV range should be used when i(t) is known.

DoD(t0)=0 if the battery is fully charged at t=t0.

STANDARD DRIVING CYCLES The SAE J227a has three schedules designed to simulate the
typical driving patterns of fixed-route urban, variable-route urban, and variableroute
The standard J227a driving cycle recommended by the Society of Automotive suburban travels. These three patterns are the SAE J227a driving schedules
Engineers (SAE) is routinely used to evaluate the performance of EVs and B, C, and D, respectively. Each schedule has five segments in the total driving
energy sources. Period:

1. Acceleration time ta to reach the maximum velocity from start-up

2. Cruise time tcr at a constant speed
3. Coast time tco when no energy is drawn from the source
4. Brake time tbr to bring the vehicle to stop
5. Idle time ti prior to the completion of the period

SAE J227a standard driving cycle

 Numerical example:
SAE J227a Standard Driving Schedules
The constant current discharge characteristics of the battery pack used in an EV are as
follows:

The current drawn from the battery during test drives of the EV for the SAE
schedule J227a has the profile shown in Figure. The current magnitudes for
the three SAE schedules are given in Table.

Find the range of the EV for each of the three schedules.

Solution: Therefore,

Apply the FDM to find the number of driving cycles for DoD=100%.

From FDM:

For Schedule B, the fraction depleted over one cycle is as follows:

First, we need to determine λ and n from the given battery characteristics:
Let N=the number of cycles required for 100% DoD, DoD=1: J227a Schedule C: From FDM, N=152; EV range=152/3=51 mi.
(Measured, N=184 Error=17.4%.)

J227a Schedule D: From FDM, N=41; EV range=41/1=41 mi.

(Measured, N=49 Error=16.3%.)

From Table, the EV goes 1 mi in about four cycles for Schedule B.

Therefore,

FUEL CELLS The concept of fuel cell is the opposite of electrolysis of water, where
hydrogen and oxygen are combined to form electricity and water. The hydrogen
A fuel cell is an electrochemical device that produces electricity by means of a fuel supplied to the fuel cell consists of two hydrogen atoms per molecule
chemical reaction, much like a battery. The major difference between batteries chemically bonded together in the form H2. This molecule includes two separate
and fuel cells is that the latter can produce electricity as long as fuel is supplied, nuclei, each containing one proton, while sharing two electrons. The fuel cell
while batteries produce electricity from stored chemical energy and, hence, breaks apart these hydrogen molecules to produce electricity.
require frequent recharging.
The exact nature of accomplishing the task depends on the fuel cell type, although what
The basic structure of a fuel cell (Figure) consists of an anode and a cathode, similar to a remains the same for all fuel cells is that this reaction takes place at the anode. The
battery. The fuel supplied to the cell is hydrogen and oxygen. hydrogen molecule breaks into four parts at the anode due to the chemical reaction,
releasing hydrogen ions and electrons. A catalyst speeds the reaction, and an
electrolyte allows the two hydrogen ions, which essentially are two single
protons, to move to the cathode through the electrolyte placed between the two
electrodes. The flow of electrons from the anode to the cathode through the external circuit
is what produces electricity.
For the overall cell reaction to complete, oxygen or air must be passed over the cathode. The The fuel cell was first developed for space applications as an alternative power
cathode reaction takes place in two stages. First, the bond between the two oxygen atoms in source. The source was first used in a moon buggy and is still used in NASA’s
the molecule breaks and then each ionized oxygen atom grabs two electrons coming space shuttles. There has been tremendous interest in fuel cells in recent years
from the anode through the external circuit to become negatively charged. The for applications in other areas, such as EVs and stationary power systems.
negatively charged oxygen atoms are balanced by the positively charged
hydrogen atoms at the cathode, and the combination produces H2O commonly There are several different types of fuel cells, each with strengths and weaknesses. Low
known as water. operating temperature is desirable for vehicle applications, despite the fact that
higher temperatures result in higher reaction rates. Rapid operation and
The chemical reaction taking place in a fuel cell is as follows: cogeneration capabilities are desirable for stationary applications. Cogeneration
refers to the capability to utilize the waste heat of a fuel cell to generate
electricity using conventional means.

FUEL CELL CHARACTERISTICS Alkaline Fuel Cell (AFC)

In an alkaline fuel cell (AFC), an aqueous solution of potassium hydroxide

(KOH) is used as the electrolyte. Compared to some other fuel cells where acidic
electrolytes are used, the performance of the alkaline electrolyte is as good as the
acid electrolytes, while being significantly less corrosive toward the electrodes.

Alkaline fuel cells have been in actual use for a long time, delivering electrical
efficiencies of up to 60%. They require pure hydrogen as fuel and operate at low
temperatures (at 80°C); therefore, they are suitable for vehicle applications.

Residual heat can be used for heating, but the cell temperature is not sufficiently
high to generate steam that can be used for cogeneration.
FUEL CELL TYPES

The six major types of fuel cells are as follows: alkaline, proton exchange
membrane, direct methanol, phosphoric acid, molten carbonate, and solid oxide.
 Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM)
Alkaline Fuel Cell (AFC)
The proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cells use solid electrolytes and
operate at low temperatures (around 80°C). Nafion is an example of solid
polymer electrolyte. These fuel cells are also known as solid polymer membrane
fuel cells.

The electrical efficiency of PEM fuel cells is lower than that of the
alkaline cells (about 40%). However, a rugged and simple construction makes
these types of fuel cells suitable for vehicle applications. The PEM fuel cell and
the AFC are currently being considered for vehicle applications.

The advantage of PEM cells is that they can tolerate impurity in the fuel, as
compared to pure hydrogen which is needed in alkaline fuel cells.

Proton Exchange Direct Methanol Fuel Cell (DMFC)

Membrane (PEM)
The direct methanol fuel cell (DMFC) is a result of research on using
methanol as the fuel that can be carried on-board a vehicle and reformed to
supply hydrogen to the fuel cell. A DMFC works on the same principle as the
PEM, except that the temperature is increased to the range of 90 to 120°C
such that internal reformation of methanol into hydrogen is possible.

The electrical efficiency of DMFC is quite low at about 30%. This type of fuel
cell is still in the design stages, because the search for a good electrocatalyst
to reform the methanol efficiently and to reduce oxygen in the presence of
methanol is ongoing.
 Direct Methanol Fuel Cell
(DMFC)

Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell (PAFC) Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell (MCFC)

Phosphoric acid fuel cells (PAFC) are the oldest type with an origin that extends Molten carbonate fuel cells, originally developed to operate directly from coal,
back to the creation of the fuel cell concept. The electrolyte used is phosphoric operate at 600°C and require CO or CO2 on the cathode side and hydrogen on the
acid, and the cell operating temperature is about 200°C, which makes some anode. The cells use carbonate as the electrolyte.
cogeneration possible.
The electrical efficiency of these fuel cells is high at about 50%, but the excess
The electrical efficiency of this cell is reasonable at about 40%. These types of heat can be used for cogeneration for improved efficiency. The high temperatures
fuel cells are considered too bulky for transportation applications, while higher required make these fuel cells not particularly suitable for vehicular applications,
efficiency designs exist for stationary applications. but they can be used for stationary power generation.
Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC, ITSOFC)

Solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) use a solid ionic conductor as the electrolyte
rather than a solution or a polymer, which reduces corrosion problems. However,
to achieve adequate ionic conductivity in such a ceramic, the system must
operate at very high temperatures.

The original designs, using yttria-stabilized zirconia as the electrolyte, required

temperatures as high as 1000°C to operate, but the search for materials capable of
serving as the electrolyte at lower temperatures resulted in the “intermediate
temperature solid oxide fuel cell” (ITSOFC).

This fuel cell has high electrical efficiency of 50 to 60%, and residual heat can also
be used for cogeneration. Although not a good choice for vehicle applications, it is
at present the best option for stationary power generation.

The selection of fuel cells as the primary energy source in EVs and HYDROGEN STORAGE SYSTEMS
HEVs depends on a number of issues, ranging from fuel cell technology to
infrastructure to support the system. The options for storage of hydrogen play a critical role in the future development
of infrastructure for fuel-cell-powered EVs and hybrid vehicles. The hydrogen
The choice of fuel cell for the vehicular application is an alkaline or proton gas at atmospheric pressure has a fairly low energy density and is not a suitable
exchange design, while for stationary applications, it will be the SOFC. The size, fuel for storage. Hydrogen could be stored as compressed or liquefied gas, or in a
cost, efficiency, and start-up transient times of fuel cells are yet to be at an more advanced manner by using metal hydrides or carbon nanotubes.
acceptable stage for EV and HEV applications.
Gas storage in compressed form is an option that has been in use for a long time.
The complexity of the controller required In this method, a large amount of energy is required to compress the gas to a
for fuel cell operation is another aspect that needs further attention. Although its level that will make storage viable, usually at a pressure of several hundred
viability has been well-proven in the space program, as well as in prototype atmospheres.
vehicles, its immature status makes it a longer-term enabling technology for an
EV and HEV. Generation of liquid H2 requires further compression, along with refrigeration to
cryogenic temperatures, and is not likely to become a viable means of storage for
vehicle applications.
REFORMERS

Many in the automotive industry have been exploring the use of methanol,
ethanol, or gasoline as a fuel and reforming it on-board into hydrogen for the
fuel cell. The reformer is the fuel processor that breaks down a hydrocarbon,
such as methanol, into hydrogen and other by-products. The advantage of this
approach is the ease of handling of hydrocarbon fuel compared to hydrogen gas,
substantiated by the difficulty in storage and generation of pure hydrogen.

The accepted methods of reforming technique for vehicular fuel cells are steam
reforming, partial oxidation, and autothermal processing. The two types of steam
reformers in use today use methanol and natural gas as the fuel. Gasoline can
also be used as the fuel, but reforming it is an expensive and complex process.
Methanol is the most promising fuel for reformers, because it reforms fairly
easily into hydrogen and is liquid at room temperature.

SUPERCAPACITORS AND ULTRACAPACITORS Supercapacitors and ultracapacitors are

derivatives of conventional capacitors,
Capacitors are devices that store energy by the separation of equal positive and where energy density has been increased at the
negative electrostatic charges. The basic structure of a capacitor consists of two expense of power density to make the devices
conductors, known as plates, separated by a dielectric, which is an insulator. The function more like a battery. Power density and
power densities of conventional capacitors are extremely high (~1012 W/m3), but energy density of supercapacitors and
the energy density is very low (~50 Wh/m3). These conventional capacitors are ultracapacitors are of the order of 106W/m3 and
commonly known as “electrolytic capacitors.” They are widely used in electrical 104 Wh/m3, respectively. Energy density is much
circuits as intermediate energy storage elements for time constants that are of a lower compared to those of batteries (~5 to
completely different domain and are of much smaller order compared to the 25×104 Wh/m3), but the discharge times are much
energy storage devices that are to serve as the primary energy sources for EVs. faster (110 s compared to ~5×103 s of batteries),
The capacitors are described in terms of capacitance, which is directly and the cycle life is much more (~105 compared to
proportional to the dielectric constant of the insulating material and inversely 100 to 1000 of batteries)
proportional to the space between the two conducting plates. The capacitance is
measured by the ratio of the magnitude of the charge between either plate and the
potential difference between them (C=q/V).
 Ultracapacitors are versions of electrolytic capacitors that use electrochemical
Supercapacitors contain an electrolyte that enables the storage of electrostatic systems to store energy in a polarized liquid layer at the interface between an
charge in the form of ions, in addition to conventional energy storage in ionically conducting electrolyte and an electrically conducting electrode. Energy
electrostatic charges, like in an electrolytic capacitor. The internal functions in a storage capacity is increased by increasing the surface area of the interface,
supercapacitor do not involve electrochemical reaction. The electrodes in similar to that in a supercapacitor. Electrochemical (also known as Faradaic)
supercapacitors are made of porous carbon with high internal surface area to help reactions in ultracapacitors are confined to the surface layers and, hence, are
absorb the ions and provide a much higher charge density than is possible in a fully reversible with a long cycle life.
conventional capacitor. The ions move much more slowly than electrons,
enabling a much longer time constant for charging and discharging compared to Current research and development aim to create ultracapacitors with
electrolytic capacitors. capabilities in the vicinity of 4000 W/kg and 15 Wh/kg. The possibility of using
supercapacitors and ultracapacitors as primary energy sources is quite far
reaching, although it is likely that these can be improved to provide sufficient
energy storage in HEVs. On the other hand, supercapacitors and ultracapacitors
with high specific power are suitable as an intermediate energy transfer device in
conjunction with batteries or fuel cells in EVs and HEVs to provide sudden
transient power demand, such as during acceleration and hill climbing. The
devices can also be used efficiently to capture recovered energy during
regenerative braking.

FLYWHEELS
A flywheel, similar to a battery, goes through charge and discharge processes
The flywheel is the kind of energy supply unit that stores energy in mechanical in order to store and extract energy, which earned it the name “electromechanical
form. Flywheels store kinetic energy within a rotating wheel-like rotor or disk battery.” The rotor’s shaft is coupled with a motor and generator, which, during
made of composite materials. Flywheels have a long history of usage in charging, spin the rotor to store the kinetic energy and, during discharging,
automobiles, being routinely used in all of today’s IC engines to store energy and convert the stored energy into electric energy. Interface electronics is necessary
smooth the power delivered by abrupt pulses of the engine. However, the to condition the power input and output and to monitor and control the flywheel.
amount of energy storage required in flywheels of IC engines is small and is
limited by the need of the vehicle to accelerate rapidly. The flywheel is currently Modern flywheels are made of composite materials, such as carbon fiber, instead
being looked into for use in a number of different capacities. Flywheels can be of steel to increase the energy density, which can be up to 200 Wh/kg. A
used in HEVs with a standard IC engine as a power assist device. Alternatively, composite material flywheel has the additional advantage in that it disintegrates
flywheels can be used to replace chemical batteries in EVs to serve as the in the form of a fluid, as compared to large metallic pieces for a steel-made
primary energy source or could be used in conjunction with batteries. However, flywheel, in the case of a catastrophic burst.
technological breakthroughs in increasing the specific energy of flywheels are
necessary before they can be considered as the energy source for EVs and HEVs.
The flywheels of today are quite complex, large, and heavy. Safety is also a
concern with flywheels.
Ultrahigh-speed flywheels Composite materials for ultrahigh-speed flywheels

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=J9slIBECva4

The advantages resulting from the use of this hybrid energy system for EVs are
Hybridization of energy sources
summarized below:
1) Since the EV requirements on energy and power can be decoupled, it affords an
None of the available energy sources, including batteries, fuel cells, ultracapacitors
opportunity to design EV sources such as batteries and fuel cells for high
and ultrahigh-speed flywheels, can fulfil all demands of EVs to enable them
specific energy, whereas to optimize other sources such as ultracapacitors and
competing with petrol-powered vehicles. In essence, these energy sources cannot
ultrahigh-speed flywheels for high specific power.
provide high specific energy and high specific power simultaneously. Instead of
limiting to use a sole energy source, EVs can adopt the concept of using multiple 2) Since there is no need to carry out trade-offs between the pursuits of specific
energy sources, so-called the hybridization of energy sources. energy and specific power, the cycle life and production cost of these sources can
readily be lengthened and minimized, respectively.
Since both the control and packaging complexities of this concept increase with
the number of energy sources involved, only the hybridization of two sources (one 3) The unique advantages of various EV energy sources can be fully utilized, such
for high specific energy while the other for high specific power) is considered to be as the maturity and low cost of batteries, the outstanding specific energy and
viable. high fuel efficiency of fuel cells, the enormous specific power and instantaneous
charge/discharge capability of ultracapacitors, as well as the outstanding specific
power and practically unlimited cycle life of ultrahigh-speed flywheels.
The principle of operation of this hybrid energy system, consisting of both high
specific energy and high specific power sources, is illustrated in Fig:
LONG-TERM HYBRIDS

In long term, the ultracapacitor should be improved to such a level that its specific
energy is sufficiently high to provide all necessary instantaneous energy for
acceleration and hill climbing, as well as to accept all regenerative energy during
braking and downhill. Similarly, the ultrahigh-speed flywheel should also be able
to attain such specific energy in the long term. Consequently, they can possibly
replace batteries to hybridize with the fuel cell to form the fuel cell &
ultracapacitor hybrid and the fuel cell & ultrahigh-speed flywheel hybrid.