THE RISE OF NATIONALISM IN EUROPE

1. Frédéric Sorrieu’s Vision (1848)

●​ Who was Sorrieu?

○​ Frédéric Sorrieu was a French artist.
●​ What did he create?
○​ He made a series of four prints showing his dream of a world with democratic
and social Republics(countries with freedom and equality).
●​ First Print Details:
○​ It shows people from Europe and America walking in a long line.
○​ Men and women of all ages and social classes are part of this march.
○​ They are paying respect to the Statue of Liberty.

2. Statue of Liberty in the Print

●​ Personification of Liberty:
○​ Liberty is shown as a female figure.
○​ She holds:
1.​ A torch of Enlightenment (symbol of knowledge).
2.​ The Charter of the Rights of Man (symbol of equality and freedom).
●​ Broken Absolutism:
○​ Broken symbols of monarchy (absolute rulers) are lying on the ground.

3. The Procession of Nations

●​ Who are the People in the March?

1.​ They represent different nations, identified by their flags and national
costumes.
●​ Order of Nations in the March:
1.​ First: United States and Switzerland (already free nation-states).
2.​ Next: France with its revolutionary tricolour flag.
3.​ Then: Germany with the black, red, and gold flag (showing their hope to
become a united country).
4.​ Others: Austria, Italy (Lombardy and the Two Sicilies), Poland, England,
Ireland, Hungary, and Russia.

4. Divine Support

●​ What is in the Sky?

○​ Christ, saints, and angels are shown in the sky.
○​ They symbolize fraternity (brotherhood) among nations.
5. Nationalism in the 19th Century Europe

●​ What is Nationalism?
○​ Nationalism is the feeling of belonging to a nation and working for its freedom
and unity.
●​ What Changed in Europe?
○​ Nationalism became strong in the 19th century.
○​ It brought big changes in politics and society.
●​ From Empires to Nation-States:
○​ Earlier, Europe was ruled by multi-national dynastic empires (ruled by kings
controlling many regions).
○​ By the 19th century, these empires were replaced by nation-states (countries
where people shared a common identity).

6. What is a Nation-State?

●​ A country where most people share:

○​ A common identity.
○​ A shared history or culture.
●​ How was it Created?
○​ Through struggles, revolutions, and actions by leaders and the people.

1. Definitions

●​ Absolutist:
○​ A government or system of rule with no limits on its power.
○​ Historically, it refers to a monarchy that is centralised, has a strong military,
and is repressive.
●​ Utopian:
○​ A vision of an ideal society that is so perfect, it is unlikely to exist in reality.

2. Ernst Renan: What is a Nation?

●​ Who was Ernst Renan?

○​ A French philosopher (1823–1892).
○​ He gave a lecture at the University of Sorbonne in 1882 on what makes a
nation.
○​ (His lecture was later published as an essay called Qu'est-ce qu'une nation?
(What is a Nation?).)
●​ Renan’s Ideas on a Nation:
○​ He disagreed with the idea that a nation is formed by:
1.​ A common language, race, religion, or territory.
○​ Instead, he believed:
1.​ A Nation is Based on History:
■​ A nation is built on a shared past of efforts, sacrifices, and
devotion.
 ■​ It is based on common glories, heroic events, and
achievements in history.
2.​ A Nation is Based on Unity:
■​ A common will to live together in the present and perform great
deeds in the future.
3.​ A Nation is Solidarity:
■​ It is a large-scale solidarity, where people work together as
one.
4.​ A Nation’s Existence is a Choice:
■​ It is like a daily plebiscite (voting or decision-making by the
people).
■​ People of a region should decide if they want to be part of a
nation.
●​ Renan’s Belief about Nations:
○​ A nation should not take control of a country or region against the will of its
people.
○​ Nations are important because they protect liberty (freedom).
○​ If the world had only one law or one ruler, liberty would be lost.

German Almanac Cover (1798)

1.​ Designed by Andreas Rebmann:

○​ A journalist named Andreas Rebmann designed the cover of a German
almanac in 1798.
2.​ Illustration Details:
○​ The image shows:
■​ The French Bastille being stormed by revolutionary crowds.
■​ A similar fortress, representing despotic rule, located in the German
province of Kassel.
○​ The message of the illustration:
■​ "The people must seize their own freedom!"
3.​ About Rebmann:
○​ He lived in Mainz (a German city).
○​ He was part of a German Jacobin group, inspired by the revolutionary ideals
of liberty and equality.

Here are the meanings of the difficult words from the text:

1.​ Almanac:
○​ A yearly book or calendar that contains important information, such as dates,
weather, and events.
2.​ Revolutionary:
○​ Someone or something that brings about major political or social change,
often by fighting against the existing system.
3.​ Bastille:
○​ A famous fortress-prison in France that symbolized tyranny and oppression. It
was stormed during the French Revolution in 1789.
4.​ Fortress:
○​ A large, strong building or group of buildings used for protection during wars.
5.​ Despotic Rule:
○​ A government or leader that rules with absolute power, often in a cruel or
oppressive way.
6.​ Province:
○​ A region or area within a country, like a state.
7.​ Slogan:
○​ A short and catchy phrase that delivers a strong message or idea.
8.​ Seize:
○​ To take something forcefully or suddenly.
9.​ Freedom:
○​ The state of being free to make your own choices without control or
oppression.
10.​Jacobin Group:
●​ A political group during the French Revolution that supported radical changes to
bring liberty and equality.

The French Revolution and Nationalism

1.​ First Expression of Nationalism:

○​ The French Revolution of 1789 was the first clear expression of nationalism.
○​ At that time, France was ruled by an absolute monarch (a king with total
power).
2.​ Changes After the French Revolution:
○​ The French Revolution transferred sovereignty (the power to rule) from the
king to the people.
○​ The revolution declared that the people are the nation and would decide
their own future.
3.​ Steps to Create National Unity:
○​ The French revolutionaries introduced measures to make the French people
feel united:
■​ The ideas of la patrie (the fatherland) and le citoyen (the citizen)
promoted equality and unity under a constitution.
■​ A new French flag (tricolour) replaced the old royal flag.
■​ The Estates General (a political body) was renamed the National
Assembly and was elected by active citizens.
■​ National hymns (songs) were created, oaths were taken, and
martyrs (people who died for the nation) were honoured.
■​ A centralised administration was introduced, creating uniform laws
for all citizens.
■​ Customs duties (taxes on goods) were removed, and a standard
system of weights and measures was introduced.
■​ Regional dialects were discouraged, and the French language, as
spoken in Paris, became the official language.
 4.​ France’s Mission to Spread Nationalism:
○​ The revolutionaries declared that it was the duty of France to help other
European nations achieve freedom from despotic rulers (unfair and
oppressive kings).
○​ News of the French Revolution spread across Europe.
○​ Students and educated middle-class people started Jacobin clubs in
cities like Holland, Belgium, Switzerland, and Italy to support the idea of
nationalism.
○​ French armies carried this idea wherever they went, especially during the
Revolutionary Wars in the 1790s.

Napoleon and Nationalism

1.​ Who was Napoleon?

○​ Napoleon Bonaparte became the ruler of France after the revolution.
○​ Although he brought back monarchy and ended democracy, he used
revolutionary ideas to improve the administration.
2.​ The Napoleonic Code (Civil Code of 1804):
○​ Napoleon introduced the Civil Code of 1804, also called the Napoleonic
Code.
○​ It included the following reforms:
■​ Ended privileges based on birth (for example, being treated specially
because of noble ancestry).
■​ Guaranteed equality before the law.
■​ Protected the right to property.
○​ This Code was applied in all the regions controlled by France, such as:
■​ The Dutch Republic, Switzerland, Italy, and Germany.
3.​ Reforms by Napoleon:
○​ Simplified the administration in these regions.
○​ Ended feudalism (a system where peasants were forced to work for lords
and could not leave the land).
○​ Freed peasants from serfdom (being tied to landowners) and manorial dues
(payments made to landlords).
○​ Removed restrictions by guilds (groups controlling crafts and trade in towns).
○​ Improved transport and communication systems.
○​ Introduced uniform laws, standard weights and measures, and a common
national currency.
○​ This helped businessmen and small-scale producers trade more easily across
regions.
4.​ Mixed Reactions to French Rule:
○​ Initially Welcomed:
■​ People in places like Holland, Switzerland, and cities such as
Brussels, Mainz, Milan, and Warsaw welcomed the French armies
as they brought liberty.
○​ Later Rejected:
■​ People soon became unhappy because:
 ■​ Taxes were increased.
■​ Censorship (control over speech and writing) was introduced.
■​ People were forced to join the French army through
conscription (compulsory military service).
■​ These issues made people hostile to French rule, even though they
benefited from some administrative reforms.

Difficult Words and Their Meanings

1.​ Absolute Monarch: A king or ruler who has total power and is not limited by laws or
a constitution.
2.​ Sovereignty: The authority to rule or govern.
3.​ Constitution: A set of laws or rules that determine how a country is governed.
4.​ Customs Duties: Taxes on goods that are imported or exported.
5.​ Regional Dialects: Local languages or versions of a language spoken in specific
areas.
6.​ Despotism: A system of rule by a cruel or unfair leader with absolute power.
7.​ Jacobin Clubs: Groups inspired by the French Revolution, supporting ideas of
liberty and equality.
8.​ Revolutionary Wars: Wars fought by France to spread the ideas of the revolution to
other countries.
9.​ Napoleonic Code: A set of laws introduced by Napoleon that included reforms like
equality before the law.
10.​Feudal System: A system where peasants worked for lords in exchange for
protection but had very few rights.
11.​Serfdom: A condition where peasants were tied to the land they worked on and
could not leave without permission.
12.​Manorial Dues: Payments peasants had to make to landowners under the feudal
system.
13.​Guilds: Organizations of craftsmen or traders that controlled trade and production in
towns.
14.​Conscription: Compulsory military service where people are forced to join the army.
15.​Censorship: The control of speech, writing, or media by the government.

The making of Nationalism in Europe

Europe in the Mid-18th Century

1.​ No Nation-States:
○​ In the mid-18th century, countries like Germany, Italy, and
Switzerland were not unified as they are today.
○​ These areas were divided into smaller regions like kingdoms,
duchies, and cantons, each ruled by independent leaders.
 2.​ Eastern and Central Europe:
○​ This region was ruled by autocratic monarchies (kings with
complete power).
○​ Many different groups of people lived within these empires.
○​ They had no sense of shared identity or common culture
because:
■​ They spoke different languages.
■​ They belonged to different ethnic groups (communities
with distinct cultural traits).
3.​ The Habsburg Empire (Austria-Hungary):
○​ The Habsburg Empire was a mix of different regions and people,
including:
■​ German-speaking aristocracy in Bohemia.
■​ Italian-speaking people in Lombardy and Venetia.
■​ Magyar-speaking (Hungarian) and dialect-speaking
populations in Hungary.
■​ Polish-speaking aristocracy in Galicia.
■​ Peasant groups like Bohemians, Slovaks, Slovenes,
Croats, and Romanians in different areas.
○​ The only thing uniting these diverse groups was their loyalty to
the emperor.

How Did Nationalism Begin?

2.1

1.​ Social Structure in Europe:

○​ The Aristocracy:
■​ The landed aristocracy was the most powerful class.
■​ They shared a common lifestyle, despite living in different
regions:
■​ Owned large estates and homes in towns.
■​ Used the French language for diplomacy and social
events.
■​ Had family connections through marriage alliances.
■​ However, this group was small in number.
○​ The Peasantry:
■​ Most of the population were peasants (farmers).
■​ Land ownership was different in different regions:
 ■​ In Western Europe, peasants worked as tenants or
small landowners.
■​ In Eastern and Central Europe, serfs (farmers tied
to the land) worked on large estates.
2.​ Emergence of the Middle Class:
○​ Industrialisation (growth of factories and trade) began in
England in the late 18th century and spread to France and
German states in the 19th century.
○​ This led to the rise of new groups:
■​ Industrialists (owners of factories).
■​ Businessmen (people involved in trade).
■​ Professionals (educated people like lawyers and doctors).
■​ Working-class population (factory workers).
3.​ Role of the Middle Class in Nationalism:
○​ In Central and Eastern Europe, these groups were smaller in
number until the late 19th century.
○​ Among the educated and liberal middle classes, the idea of
national unity gained popularity.
○​ They supported the abolition of aristocratic privileges (ending
the special rights of the aristocracy).

Difficult Words and Their Meanings

1.​ Nation-States: Countries where people share a common identity,

culture, and government.
2.​ Duchy: A region ruled by a duke or duchess.
3.​ Canton: A small region, especially in Switzerland, with its own
government.
4.​ Autocratic Monarchies: Governments where kings or queens have
complete control without limits.
5.​ Ethnic Groups: Communities of people who share the same language,
culture, or ancestry.
6.​ Aristocracy: The highest class in society, often landowners with special
privileges.
7.​ Diplomacy: Managing relations between countries.
8.​ Tenants: People who rent land to farm.
9.​ Serfs: Farmers who are tied to the land and cannot leave without
permission.
 10.​ Industrialisation: Development of industries and factories for
large-scale production.
11.​Liberal Middle Classes: Educated people who believed in freedom,
equality, and ending aristocratic privileges.
12.​ Privileges: Special rights or advantages given to certain groups.

2.2

Suffrage - The right to vote

What Did Liberal Nationalism Stand For?

1.​ Liberalism and National Unity:

○​ In the early 19th century, the idea of national unity was closely
linked to the ideology of liberalism.
○​ The term "liberalism" comes from the Latin word liber, meaning
free.
○​ For the middle classes, liberalism meant:
■​ Freedom for individuals.
■​ Equality before the law for everyone.
■​ A government based on consent, where people had a
say in decision-making.
2.​ Economic Challenges in Germany:
○​ After the French Revolution, Europe was divided into several
small principalities (small states).
○​ For example, Germany was divided into 39 states, each with its
own:
■​ Currency (money).
■​ System of weights and measures.
■​ Customs duties (taxes paid when goods passed through
borders).
○​ Example of challenges:
■​ A merchant traveling in 1833 from Hamburg to Nuremberg
had to pass through 11 customs barriers and pay a 5%
tax at each one.
■​ Each region had a different system for measuring goods:
■​ The elle (a unit of length for cloth) varied across
regions:
■​ Frankfurt: 54.7 cm.
■​ Mainz: 55.1 cm.
 ■​ Nuremberg: 65.6 cm.
■​ Freiburg: 53.5 cm.
○​ Such differences made trade slow and complicated, which
frustrated merchants and business owners.
3.​ Formation of Zollverein (Customs Union):
○​ In 1834, Prussia led the formation of a customs union called
Zollverein, which most German states joined.
○​ The union made trade easier by:
■​ Abolishing customs duties between member states.
■​ Reducing the number of currencies from 30 to 2.
4.​ Impact of Zollverein:
○​ The union created a unified economic territory where goods,
people, and money could move freely.
○​ Building railways further boosted mobility and connected regions.
○​ This economic integration strengthened nationalism and
increased the demand for national unification.

Difficult Words and Their Meanings

1.​ Liberalism: A belief in individual freedom, equality, and government by

consent.
2.​ Principalities: Small independent regions ruled by princes.
3.​ Customs Duty: Tax paid on goods when they cross a border.
4.​ Weights and Measures: Systems used to measure goods, like length,
weight, or volume.
5.​ Elle: A unit of length used to measure cloth, but its value varied in
different regions.
6.​ Tariff: A tax on goods crossing borders.
7.​ Zollverein: A customs union in Germany that removed trade barriers
between states.
8.​ Mobility: The ability to move goods and people easily.
9.​ Economic Nationalism: The belief that economic policies should
promote national unity and growth.
2.3

Conservatism

●​ Definition: A political philosophy that emphasizes:

○​ The importance of traditions.
○​ Maintaining established institutions and customs.
○​ Preferring slow and gradual development instead of rapid or
revolutionary changes.

Example: After the French Revolution, many rulers in Europe followed

conservatism to restore old systems of monarchy and maintain stability.

words:

A New Conservatism after 1815

1. Napoleon’s Defeat and the Rise of Conservatism (1815)

​ •​ Napoleon was defeated in 1815, and after that, European

governments promoted conservatism (a political belief that favors traditional
institutions and gradual change).

​ •​ Conservatives wanted to preserve monarchies, the Church, social

hierarchy (ranking of people in society), property, and family values.

​ •​ However, they also adopted modern ideas, such as building

strong armies and economies, while abolishing feudalism (a system where
peasants worked under nobles).

​ •​ This was done to strengthen their power and avoid future

revolutions.

2. The Congress of Vienna (1815)

​ •​ After Napoleon’s defeat, representatives from Britain, Russia,

Prussia, and Austria met in Vienna (Austria) to redraw the map of Europe.

​ •​ The meeting was led by Austrian Chancellor Duke Metternich.

​ •​ Their main goal was to restore the pre-Napoleonic order and
make sure France would not become powerful again.

​ •​ The Treaty of Vienna (1815) was signed to reverse Napoleon’s

changes and bring back traditional monarchies.

3. Changes Made by the Treaty of Vienna

The treaty redesigned European boundaries to stop French expansion:

​ •​ The Bourbon dynasty was restored in France (Bourbon kings

ruled France before the French Revolution).

​ •​ France lost the territories it had annexed (taken control of) under
Napoleon.

​ •​ New boundaries were set up to strengthen the countries

surrounding France:

​ •​ The Kingdom of the Netherlands, including Belgium, was created

north of France.

​ •​ Genoa (in Italy) was added to Piedmont, strengthening Italy’s

northern regions.

​ •​ Prussia received new territories on its western borders (closer to

France).

​ •​ Austria took control of northern Italy, increasing its influence.

​ •​ Russia gained part of Poland, and Prussia took part of Saxony (a

German region).

​ •​ The German Confederation (39 states) remained as it was before.

4. The New Conservative Order

​ •​ Monarchies overthrown by Napoleon were restored to power.

​ •​ These conservative governments were strict and autocratic (one

person or group had all the power).

​ •​ They did not allow criticism and imposed censorship (controlling

what people could say in newspapers or public discussions).
5. Liberals Opposed Conservatives

​ •​ Liberals were people who supported democracy, equality, and

freedom, inspired by the French Revolution.

​ •​ They criticized the conservative governments for being too strict

and demanded freedom of the press (right to print news and express opinions
without censorship).

Difficult Words and Meanings

1.​ Conservatism: Political belief in preserving traditions and gradual

change.
2.​ Autocratic: A system where one person or group has all the power,
allowing no opposition.
3.​ Censorship: Controlling or restricting what can be published or said in
the media.
4.​ Hierarchy: A system where people or groups are ranked one above the
other.
5.​ Feudalism: A medieval system where peasants worked for nobles in
exchange for protection.
6.​ Annexed: Taking control of a territory and adding it to one’s own
country.
7.​ Legitimacy: Being lawful or accepted as right and proper.
8.​ Monarchies: Governments led by kings or queens.

The Revolutionaries (Post-1815)

1.​ Fear of Repression: After 1815, many liberals and nationalists were
afraid of being punished by the government, so they went underground
(operated secretly).
○​ Secret societies were formed to train revolutionaries and
spread their ideas of liberty and freedom.
○​ These revolutionaries opposed monarchical systems
(kingdoms) set up after the Vienna Congress and believed that
creating nation-states was necessary for freedom.
2.​ Giuseppe Mazzini:
 ○​ Born in Genoa in 1807, Mazzini became a revolutionary leader.
○​ He joined the Carbonari, a secret society, and tried to start a
revolution in Liguria in 1831, but was exiled(forced to leave) for
his actions.
○​ Mazzini then created two more secret societies: Young Italy in
Marseilles and Young Europe in Berne.
○​ These societies aimed to unite young people from Italy, France,
Poland, and the German states for a common cause.
3.​ Mazzini's Beliefs:
○​ He believed that God had intended nations to be the natural
units of humanity.
○​ According to him, Italy could not remain divided into many small
states and kingdoms. Instead, it had to be unified (made one)
into a single republic.
○​ He believed this unification was the only way to achieve Italian
freedom.
○​ Inspired by his ideas, secret societies were also set up in
Germany, France, Switzerland, and Poland.
4.​ Opposition to Monarchy:
○​ Mazzini's opposition to monarchy (the rule of kings) and his
vision for democratic republics made conservatives afraid.
○​ Metternich, an Austrian leader, called Mazzini the most
dangerous enemy of our social order.

New Words and Meanings

1.​ Repression: The act of suppressing or controlling something,

especially by force or authority.
2.​ Underground: Operating secretly, often to oppose the government or
authority.
3.​ Revolutionaries: People who actively seek to change or overthrow a
government or social system.
4.​ Monarchical: Relating to monarchy, where a king or queen holds
power.
5.​ Exiled: Forced to leave one's home or country, often as punishment.
 6.​ Unification: The process of combining or uniting multiple things into
one.
7.​ Relentless: Never giving up, continuing without stopping.

Conservative Regimes and Liberal-Nationalist Revolutions

1.​ Opposition to Conservative Power:

○​ After 1815, conservative regimes (traditional rulers) tried to
strengthen their control.
○​ However, liberalism (freedom and equality) and nationalism
(love for one’s nation) became linked with revolutionary
movements in many parts of Europe.
○​ Revolts occurred in regions like Italy, Germany, the Ottoman
Empire provinces, Ireland, and Poland.
2.​ Leaders of Revolutions:
○​ These uprisings were led by the educated middle-class elite,
including professors, teachers, clerks, and businesspeople.
3.​ The July Revolution (1830):
○​ In France, the Bourbon kings (restored after Napoleon’s defeat)
were overthrown in July 1830 by liberal revolutionaries.
○​ They replaced the monarchy with a constitutional monarchy led
by Louis Philippe.
○​ Metternich remarked, "When France sneezes, the rest of Europe
catches cold," meaning that revolutions in France inspired other
countries.
○​ For example, this July Revolution caused an uprising in
Brussels, leading to Belgium breaking away from the United
Kingdom of the Netherlands.
4.​ Greek War of Independence (1821-1832):
○​ Greece, under Ottoman rule since the 15th century, began its
struggle for independence in 1821.
○​ The growth of revolutionary nationalism in Europe inspired
Greeks to fight for freedom.
○​ Support for Greece came from:
■​ Greeks living in exile (outside their homeland).
■​ West Europeans, who admired ancient Greek culture
and saw Greece as the cradle of European civilisation.
 ○​ Poets and artists celebrated Greece’s heritage and encouraged
public support.
■​ Example: The English poet Lord Byron raised funds and
even fought in the war, though he died of fever in 1824.
○​ The struggle ended with the Treaty of Constantinople (1832),
which declared Greece an independent nation.

New Words and Meanings

1.​ Consolidate: To make something stronger or more secure.

2.​ Revolutionaries: People fighting to overthrow an existing government
or system.
3.​ Constitutional Monarchy: A government where the king or queen
rules according to a constitution or set of laws.
4.​ Uprising: A rebellion or revolt against authority.
5.​ Exile: Being forced to live away from one’s country.
6.​ Cradle of Civilisation: A place where culture or civilisation is believed
to have begun.
7.​ Mobilised: To bring people together for action, often in support of a
cause.

The Role of Culture in Nationalism (3.1)

1.​ Culture and Nationalism:

○​ Nationalism didn’t grow only through wars and territorial
expansion.
○​ Culture—such as art, poetry, music, and stories—helped
people feel united and develop a sense of belonging to a nation.
2.​ Romanticism:
○​ Romanticism was a cultural movement that aimed to inspire
nationalist feelings.
○​ Romantic artists and poets:
■​ Opposed the focus on reason and science from the
Enlightenment.
■​ Highlighted emotions, intuition (gut feelings), and
mystical connections.
■​ Promoted a shared cultural heritage and a common
history as the foundation of a nation.
 3.​ German Romanticism:
○​ German philosopher Johann Gottfried Herder (1744–1803)
believed true German culture was found among the common
people, called das Volk (the people).
○​ Folk traditions, such as songs, poetry, and dances, were seen
as expressing the true spirit of a community.
○​ Collecting and sharing these folk traditions was essential for
nation-building.
4.​ Polish Nationalism and Culture:
○​ Poland was partitioned (divided) by Russia, Prussia, and
Austria in the late 18th century, and it ceased to exist as an
independent country.
○​ Music and language helped keep Polish national feelings alive:
○​
■​ Karol Kurpinski, a composer, celebrated Poland’s national
struggles through his operas and transformed folk dances
like the polonaise and mazurka into symbols of Polish
nationalism.
■​ Language: After Russia banned the use of Polish and
imposed the Russian language in schools, the Polish
people used their language as a symbol of resistance.
■​ The Polish clergy (priests and bishops) held Church
services and religious teachings in Polish, even when this
led to their imprisonment or exile to Siberia by Russian
authorities.
○​ Speaking Polish became a symbol of the fight against Russian
dominance.

New Words and Meanings

1.​ Romanticism: A movement focusing on emotions, nature, and cultural

traditions rather than reason and science.
2.​ Intuition: The ability to understand something immediately without
logical reasoning.
3.​ Mystical: Having a spiritual or mysterious quality that is beyond human
understanding.
4.​ Heritage: Traditions, culture, and history passed down from previous
generations.
 5.​ Folk traditions: Customs, songs, dances, and stories of ordinary
people in a region.
6.​ Vernacular: The everyday language spoken by ordinary people in a
particular region.
7.​ Partitioned: Divided into parts or sections.
8.​ Clergy: Religious leaders such as priests or bishops.
9.​ Resistance: Opposition to someone or something, often in the context
of a struggle for rights or freedom.
10.​ Dominance: Power and control over others

Hunger, Hardship, and Revolts in Europe (1830s-1848) 3.2

1.​ Economic Hardships in the 1830s:

○​ During this period, Europe faced economic difficulties:
■​ The population increased, but there weren’t enough jobs.
■​ Many people moved from villages to cities, but they ended
up living in overcrowded slums.
■​ Small producers faced stiff competition from cheap,
machine-made goods imported from England, where
industries were more advanced.
■​ Textile production was only partly mechanized, so many
workers in Europe depended on traditional methods,
making it hard to compete with England.
○​ In regions where aristocrats (rich landowners) still had power,
peasants were burdened with heavy feudal dues (payments and
services owed to landlords).
○​ A bad harvest or rising food prices often led to pauperism
(extreme poverty) in both cities and villages.

2.​ The Revolts of 1848:

○​ In 1848, food shortages and unemployment led to revolts.
■​ In Paris, people protested by building barricades
(temporary walls made of stones and wood).
■​ King Louis Philippe fled, and a Republic was declared.
■​ The government:
■​ Gave voting rights (suffrage) to all adult males
above 21.
■​ Guaranteed the right to work.
 ■​ Set up national workshops to provide jobs.
3.​ The Silesian Weavers’ Revolt (1845):
○​ Weavers in Silesia (a region in Central Europe) protested
against unfair payments by contractors:
■​ Contractors provided raw materials for weaving but paid the
workers very little.
■​ Wilhelm Wolff, a journalist, described how the weavers:
■​ Marched to the contractor’s house to demand higher
wages.
■​ Were mocked and threatened.
■​ Forced their way into the house, breaking windows,
furniture, and porcelain.
■​ Looted supplies of cloth and destroyed them.
○​ The contractor fled, but no nearby village wanted to shelter him.
○​ He returned with the army, and in the conflict that followed, 11
weavers were killed.

New Words and Meanings

1.​ Stiff competition: Strong rivalry or challenge from others in the same
field.
2.​ Mechanised: Using machines instead of manual labor.
3.​ Feudal dues: Payments or services that peasants had to give to
landowners under the feudal system.
4.​ Pauperism: Extreme poverty, when people don’t have basic
necessities.
5.​ Barricades: Temporary walls or barriers used during protests to block
streets or protect protesters.
6.​ Republic: A form of government where the country is not ruled by a
king but by elected representatives.
7.​ Suffrage: The right to vote.
8.​ Revolt: An act of rebellion or protest against authority.
9.​ Contractors: People who provide raw materials and give orders for
goods to be made, often hiring workers for the task.
10.​ Requisitioned: Officially requested or demanded something, often
by force (in this case, the army).
11.​Plundered: Stole or looted goods, often during a protest or conflict.
1848: The Revolution of the Liberals (Simplified)

Parallel Revolutions in 1848

In 1848, both the poor (unemployed and starving workers) and the middle
class started revolts in different parts of Europe.

Goals of the Liberals

The middle-class revolutionaries wanted:

●​ A constitution and national unification in areas without independent

nation-states, like Germany, Italy, Poland, and the Austro-Hungarian
Empire.
●​ A government based on parliamentary principles, including:
○​ A constitution (set of rules for governance).
○​ Freedom of the press (right to publish news without restriction).
○​ Freedom of association (right to form groups or organizations).

France’s Revolution (February 1848)

●​ People’s protests forced the king to give up his throne.

●​ A republic (government without a king) was declared.
●​ Universal male suffrage was introduced (all adult men got the right to
vote).

The Frankfurt Parliament (Germany)

●​ Middle-class professionals, businessmen, and artisans started the

Frankfurt Parliament to unite Germany.
●​ Key Event:
○​ On 18 May 1848, 831 elected representatives met at St. Paul’s
Church, Frankfurt to form a German National Assembly.
○​ They wrote a constitution for a united Germany under a king
controlled by a parliament.
○​ King Friedrich Wilhelm IV of Prussia refused the crown
because he did not want limits on his power.

Reasons for Failure

●​ The aristocracy and military strongly opposed the revolution.

●​ The middle-class leaders did not support the demands of workers
and artisans, so they lost popular support.
●​ Finally, the army dissolved the parliament.
Role of Women

●​ Women actively participated by forming political groups, publishing

newspapers, and joining protests.
●​ However, they were denied political rights:
○​ They could not vote in the elections for the Assembly.
○​ They could only watch the Frankfurt Parliament from the
visitors' gallery.

Impact of the 1848 Revolutions

●​ Though monarchs suppressed the revolutions, they could not fully

restore the old system.
●​ Kings understood that repeated revolts could be stopped only by
accepting some liberal demands.

Changes After 1848

●​ Autocratic (absolute) rulers in Central and Eastern Europe introduced reforms:

○​ Serfdom (forced farming work) and bonded labour were
abolished in Habsburg territories and Russia.
○​ In 1867, the Habsburg rulers gave Hungary more autonomy
(self-rule).

New Words and Meanings

1.​ Constitutionalism: A system of government limited by laws and a

constitution.
2.​ Universal male suffrage: Voting rights granted to all adult men,
regardless of wealth or status.
3.​ Abolition: The act of officially ending a system, practice, or institution
(e.g., serfdom).
4.​ Autonomy: The right or condition of self-government within a larger
political framework.
5.​ Aristocracy: A privileged, wealthy ruling class that holds power in
society.
6.​ Bonded labour: A system where people are forced to work to repay a
debt, often without fair wages.
4.1 Germany - Can the Army Be the Architect of a Nation?

Shift in Nationalism Post-1848 (Simplified)

●​ After 1848, nationalism in Europe changed direction.

●​ It moved away from democracy and revolution.
●​ Conservative rulers (kings and powerful leaders) used nationalism
to:
○​ Increase their power.
○​ Expand their political control.
○​
○​

German Unification

Early Attempts (1848):

●​ Middle-class Germans tried to unite German Confederation into a

nation-state with an elected parliament.
●​ This failed due to opposition from:
○​ Monarchy (kings).
○​ Military (army).
○​ Junkers (large landowners in Prussia).

Prussia Leads Unification:

●​ Prussia took charge of German unification after 1848.

●​ Otto von Bismarck (Prussia’s chief minister) planned and led the
process.

Strategy for Unification:

●​ Used Prussian army and strong bureaucracy (government system).

●​ Fought three wars (all won by Prussia):
○​ Against Denmark
○​ Against Austria
○​ Against France

Proclamation of the German Empire (1871):

●​ On 18 January 1871, King William I of Prussia was declared Kaiser

(Emperor) of Germany.
 ●​ The ceremony took place at Palace of Versailles (Hall of Mirrors),
showing German power over France.

Features of Unified Germany:

●​ Prussia dominated the new German Empire.

●​ Modernization efforts included:
○​ New currency system.
○​ Improved banking system.
○​ Legal and judicial reforms (law and justice).
●​ Prussian policies became the model for the entire German Empire.

Meanings of Difficult Words (4.1 Germany - Can the Army Be the

Architect of a Nation?)

1.​ Nationalism:
○​ A strong feeling of pride and loyalty towards one’s nation, often
focused on the goal of unifying or strengthening it.
2.​ Democracy:
○​ A form of government where power lies with the people, who vote
to elect their representatives.
3.​ Domination:
○​ Control or authority over others, often through power or influence.
4.​ Confederation:
○​ An alliance or union of states or groups that retain some
independence but cooperate on certain matters.
5.​ Monarchy:
○​ A system of government where a king or queen rules, often based
on hereditary succession.
6.​ Junkers:
○​ Wealthy and powerful landowners in Prussia who supported the
monarchy and military.
7.​ Bureaucracy:
○​ A system of government or administration with officials and
departments managing its functions.
8.​ Unification:
○​ The process of bringing together different regions, groups, or
states to form a single unit.
9.​ Architect:
 ○​ A person who designs or plans something, used metaphorically
here for someone who creates or organizes a movement or
strategy.
10.​ Ceremony:
○​ A formal event held to celebrate or mark an important occasion.
11.​Kaiser:
○​ A German emperor, derived from the Roman title "Caesar."
12.​ Dominance:
○​ The state of being more powerful, influential, or important than
others.
13.​ Currency:
○​ The system of money used in a country.
14.​ Judicial:
○​ Related to the legal system or courts of law.
15.​ Standard:
○​ A level of quality or a model used as a basis for comparison.

1. Italy's Political Fragmentation. 4.2

●​ Explanation: In the 1800s, Italy was not one country. It was divided into
seven smaller states, each ruled by different powers. Some states were
under foreign rulers, like the Austrian Habsburgs, and some were
ruled by local dynasties.
●​ Difficult words:
○​ Fragmentation: The process of breaking into smaller parts.
○​ Dynastic states: States ruled by a family, often over generations.
○​ Habsburg Empire: A powerful family that ruled large parts of
Europe, including parts of Italy.

2. Role of Sardinia-Piedmont

●​ Explanation: Among the seven states, Sardinia-Piedmont was an

important region. It was ruled by an Italian princely house (the royal
family), making it somewhat different from the other states, which were
under foreign control.
●​ Difficult words:
○​ Princely house: A royal family that rules a region.

3. Cavour’s Strategy

●​ Explanation: Count Cavour, the chief minister (head of government) of

Sardinia-Piedmont, wanted to unify Italy but was not a revolutionary.
 Instead, he used diplomatic (peaceful negotiations) methods to make
alliances and defeat foreign powers.
●​ Difficult words:
○​ Diplomatic: Relating to managing relationships between
countries peacefully.
○​ Chief Minister: The leader of the government in some countries,
similar to a prime minister.

4. French Alliance and War with Austria

●​ Explanation: Cavour formed an alliance with France, which helped

Sardinia-Piedmont defeat Austria in 1859. Austria was a powerful
country that controlled parts of Italy. With France’s help,
Sardinia-Piedmont could push Austria out of Italy.
●​ Difficult words:
○​ Alliance: A formal agreement between two countries to support
each other.
○​ Defeat: To win against someone in a war or battle.

5. Garibaldi’s Volunteers

●​ Explanation: Giuseppe Garibaldi, a popular leader, gathered

volunteers to fight for Italy’s unification. He led a military campaign in
southern Italy, where he got local peasants (farmers) to support him in
overthrowing the Bourbon kings who ruled the south.

6. Proclamation of United Italy (1861)

●​ Explanation: In 1861, Victor Emmanuel II, the king of

Sardinia-Piedmont, was declared the first king of a united Italy. This
marked the official unification of Italy, but many Italians, especially
peasants, did not fully understand what it meant for them.
●​ Difficult words:
○​ Proclamation: An official announcement.
○​ Peasants: Poor farmers who lived in rural areas.
○​ Proclaimed: Officially announced or declared.

7. Lack of Awareness Among the Population

 ●​ Explanation: Even though Italy was unified, many people in southern
Italy, especially the poor peasants, didn’t understand what a united Italy
was. They didn’t know about nationalism or liberal ideas and
sometimes thought that Italy was the name of Victor Emmanuel II’s
wife.
●​ Difficult words:
○​ Nationalism: A belief that people with common culture, language,
and history should have their own country.
○​ Liberal ideas: Ideas that support freedom, democracy, and equal
rights.

8. Fragmented Regions in Italy

●​ Explanation: Before unification, Italy was divided into different regions.

The north was under the control of Austria, the center was ruled by the
Pope, and the south was controlled by the Bourbon kings of Spain.
So, there was no single Italian identity before unification.
●​ Difficult words:
○​ Pope: The leader of the Roman Catholic Church, based in the
Vatican.
○​ Bourbon kings: The royal family that ruled southern Italy.

9. Mazzini’s Efforts Before Cavour

●​ Explanation: Before Cavour and Garibaldi, Giuseppe Mazzini had

tried to create a united Italy through revolutions and uprisings. He
started a secret society called Young Italy to spread ideas of a unified
republic, but his revolutions in 1831 and 1848 failed.
●​ Difficult words:
○​ Republic: A country where the people elect their leaders, not
ruled by a king or queen.
○​ Uprisings: Rebellions or revolts against rulers.

10. Sardinia-Piedmont's Role in Unification

●​ Explanation: After Mazzini’s failure, Sardinia-Piedmont took the lead

in unifying Italy, as the elites (wealthy and educated people) in the
region saw it as a way to gain more power and control. They wanted a
unified Italy to have more economic and political influence.
●​ Difficult words:
○​ Elites: Wealthy and influential people in society.
 ○​ Unification: The process of bringing different regions or groups
together to form one country.

Conclusion:

●​ Italy was divided into different states for a long time, but through
diplomacy, military action, and the support of key leaders like Cavour
and Garibaldi, it was eventually unified under the leadership of Victor
Emmanuel II in 1861. However, many people, especially in rural areas,
were unaware of the changes taking place and did not understand the
concept of a united nation.

1. Early Life and Background

●​ Explanation: Garibaldi was born into a family involved in coastal trade,

and he worked as a sailor in the merchant navy. His early life was
shaped by his involvement in sea trade and his exposure to various
parts of the world.
●​ Difficult words:
○​ Coastal trade: The business of transporting goods along the
coast, typically by sea.
○​ Merchant navy: The fleet of civilian ships used for commercial
trade.

2. Joining Mazzini’s Young Italy Movement

●​ Explanation: In 1833, Garibaldi met Giuseppe Mazzini, an important

figure in the Italian unification movement. Garibaldi joined Young Italy,
a revolutionary movement that aimed to create a united Italian republic.
●​ Difficult words:
○​ Young Italy: A secret society founded by Mazzini in 1831, which
aimed to promote Italian unification and independence through
republican ideals.
○​ Republican uprising: A rebellion with the goal of establishing a
republic rather than a monarchy.

3. Exile in South America

●​ Explanation: After participating in a failed republican uprising in

Piedmont in 1834, Garibaldi had to flee to South America. He spent
many years in exile there, living in countries like Brazil and Uruguay,
where he continued his military activities.
 ●​ Difficult words:
○​ Exile: Living away from one's own country, usually for political
reasons.
○​ Piedmont: A region in northern Italy, which was important in the
unification process.

4. Support for Victor Emmanuel II

●​ Explanation: By 1854, Garibaldi returned to Italy and began supporting

Victor Emmanuel II, the King of Sardinia-Piedmont, in his efforts to
unify Italy. Though Garibaldi had earlier advocated for a republic, he
accepted the monarchy as a step toward unification.
●​ Difficult words:
○​ Supporter: A person who agrees with and helps a cause or
leader.
○​ Monarchy: A form of government where the country is ruled by a
king or queen.

5. The Expedition of the Thousand (1860)

●​ Explanation: In 1860, Garibaldi led a famous military campaign known

as the Expedition of the Thousand. He gathered a group of
volunteers, later known as the Red Shirts, and marched south to
conquer the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies in southern Italy. Over time, the
group grew to around 30,000 people.
●​ Difficult words:
○​ Expedition: A journey or military campaign with a specific goal.
○​ Red Shirts: The nickname given to Garibaldi's volunteers, who
wore red shirts as part of their uniform.
○​ Kingdom of the Two Sicilies: A kingdom in southern Italy,
consisting of the island of Sicily and the southern part of the
Italian Peninsula.

6. Attempt to Capture Rome (1867)

●​ Explanation: In 1867, Garibaldi led another campaign to capture

Rome, which was still under the control of the Papal States (ruled by
the Pope). He faced opposition from both French and Papal troops, and
the campaign was unsuccessful.
●​ Difficult words:
○​ Papal States: The territories in Italy controlled by the Pope, which
were a significant obstacle to Italy’s unification.
 ○​ Garrison: A group of soldiers stationed in a particular location to
defend it.

7. Unification of Rome (1870)

●​ Explanation: In 1870, during a war between France and Prussia,

French troops withdrew from Rome, leaving it unprotected. This allowed
the Italian army to capture Rome, completing the unification of Italy.
●​ Difficult words:
○​ Prussia: A powerful state in northern Europe, which later became
part of Germany.
○​ Withdraw: To remove or pull back forces from a location.

Conclusion:

●​ Garibaldi’s life was marked by his dedication to the cause of Italian

unification. He fought in various battles, led volunteer armies, and
played a crucial role in freeing southern Italy from foreign rule. Even
though he was not able to capture Rome during his lifetime, his efforts
contributed greatly to the eventual formation of the united Italian state.

5. Visualizing the Nation through allegories, with meanings of difficult words:

1. Personifying the Nation

●​ Explanation: Artists in the 18th and 19th centuries had to find a way to
represent a nation. While rulers could be depicted through portraits or
statues, it was more challenging to represent a nation itself. To do this,
artists personified the nation, meaning they gave it human qualities.
They chose to represent the nation as a female figure, as a way to
make the idea of a nation more tangible or understandable.
●​ Difficult words:
○​ Personify: To give human characteristics to something abstract,
like a nation.
○​ Allegory: A symbolic representation, where a character or figure
represents an idea or concept.

2. The Female Allegory

●​ Explanation: The female figure used to represent the nation was not
meant to depict a real woman but was a symbol for the abstract idea of
 the nation. This allowed the idea of a nation to take a more concrete
form, making it easier for people to connect with.
●​ Difficult words:
○​ Abstract: Something that is not physical or tangible, like an idea.
○​ Concrete: Something that is real and tangible.

3. French Revolution and Allegories

●​ Explanation: During the French Revolution, artists used female figures

to represent key concepts like Liberty, Justice, and the Republic.
These female allegories were depicted with specific objects or symbols
to make the ideas clearer:
○​ Liberty was represented by a woman wearing a red cap and
holding a broken chain, symbolizing freedom from oppression.
○​ Justice was shown as a blindfolded woman holding a pair of
weighing scales, symbolizing impartiality and fairness.
●​ Difficult words:
○​ Liberty: Freedom, especially from tyranny or oppression.
○​ Impartiality: Fairness; treating all people or situations equally
without bias.

4. Marianne: The French Allegory

●​ Explanation: In France, the female symbol for the nation was named
Marianne. This name was chosen because it was a popular Christian
name, symbolizing the people’s connection to the nation. Marianne was
depicted with characteristics representing Liberty and the Republic,
such as the red cap, the tricolour (three-color flag), and a cockade (a
symbol of the French Revolution). Statues of Marianne were placed in
public spaces to remind citizens of the national ideals and promote
unity.
●​ Difficult words:
○​ Cockade: A small decorative pin or emblem worn on a hat,
symbolizing support for a cause.
○​ Tricolour: The three-color flag of France, representing liberty,
equality, and fraternity.

5. German Allegory: Germania

●​ Explanation: Similarly, in Germany, the female symbol for the nation

was named Germania. She was depicted wearing a crown made of oak
leaves, as the oak tree symbolized heroism and strength in German
 culture. This made Germania a powerful figure representing the unity
and might of the German nation.
●​ Difficult words:
○​ Oak leaves: The leaves of the oak tree, a symbol of strength and
heroism in many cultures.

Conclusion:

●​ Artists in the 18th and 19th centuries used female allegories to give
abstract ideas like nations and ideals a physical form. By personifying
nations through figures like Marianne in France and Germania in
Germany, these allegories helped people connect with and identify the
idea of the nation as a whole.

6. Explanation of Nationalism and Imperialism

1.​ Transformation of Nationalism by the End of the 19th Century

○​ Explanation: By the late 1800s, nationalism in Europe lost its
earlier idealistic, liberal-democratic tone and became more
focused on narrow, self-serving goals. Nationalist groups became
less tolerant of each other and more willing to engage in conflicts,
especially as European powers began manipulating these
nationalist movements to expand their own imperialist control.
○​ Difficult words:
■​ Idealistic: Guided by high principles or noble goals.
■​ Creed: A set of beliefs or principles.
■​ Intolerant: Unwilling to accept views, beliefs, or behaviors
different from one's own.
2.​ Nationalist Tensions in the Balkans
○​ Explanation: The Balkans region (comprising countries like
Romania, Greece, Serbia, etc.) became a major source of tension
due to its complex mix of ethnic groups and nationalist
movements. The Ottoman Empire controlled much of the
Balkans, but its weakening allowed nationalist sentiments to grow.
Many ethnic groups in the Balkans believed they were reclaiming
their long-lost independence from foreign powers, such as the
Ottoman Empire.
○​ Difficult words:
■​ Ethnic variation: Different ethnic groups or cultures within
a region.
 ■​ Disintegration: The process of something breaking down
or falling apart.
■​ Subjugated: Forced to be under the control of another
group, often by force.
■​ Explosive: Likely to cause strong reactions or conflicts.
3.​ Conflict Among Balkan States
○​ Explanation: The different nations in the Balkans were in fierce
competition with each other, each hoping to expand its territory at
the expense of others. This rivalry made the region highly
unstable and a site of conflict.
○​ Difficult words:
■​ Fiercely: With intense energy or passion.
■​ Jealous: Envious or resentful of someone else’s success
or possessions.
4.​ Big Power Rivalries in the Balkans
○​ Explanation: The Balkan problem also attracted the attention of
the major European powers—Russia, Germany, England, and
Austria-Hungary. These powers competed with each other to
control the Balkans, which led to increasing tensions and
contributed to the outbreak of the First World War.
○​ Difficult words:
■​ Rivalry: Competition or conflict between two or more
entities, often for dominance or control.
■​ Countering: Actively opposing or resisting.
5.​ Nationalism and Imperialism Leading to War
○​ Explanation: The combination of rising nationalist movements in
the Balkans and imperialist ambitions of European powers led to
a series of conflicts. This eventually contributed to the outbreak of
World War I in 1914, as the competing powers' interests collided.
○​ Difficult words:
■​ Imperialism: The policy or practice of extending a
country's power and influence through colonization or
military force.
6.​ Anti-Imperial Movements Around the World
○​ Explanation: At the same time, many countries that had been
colonized by
○​ European powers began to oppose imperialism. These countries
developed their own nationalist movements to fight for
independence and form their own nation-states. Although their
specific forms of nationalism differed, the common goal was to
 challenge imperial domination and establish independent
countries.
○​ Difficult words:
■​ Colonized: Controlled by a foreign country or power, often
by force.
■​ Imperial domination: Control or rule by an empire over
foreign lands or people.
■​ Confrontation: A hostile or aggressive meeting or conflict.
7.​ Universal Acceptance of Nation-States
○​ Explanation: Despite the differences in nationalist movements
around the world, the idea that societies should be organized as
nation-states (countries formed based on shared culture,
language, and identity) became widely accepted. Nationalism,
driven by the desire for self-determination, spread across the
globe, even if the exact forms it took varied.
○​ Difficult words:
■​ Nation-states: Countries in which the political boundaries
align with a common cultural or ethnic group.
■​ Self-determination: The right of a group of people to
determine their own political status and governance.

Summary

By the end of the 19th century, nationalism had shifted from a force for
democratic change to a more narrow, competitive ideology that fueled conflict.
The Balkans became a hotspot for nationalist tensions, with various groups
vying for independence and control. These conflicts, along with imperial
rivalries, contributed to the onset of World War I. Meanwhile, around the world,
colonies began developing their own nationalist movements, which eventually
led to the widespread acceptance of the idea of independent nation-states.

The Case of Britain(4.3)

You’re absolutely right! Here’s the complete explanation again in points with all
difficult word meanings included — even for “isles,” “revolution,” and others
that were earlier missed. This version is thorough and perfect for Class XII
board exam prep.
Formation of the Nation-State in Great Britain –

​ 1.​ Great Britain as a Nation-State Model:

​ •​ Some scholars believe that Great Britain is a model (example) for

forming a nation-state (a country made of people who share a common
identity like culture, language, or history).

​ •​ Britain’s nation-state was not created by a sudden revolution (a

big change in political power, often through violence or protest) but through a
long and slow process.

​ 2.​ No British Nation Before the 18th Century:

​ •​ Before the 18th century (1700s), there was no single ‘British’

nation.

​ •​ People lived in the British Isles (a group of islands including

England, Scotland, Wales, and Ireland) and were divided into ethnic groups:

​ •​ English

​ •​ Welsh

​ •​ Scots

​ •​ Irish

​ •​ Each of these groups had its own culture and political traditions.

​ 3.​ Growth of English Power and Influence:

​ •​ Over time, the English nation became wealthier, stronger, and

more powerful.

​ •​ It used its power to dominate and influence the other ethnic

groups.
​ 4.​ Parliament’s Rise to Power (1688):

​ •​ In 1688, the English Parliament took power from the monarchy

(the king or queen) after a protracted conflict (a long and drawn-out struggle).

​ •​ The Parliament became the tool to build a nation-state with

England at the centre.

​ 5.​ Act of Union (1707):

​ •​ The Act of Union (1707) joined England and Scotland, forming

the United Kingdom of Great Britain.

​ •​ However, England dominated this union.

​ •​ The British Parliament was mostly controlled by English

members.

​ 6.​ Suppression of Scottish Identity:

​ •​ A new British identity was created by weakening Scottish culture

and politics.

​ •​ The Scottish Highlands (northern mountainous region of

Scotland) had Catholic clans (large family groups).

​ •​ When they resisted, they were:

​ •​ Severely repressed (controlled with cruelty).

​ •​ Forbidden to speak Gaelic (their own language).

​ •​ Banned from wearing their national dress (traditional Scottish

clothes).

​ •​ Forced to leave their homeland (evicted from where they lived).

​ 7.​ Ireland’s Suffering:

​ •​ Ireland had a conflict between:

​ •​ Catholics (majority population),

​ •​ Protestants (supported by the English).

​ •​ The English helped Protestants dominate the country.

​ •​ Catholic revolts (attempts to fight back or rebel) were crushed.

​ •​ In 1798, Wolfe Tone and his group ‘United Irishmen’ led a failed
rebellion.

​ •​ In 1801, Ireland was forcibly merged (joined using force) with

Britain to form the United Kingdom.

​ 8.​ Forging a New British Nation:

​ •​ A new British nation was built by spreading dominant English

culture.

​ •​ Important symbols of British identity were:

​ •​ The Union Jack (British flag),

​ •​ The National Anthem (God Save Our Noble King),

​ •​ The English language.

​ •​ The older cultures (Scottish, Welsh, Irish) were made subordinate

(lower in status or importance).

All Difficult Words & Their Meanings

Word Meaning

Isles A group of islands

Revolution A major, often violent, change in
political power or system

Nation-state A country formed by people with a

common culture, language, and
history

Ethnic Related to a group with shared

cultural, language, or ancestral roots

Monarchy A system of government where a

king or queen rules

Protracted Lasting for a long time

Parliament A group of elected leaders who

make laws

Suppress To stop or control by force

Clans Large family-based groups,

especially in Scottish tradition

Repression Harsh control or punishment to

silence opposition

Gaelic The native language of Scottish

Highlanders
Subordinate Lower in rank or importance

Forcibly Using force or pressure

Uprising/Revolt A rebellion or fight against the rulers

Propagation Spreading or promotion of something

widely

Dominance Having power and control over

others

Incorporated Officially made part of something

bigger
THE RISE OF NATIONALISM IN EUROPE