VISION

What is Vision?
Vision is the ability to see things around us using our eyes. It's one of the most important
senses in human beings and most animals because it helps us understand, respond to, and
survive in our surroundings. Without vision, we would not be able to recognize people, see
colors, read, drive, or enjoy the beauty of nature. Vision also allows us to see things far
away with a telescope or very tiny things with a microscope. But for vision to happen,
something must stimulate our eyes. This something is called a stimulus.
Stimulus for Vision: Light Waves
The stimulus that helps us see is light. But not just any kind of light — vision happens when
light energy travels in the form of waves and enters our eyes. These are called light waves.
Light does not move in a straight line. It moves in waves, like how ripples move across
water. These waves are called radiant energy waves. When this light enters our eyes, our
brain processes it and creates the image of what we are seeing. Now, these light waves have
three important features, and each feature affects how we see and feel the light. These
features are:
1. Wave Amplitude – The Height of the Light Wave
What is Amplitude?
Amplitude means how high or tall the wave is. In other words, it's the height of the wave
from the middle to the top.
How does it affect vision?
The height of the wave tells us how strong or intense the light is.
• If the wave is very tall, it means the light is very bright.
• If the wave is short, the light is dim or weak.
This feature is related to our psychological experience called brightness.
So, amplitude = brightness.
Example:
• A candle in a dark room gives off dim light (shorter wave amplitude).
• The sun in the afternoon gives off very bright light (taller wave amplitude).
2. Wave Length – The Distance Between Two Peaks
Wavelength means the distance between one wave peak and the next. Think of the wave as a
set of hills — the space from one hilltop to the next hilltop is the wavelength.
How is it measured?
• Light wavelength is measured in a tiny unit called a nanometer (nm).
• One nanometer is one-billionth of a meter, which is very, very small.
How does it affect vision?
Wavelength is connected to the color we see. Different wavelengths produce different
colors.
• Shorter wavelengths give colors like violet or blue.
• Longer wavelengths give colors like red or orange.
Visible Spectrum:
Our eyes can only detect a limited range of wavelengths — from 380 nm to 760 nm. This
range is called the visible spectrum — the part of the light we can actually see. Light below
380 nm (like ultraviolet) or above 760 nm (like infrared) cannot be seen by the human eye.
So, the wavelength = color or hue we see.
3. Wave Purity – How Pure the Light Wave Is
Purity means whether the light wave is made of only one wavelength or a mix of many.
• If the wave has only one type of wavelength, it is very pure.
• If the wave is a mix of many different wavelengths, it is less pure.
Monochromatic Light:
When a light wave has only one single wavelength, the color appears very clean and rich.
This kind of light is called monochromatic, which means "one color."
How does it affect vision?
Wave purity is related to our experience of saturation, which means how rich or faded the
color looks.
• More purity = color looks deep and strong
• Less purity = color looks dull or washed out
Structure of the Human Eye
The human eye is made up of three round layers placed one inside the other. Each layer has
its own color, look, structure, and special job to do.
• The outermost layer is called the fibrous tunic. It is strong and helps to protect the
whole eyeball from damage.
• The middle layer is known as the vascular tunic. It contains blood vessels and helps
to feed and nourish the eye.
• The innermost layer is called the retina. It has special cells that catch light and start
sending nerve messages to the brain, so we can see.
Apart from these three layers, the inside of the eye is also divided into two chambers:
• A small front chamber (called the anterior chamber)
• A larger back chamber (called the vitreous chamber)
1. Outermost Layer – The Fibrous Tunic
This is the outside white part of the eye that we can see. This strong white covering is called
the sclera.
Sclera (White of the Eye)
The sclera is called so because the Greek word “sclera” means “hard”.It is a tough and thick
covering that keeps the shape of the eye and protects the soft parts inside. It is usually 1
millimeter thick. If you look at it under a microscope, you will see it is made of very tightly
packed fibers, all running in the same direction.
These strong fibers give the eye a firm and solid outer [Link] sclera has to be strong
because the pressure inside the eye is about twice as much as the air pressure outside.
Except for the clear cornea in the front, the whole eye is covered by this tough sclera.
Cornea (Clear Front Part of the Eye)
At the very front of the eye, the outer white covering becomes clear like glass and makes a
small bulge. This clear, bulging part is called the cornea. The cornea is round, transparent,
and very strong. It protects the soft parts behind it. It also bends the light rays that enter the
eye, helping to start forming an image. The cornea doesn’t have blood vessels, which makes
it even more clear, because blood would block some of the light. So, since it has no blood
inside it, more light can pass through, helping us to see clearly. But because of this, the
cornea is very sensitive to touch, to protect itself from danger. The cornea, along with the
pupil and lens, forms the main image-forming part of the eye.
2. Middle Layer – The Vascular Tunic (Choroid Layer)
This middle layer is mostly made of a dark, soft, and spongy tissue called the choroid. The
choroid is about 0.2 mm thick. It has many blood vessels, including very small ones called
capillaries. These blood vessels carry oxygen and food to the retina, which is the inner layer.
Without this blood supply, the retina’s light-sensing cells would die. The dark color of the
choroid also helps in another way: It absorbs extra light so that light doesn’t bounce around
inside the eye, which would make the image blurry. This helps keep the vision sharp and
clear.
Front Part of Middle Layer – Ciliary Body
As the choroid comes forward, it becomes a part called the ciliary body. This part of the eye
is like a sponge, and it produces a watery fluid called aqueous humor.
Aqueous Humor (Watery Fluid in Front Chamber)
This clear fluid fills the anterior (front) chamber between the cornea and lens. The aqueous
humor has many important jobs:
• It brings oxygen and nutrients to the cornea and lens.
• It removes waste materials from them.
• Since the cornea and lens don’t have their own blood supply, they depend on this
fluid for nourishment.
• It also helps to keep the eye’s round shape. Without it, the eye would look flat or
deformed.
Iris (Colored Part of the Eye)
The ciliary body folds inward and forms the iris, which is the colored ring we see around the
pupil. It gives the eye its color—such as brown, blue, green, or gray. The word “iris” comes
from a Greek word that means “rainbow”, which is a good name because eyes can have
different colors. The iris has two layers. The outer layer has the pigment (color). The inner
layer has blood vessels.
• If the outer layer has a lot of pigment, the eye looks brown.
• If it has less pigment, it looks blue or another light color.
• The final eye color is made by a mix of the outer pigment and the blood in the inner
layer.
Pupil (Black Hole in Center of Eye)
In the middle of the iris, there is a black circle called the pupil. The pupil is not a real
object—it is actually a hole that lets light enter the eye. There are two sets of muscles
around the pupil:
• Circular muscles go around it like a ring. When these muscles tighten, the pupil
becomes smaller.
• Radial muscles stretch outward from the pupil. When they tighten, the pupil gets
bigger (dilates).
These muscles control how much light goes into the eye. The size of the pupil depends on:
• Light levels – in bright light, the pupil becomes small, and in darkness, it becomes
large.
• Messages from the nervous system – some automatic body functions affect pupil size.
Pupil size also changes because of feelings and thoughts:
• When you feel happy or excited, the pupil opens wider.
 • When you feel sad or scared, the pupil gets smaller.
• When you concentrate hard, the pupil widens too.
The Lens – A Key Part of the Eye
One of the most important parts inside our eye is the lens. It is called the crystalline lens and
is located just behind the colored part of the eye, which is called the iris. In adults, the lens
is usually about 9 millimeters wide and 4 millimeters thick. The lens has three main parts:
• Capsule – a thin outer covering that protects the lens.
• Epithelial layer – a layer of cells under the capsule.
• Lens fibers – the main middle part of the lens that does most of the focusing.
The capsule around the lens has two important jobs:
• It helps control the flow of aqueous humor, which is a clear fluid in the eye.
• It helps shape the lens so that we can see things clearly whether they are near or far.
This changing of shape is called accommodation.
Accommodation means the lens changes its thickness to help us see clearly at different
distances. There are muscles around the lens called ciliary muscles. These muscles are
attached to the lens and help in changing its shape. When these muscles contract (tighten) or
relax (loosen), the shape of the lens changes. This is how the eye focuses on objects that are
close or far away.
Vision Problems with the Lens
• People who are nearsighted (myopia) can see nearby objects clearly but have trouble
seeing things that are far away.
• People who are farsighted (hyperopia) can see faraway things clearly but have
trouble seeing nearby things.
The Vitreous Chamber – The Large Space in the Eye
The vitreous chamber is the largest space inside the eye. It is located Behind the lens ,
Surrounded by the retina (on the sides and back) This chamber is filled with a clear, jelly-
like fluid called vitreous humor. It has a thick consistency, like egg white. The main job of
this fluid is to help the eyeball stay round and firm.
The Retina – The Light-Sensitive Layer
The retina is the inner layer at the back of the eye. It looks like a very thin, soft net or mesh.
The retina lies just below the vitreous chamber, and below the retina is another layer called
the choroid. When light enters the eye, it has to pass through different layers in the retina to
reach the photoreceptors, which are special cells that change light into nerve signals. The
eye is not only a window to the outside world, but it is also a way for doctors to look inside
the body. The retina is the only place in the body where doctors can directly see nerves and
blood vessels without surgery.

Photoreceptors – Rods and Cones

Photoreceptors are cells in the retina that detect light. There are two types:
1. Rods: Rods help us see in dim light or at night. They contain a chemical called rhodopsin,
which is made using vitamin A. Rods are mostly located in the outer areas of the retina. The
human eye has about 115 million rods. They do not detect color, but are good for seeing
shapes and movement in the dark.
2. Cones: Cones work in bright light and help us see colors. They are mostly found in the
center of the retina. There are about 6 million cones in the eye. Cones contain three different
chemicals called iodopsins, which help detect different colors. Cones give us a sharp,
colorful, and detailed view of the world.
Fovea – Center of Sharp Vision
In the center of the retina, there is a small area called the fovea. It has only cones and no
rods. This is the area where our vision is sharpest and clearest. We use the fovea to see fine
details and bright colors.
Blind Spot – A Part Without Vision
There is a small area on the retina where the optic nerve leaves the eye. This area has no
photoreceptors—no rods or cones. Because of that, we cannot see anything in this spot. It is
called the blind spot. Normally, we don’t notice it because our brain fills in the missing
information.
Bipolar and Ganglion Cells – Messengers in the Retina
After light is detected by the rods and cones, the signal is passed to the next layer of cells
called bipolar cells. Bipolar cells gather the signals from many photoreceptors and send
them to ganglion cells. Each bipolar cell has one dendrite (receiving end) and one axon
(sending end).Then the ganglion cells gather the signals from the bipolar cells and send
them to the brain. The axons of ganglion cells come together to form the optic nerve.
Optic Nerve – Carrying Signals to the Brain
The optic nerve is made of the long fibers (axons) of the ganglion cells. It carries visual
signals from the eye to the brain. The retina does not just detect light; it also processes and
sharpens the image before sending it to the brain. This happens because the cells in the
retina are connected in a way that helps improve the quality of the image.
Optic Chiasma – How the Brain Gets the Visual Signals
When the optic nerve leaves the eye, it travels to a part of the brain called the optic chiasma.
At this point: The nerve fibers from the inner half of each eye cross to the opposite side of
the brain. The nerve fibers from the outer half of each eye stay on the same [Link] here,
the visual signals go to different parts of the brain:
• Some signals go to the superior colliculus, a part of the midbrain that helps control
eye movement and reactions to what we see.
• Most signals go to the lateral geniculate nucleus in the thalamus, and then to the
visual cortex in the occipital lobe of the brain.
The visual cortex is the part of the brain that helps us understand what we are seeing. It
helps us recognize colors, shapes, depth, and objects.

Light and Dark Adaptation (Adjustment of the Eyes)

• Our eyes have a natural ability to adjust to different levels of light. This process is
called adaptation. Light Adaptation happens when we move from a dark place to a
bright one. For example, if you walk out of a dim cinema into the sunny street,
everything seems too bright at first. But within a few minutes, your eyes adjust and
things start looking normal. This is because your eyes adapt to the higher level of
brightness quickly.
 • Dark Adaptation is the opposite. It happens when we move from a bright place into a
dark one. For instance, if you go from outside sunlight into a dark room, you can’t see
clearly at first. But slowly, your vision improves. This takes longer — around 20 to
30 minutes.
• Another example is when you go outside at night and at first, you see only a few
stars. But as time passes, more stars become visible. It’s not because the stars got
brighter — it’s because your eyes became more sensitive to the little light present.
This is dark adaptation.
How it works:
In our eyes, there are special cells called photoreceptors (rods and cones). These cells
contain chemicals called photopigments which react to light. When light hits them, the
chemical breaks apart and sends a signal to the brain. But after being in the light for a long
time, these chemicals break down and take time to rebuild. So when we enter a dark place,
we can't see well at first because our photoreceptors don’t have enough photopigments.
Slowly, more photopigments are created, and we start to see better in the dark.
Sensory Adaptation (How We Stop Noticing Repeated Stimuli) Sensory adaptation means
our senses (like sight, smell, touch, etc.) become less sensitive to things that stay the same
for a long time. Our brain is designed to pay more attention to changes in our surroundings,
not to things that stay the same.
Examples:
• When you first wear a watch or socks, you feel them. After a while, you stop noticing
the feeling — this is sensory adaptation.
• A smell that seemed strong when you entered a room may disappear after a while —
not because the smell is gone, but because your nose adapted.
• The sound of a ticking clock or a fan becomes "invisible" after a while.
• Warm water feels less warm after some time.
• Colours may seem less bright if you keep looking at them for too long.
Colour Vision (How We See Colours)
Colour vision means the ability to see colours. Different animals see colours differently.
Some animals see only black and white, but humans can see a wide range of colours.
Sunlight is made up of all the colours mixed together. When light hits an object and then
enters our eyes, we see different colours based on how the light is reflected.
For example, when sunlight passes through rain droplets, it splits into different colours
creating a rainbow. Each colour has a different wavelength.
Three main parts of colour:
• Hue – This is the basic colour (red, blue, green, etc.) based on the light’s wavelength.
• Saturation – This tells us how pure or rich a colour is.
• Brightness – This shows how much light is in the colour (how light or dark it is).
Colour Blindness (Trouble in Seeing Colours)
Colour blindness means some people cannot tell the difference between certain colours. It’s
more common in males than females.
Types:
• Total Colour Blindness – Very rare. People see the world in black, white, and grey,
like an old movie.
 • Partial Colour Blindness (more common) – These people can see some colours but
have trouble with others, especially red and green.
Colour blindness happens when a person doesn’t have all the three types of cones in their
retina.
• People with only one type of cone are called monochromats — they see in shades of
grey.
• People with two types of cones are called dichromats — they usually confuse red and
green.
Colour Blindness Test:
Special pictures with numbers hidden in colour patterns (called Ishihara plates) are used to
test colour blindness. People with normal vision will see all the numbers, but those who are
colour blind may not.
Colour Vision Theories
1-The Trichromatic Theory of Colour Vision
A long time ago, in the early 1800s, two scientists — Thomas Young and later Herman von
Helmholtz — discovered something interesting about colour. They found that any colour we
see can be made by mixing just three basic colours of light; Red, Green, and Blue.
For example:
▪ If we mix red and green light, we get yellow.
▪ If we mix blue and red, we get magenta.
▪ If we mix all three (red, green, and blue), we get white light.
This idea led them to believe that our eyes must have three different types of colour
receptors, and each one is especially sensitive to one of these colours:
• One type is most sensitive to red light.
• Another type is most sensitive to green light.
• The third type is most sensitive to blue light.
How the theory works:
When we look at something, the light from that object enters our eyes and hits the retina.
The three types of cones in our eyes respond differently depending on the colour of the
light. Our brain then combines the signals from these three cones to create the final colour
experience. This explanation of colour vision is called the Trichromatic Theory or Young-
Helmholtz Theory. It tells us that all the colours we see are just the result of different
combinations of signals from the red, green, and blue-sensitive cones in our eyes.
The Opponent Process Theory of Colour Vision
After the Trichromatic Theory was introduced, another scientist named Ewald Hering came
up with a different explanation for how we see colours. He called it the Opponent Process
Theory.
What is the Opponent Process Theory?
According to Hering, the way we see colours is based on opposing colour [Link] believed
that the cells in our visual system are arranged in three pairs, and each pair contains two
opposite colours. These pairs are:
• Red – Green
• Blue – Yellow
• Black – White
Each of these pairs works like a see-saw — if one side is active, the other side is turned off.
For example:
• If the red side is active, the green side is not.
• If the blue side is active, the yellow side is not.
This is why we can’t see red and green at the same time in the same place — because
they are part of an opponent pair.
The Opponent Process Theory explains this:
When you stare at green for a long time, the green part of the red-green pair gets tired.
When you look away, the green part stops working, and the red part becomes active,
creating a red afterimage. The same thing happens with other opponent pairs, like blue and
yellow.
What are Complementary Colours?
The theory also helps explain something called complementary colours — these are pairs of
colours that cancel each other out and create grey or white when mixed.
In Hering’s theory:
• Red and green are complementary
• Blue and yellow are complementary
These colours are called opponent colours. When both colours in a pair are equally strong,
they cancel each other, and we see a neutral colour like grey.
Combining Both Theories
Now, scientists believe that both theories are correct — they work together to explain colour
vision:
• The Trichromatic Theory explains how the cones in the retina respond to red, green,
and blue light.
• The Opponent Process Theory explains how signals from the cones are processed
later in the brain, where they are organized into opposing pairs.
So, colour vision is a two-step process:
• First, the three types of cones detect light of different wavelengths (red, green, and
blue).
• Then, the brain compares signals from these cones using the opponent pairs to create
the final colour experience.