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States of Matter
Solids, liquids, and gases are the three states of matter.

Consider these facts:

You can't walk through a brick wall, but you can move (with some resistance) through
water. Moving through air is easy.
When you melt most solids, their volume increases slightly. Most liquids are less dense
than the solid they come from.
If you boil about 5 cm³ of water, the steam will fill an average bucket.

Diffusion in Gases
Diffusion in gases can be demonstrated using bromine gas and air.

1. Place bromine gas in a lower gas jar and air in an upper gas jar.

2. Remove the lids.

3. Observe the brown color of bromine diffusing upwards until both jars are uniformly
brown.

The bromine and air particles move randomly to create an even mixture.

A similar experiment can be conducted with hydrogen and air, using a lighted splint to detect
the gases after diffusion. Identical explosions in both jars indicate uniform mixing, even with
the density difference between hydrogen and air.

Particle Speed and Diffusion

At room temperature, ammonia particles travel at approximately 600 meters per second.

If particles traveled in a straight line without collisions, they could cross a lab in less
than 1/100s (0.01 s).
Due to collisions with air particles, each ammonia particle may travel 30 or more
kilometers before the smell reaches all corners of the lab.

Ammonia and Hydrogen Chloride Diffusion

Experiment
In this experiment, ammonia particles and hydrogen chloride particles diffuse along a tube,
forming a white ring of solid ammonium chloride where they meet.

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The white ring forms over time as the particles diffuse.

The ring appears closer to the hydrochloric acid end because ammonia particles are
lighter and move faster, traveling further in the same amount of time.

Heating Bromine Example

Consider heating bromine from -100°C to 100°C:

At -100°C (below bromine's melting point), bromine is a solid.

As it is heated to -7°C (its melting point), it becomes a liquid.
It remains a liquid until it reaches its boiling point at 59°C.
Room temperature (20-25°C) is between the melting and boiling points, so bromine is a
liquid at room temperature.
Above 59°C, bromine is a gas.

Ammonia and Hydrochloric Acid Experiment

In this experiment, cotton wool pieces are soaked in concentrated ammonia solution and
concentrated hydrochloric acid, then placed at opposite ends of a long glass tube with rubber
bungs to prevent gas escape.

Room temperature is generally considered between 20 and 25°C in scientific

contexts.

Working Out the Physical State of a Substance

To determine whether a substance is a solid, liquid, or gas at room temperature, compare its
melting and boiling points to room temperature.

If the temperature is below the melting point, it's a solid.

If the temperature is between the melting and boiling points, it's a liquid.
If the temperature is above the boiling point, it's a gas.

Diffusion
Diffusion is the spreading out of particles from a region of high concentration to a
region of low concentration.

Diffusion in Gases
Even though gas particles move rapidly, diffusion can seem slow. For example, if ammonia is
released in a lab, it takes about a minute for everyone to smell it.

Imagine ammonia particles bouncing off air particles, slowing their progress.

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Diffusion in Liquids
Diffusion in liquids is slower than in gases because liquid particles move more slowly and are
closer together.

Imagine dropping potassium manganate(VII) solution into water; it takes days for the color to
spread.

Demonstrating Different Speeds of Gases

The reaction between ammonia (N H ) and hydrogen chloride (H Cl) gases to produce
3

ammonium chloride (N H Cl) can show that different gases travel at different speeds.
4

N H 3 (g) + H Cl(g) → N H 4 Cl(s)

In this demonstration, a white ring of ammonium chloride forms closer to the hydrochloric
acid end, because ammonia particles are lighter and travel faster than hydrogen chloride
particles.

The Solubility of Solids

The solubility of a solid in a solvent at a particular temperature is the mass of
solute that dissolves in 100g of solvent to form a saturated solution.

A saturated solution contains the maximum amount of dissolved solid at a specific

temperature, with undissolved solute present.

Solutes, Solvents, and Solutions

Solute: The substance that dissolves.
Solvent: The liquid in which the solute dissolves.
Solution: The liquid formed when the solute dissolves in the solvent.

Solubility Curves

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Solubility curves show how the solubility of solids changes with temperature.

Generally, the solubility of most solids increases with temperature.

Solubility must be quoted with a temperature (e.g., the solubility of sodium chloride at
30 C is...).
∘

Solubility curves can be used to determine the mass of crystals that will form when a
saturated solution cools.

For potassium nitrate (KN O ), 200g dissolves in 100g of water at 90 C , but only 50g
3
∘

dissolves at 30 C . Therefore, cooling a solution from 90 C to 30 C releases 150g of

∘ ∘ ∘

potassium nitrate as crystals.

Potassium nitrate crystallizes or precipitates out of the solution as it cools.

Calculating Solubility
The solubility of a substance in 100g of solvent can be calculated using:
mass of solute
solubility (g/100g) = × 100
mass of solvent

To find the maximum mass that dissolves in a given amount of solvent:

mass of water (g)
× solubility (g per 100g) = maximum mass that dissolves (g)
100 (g)

Procedure to Measure Solubility of Potassium Nitrate

1. Weigh an evaporating basin.
2. Heat water to just above 40 C . ∘

3. Add potassium nitrate and stir until no more dissolves.

4. Cool the solution to exactly 40 C . ∘

5. Pour off some solution into the evaporating basin, leaving any solid behind.
6. Weigh the evaporating basin and contents.
7. Heat gently to evaporate all the water.
8. Weigh the evaporating basin and dry crystals.
9. Heat again and re-weigh to ensure all water has evaporated (heating to constant mass).

Example Results

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Mass of evaporating basin/g 25.72

Mass of evaporating basin + solution/g 55.00
Mass of evaporating basin + dry crystals/g 38.00

Calculations:

mass of crystals = 38.00 − 25.72 = 12.28g mass of water = 55.00 − 38.00g = 17.00g

Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures

Definitions and Key Concepts

Element: A substance containing only one type of atom. Examples include pure metals
like magnesium, and elements found in gases like nitrogen and oxygen.
Compound: A substance in which atoms of different elements are chemically combined
in a fixed ratio. Water (H O) is a classic example, always having two hydrogen atoms
2

for every oxygen atom.

Mixture: A combination of elements and/or compounds that are physically mixed but
not chemically combined. The components can be present in any proportion. For
instance, a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen gases can have varying amounts of each
gas.

Simple Differences Between Mixtures and Compounds

Proportions: In compounds like iron sulfide (FeS), the ratio of iron to sulfur is always
constant. In mixtures, such as iron and sulfur, the proportions can vary.
Separation: Elements in a compound cannot be separated by physical means, while
mixtures can be separated through physical processes like changing temperature or
using solvents.

Examples of Mixtures and Compounds

Mixtures:

Mixture of elements: nitrogen and oxygen gases

Mixture of an element with a compound: carbon dioxide and nitrogen
Mixture of compounds: carbon dioxide and water vapor

Compounds:

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Water (H O)2

Silicon dioxide (SiO )

2

Separation Techniques

Crystallization
Crystallization is used to separate a solute from a solution.

1. Heat the solution in an evaporating basin to boil off some water until nearly saturated.
2. Test for saturation by dipping a glass rod into the solution; crystals should form quickly
on its surface.
3. Turn off the Bunsen burner and allow crystals to form as the solution cools and more
water evaporates.
4. Remove the crystals from the mixture by filtration.

Melting Point as an Indicator of Purity

Pure substances melt and boil at fixed temperatures (e.g., water melts at 0°C and boils
at 100°C).
Mixtures usually melt or boil over a range of temperatures.
Impurities lower the melting point and raise the boiling point of a substance. For
example, dissolving 10g of sodium chloride in 1 liter of water lowers the melting point
to about -0.6°C and raises the boiling point to about 100.2°C.

Filtration
Filtration can separate a solid from a liquid.

This can also separate two solids if only one is soluble in water, such as separating rock
salt into salt and insoluble impurities.
The solid left on the filter paper is called the residue, and the liquid that passes through
is called the filtrate.

Distillation

Simple Distillation

Simple distillation is a method used to separate the components of a solution.

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Can be used to obtain pure water from a sodium chloride solution by boiling the water
and condensing it back to a liquid, leaving the salt behind.

Fractional Distillation

Fractional distillation separates a mixture of liquids with different boiling points,

such as ethanol (boiling point 78°C) and water (boiling point 100°C).

1. Heat the mixture, and both liquids will boil.

2. Control the temperature of the fractionating column so that the substance with the
higher boiling point (e.g., water) condenses and trickles back into the flask.
3. The substance with the lower boiling point (e.g., ethanol) remains as vapor and passes
into the condenser, where it turns back into a liquid and is collected.

Paper Chromatography
Paper chromatography is used to separate and analyze mixtures, often of colored
inks or food colorings.

Process Steps:
1. Draw a pencil line 1 cm from the bottom of the chromatography paper.
2. Apply a spot of the mixture to the pencil line and let it dry.
3. Suspend the paper in a beaker with a small amount of solvent, ensuring the solvent is
below the pencil line.
4. Cover the beaker to saturate the atmosphere with solvent vapor.
5. Remove the paper when the solvent is near the top and mark the solvent front with a
pencil line.
6. Let the paper dry.

Key Factors in Separation

The separation of substances in paper chromatography depends on:

Affinity for the paper: How well the substance sticks to the paper.
Solubility in the solvent: How well the substance dissolves in the solvent as it moves
up the paper.

Using Paper Chromatography in Analysis

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Paper chromatography can identify the dyes in a mixture by comparing them to known
dyes.

Rf Value
The R (retardation factor) value describes how far a spot moves relative to the
f

solvent front.
distance,moved,by,spot,(f rom,pencil,line)
Rf =
distance,moved,by,solvent,f ront,(f rom,pencil,line)

Rf values range between 0 and 1 and have no units.

Rf values depend on the solvent and type of paper used.

Example Calculation:

If a blue spot moves 0.9 cm and the solvent front moves 3.6 cm, the R is:
f

0.9
Rf = = 0.25
3.6

Interpreting Results
A dye that doesn't move is not very soluble in the solvent or has a high affinity for the
paper.
A dye that moves with the solvent front is too soluble in the solvent.
Multiple spots indicate a mixture of dyes.

Properties in Mixtures vs. Compounds

In a mixture of elements, each element retains its properties. For example, in a mixture
of iron and sulfur, the iron remains grey and reacts with dilute acids, while sulfur
remains yellow and does not react with acids.
In a compound, the properties are different from those of the constituent elements. For
example, iron sulfide reacts with acids to produce poisonous hydrogen sulfide gas.

States of Matter
Pure substances such as elements and pure compounds melt and boil at fixed temperatures.
For example, water melts at 0°C and boils at 100°C. Mixtures usually melt or boil over a
range of temperatures.

Importance of Separating Mixtures

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Separating mixtures is crucial in:

Processing crude oil

Producing fresh water from salt water
Enriching uranium
Forensic science (analyzing components)

Atoms and Molecules

Atoms
An atom is the smallest piece of an element that retains the properties of that
element.

Atoms can be split into protons, neutrons, and electrons, but it will no longer be that
element.
Each element is defined by its atomic number, which is unique to that element.

Molecules
A molecule consists of two or more atoms chemically bonded together.

Molecules can be made of atoms from the same or different elements.

Examples: Hydrogen (H ) consists of two hydrogen atoms, while water (H
2 2O ) consists
of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom.

Subatomic Particles

Particle Relative Mass Relative Charge

Proton 1 +1
Neutron 1 0
Electron 1/1836 -1

Atomic Structure

Atomic Number and Mass Number

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The atomic number or proton number corresponds to the number of protons in an

atom's nucleus. Each of the 118 elements has a unique number of protons. For instance,
an atom with 8 protons is identified as an oxygen atom.

Nearly all of an atom's mass is located in the nucleus because protons and neutrons are
significantly heavier than electrons.

Atoms consist of protons, neutrons, and electrons, known as sub-atomic particles due
to their smaller size compared to an atom.

Electrons are in constant motion, making their precise location at any given moment
impossible to determine. Instead, they are identified by their energy levels and the
probability of their location within a certain region of space at a specific distance from
the nucleus. Electrons with varying energies are found at different distances from the
nucleus.

Key Points
The mass number (also called nucleon number) is the total count of protons and
neutrons in an atom's nucleus.

massnumber = numberof protons + numberof neutrons

The number of neutrons can vary among atoms of the same element. For example,
carbon exists in three forms: carbon-12, carbon-13, and carbon-14, each having 6
protons but different numbers of neutrons. These variations are known as isotopes.

Isotopes: Atoms of the same element with the same atomic number but
different mass numbers, meaning they have the same number of protons but
different numbers of neutrons.

The number displayed above each element's symbol in the International GCSE Periodic
Table is the relative atomic mass, not the mass number. In most instances, the relative
atomic mass is equivalent to the mass number of the most common isotope, except for
chlorine (35.5) and copper (63.5).

Relative Atomic Mass

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The chemical properties of an element are determined by the number and arrangement
of its electrons, which remain consistent across all isotopes of that element.

A naturally occurring sample of chlorine contains a mix of two isotopes: chlorine-35 and
chlorine-37. The relative atomic mass is closer to 35 than 37, indicating a higher
presence of the chlorine-35 isotope.

The relative atomic mass (A ) is the average mass of an atom, considering the
r

abundance of each isotope in a naturally occurring sample of an element.

Atoms are electrically neutral, with the positive charge of a proton (+1) being equal to
the negative charge of an electron (-1). In an atom:

numberof electrons = numberof protons

The atomic number defines an element because the number of electrons can change
during chemical reactions.

The relative atomic mass of an element can be calculated by knowing the isotopic
abundances and determining the average mass of an atom, similar to calculating a
weighted average.

For any particular atom, information can be shown as, for example:
mass number
symbol
atomic number

where

number of neutrons = mass number - atomic number

Isotopes
Isotopes of carbon:
Carbon-12: 6 protons, 6 neutrons
Carbon-13: 6 protons, 7 neutrons
Carbon-14: 6 protons, 8 neutrons

Calculating Relative Atomic Mass

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To calculate the relative atomic mass, you need to know the abundance of each isotope
in a sample. For example, a sample of boron contains 20% Boron-10 and 80% Boron-
11. The relative atomic mass is calculated as follows:
20×10+80×11
relative atomic mass = = 10.8
100

The total mass of all the atoms in the sample is 20 × 10 + 80 × 11. The total mass of
the 20 atoms with mass 10 is 20 × 10, and the total mass of the 80 atoms with mass 11
is 80 × 11.

Examples

Calculating the Number of Subatomic Particles in Uranium

Uranium

Symbol: U
Atomic number: 92
Mass number: 238

Number of protons: 92 (same as atomic number)

Number of electrons: 92 (same as number of protons in a neutral atom)

Number of neutrons: 238 − 92 = 146 (mass number - atomic number)

Isotopes
Iridium

Two isotopes: 191Ir and 193Ir.

a. Number of protons, neutrons, and electrons in an 191Ir atom:
Protons: 77 (atomic number of iridium)
Electrons: 77 (same as number of protons)
Neutrons: 191 - 77 = 114 (mass number - atomic number)
b. Difference between the two isotopes:
The two isotopes have the same number of protons (77) and electrons (77),
but different numbers of neutrons. 191Ir has 114 neutrons, while 193Ir has
116 neutrons.
c. Relative atomic mass of iridium is 192.22.
A naturally occurring sample of iridium contains more 193Ir than 191Ir. This
is because the relative atomic mass (192.22) is closer to 193 than to 191.

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Counting the Number of Electrons in an Atom

Consider an atom of cobalt (Co) with a mass number of 59. Given that its atomic
number is 27, it contains 27 protons. To make up the total mass number of 59, it must
also contain 32 neutrons. Since the number of protons equals the number of electrons
in a neutral atom, cobalt also has 27 electrons.

The Periodic Table

Organization
Elements are arranged in the Periodic Table in order of increasing atomic number
(number of protons).

The vertical columns in the Periodic Table are called groups, numbered 1 to 7, with the
final group numbered 0. Some groups have specific names:

Group 1: Alkali metals

Group 7: Halogens
Group 0: Noble gases

The elements in the orange section of the Periodic Table are called the transition
metals or transition elements.

The horizontal rows in the Periodic Table are called periods.

Using the Periodic Table

You can use a Periodic Table to find out the number of protons, neutrons, and electrons
in an atom.

The number of protons in an atom is equal to the atomic number.

The number of electrons in an atom is equal to the number of protons.
The number of neutrons in an atom = mass number - atomic number.

Most Periodic Tables display two numbers for each element: the atomic number
(smaller number) and either the mass number of the most common isotope or the
relative atomic mass.

The lanthanoids and actinoids are usually placed separately at the bottom of the table
to make it more readable.

electrons

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Electrons orbit the nucleus in energy levels or shells. Each energy level can hold a
certain number of electrons, with lower energy levels filling before higher ones.

The first shell (closest to the nucleus) can hold a maximum of 2 electrons.

The second shell can hold a maximum of 8 electrons.

The third shell can hold a maximum of 8 electrons for the first 20 elements.

Electronic Configurations and the Periodic Table

Elements in the same group in the Periodic Table have the same number of electrons in
their outer shell.
The number of electrons in the outer shell is the same as the group number for Groups
1 to 7.
The period number gives the number of occupied shells or the highest occupied shell.

Drawing Diagrams of Electronic Configurations

When drawing a diagram of an atom, circles represent the shells (energy levels). Dots or
crosses are drawn on the circles to represent the electrons.

The circles represent energy levels. The further away the level is from the nucleus, the
higher its energy.
It is impossible to work out exactly how an electron is moving in that energy level.

How to Work Out the Arrangement of Electrons in an Atom

1. Look up the atomic number in the Periodic Table.
2. Arrange the electrons in shells (energy levels), always completing an inner shell (lower
energy level) before going to an outer one.
The first shell can take up to 2 electrons.
The second shell can take up to 8 electrons.
The third shell can also take up to 8 electrons.
3. Check to make sure that the electrons add up to the right number. The number of
electrons is equal to the number of protons.

The arrangement of electrons in an atom is called its electronic configuration.

Elements in the Same Group Have Similar

Chemical Properties

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Elements in the same group have the same number of electrons in their outer shell; therefore,
they react in similar ways.

All the elements in Group 1 react vigorously with water to form hydrogen and
hydroxides with similar formulae: LiOH, NaOH, KOH.
All the elements in Group 7 react with hydrogen to form compounds with similar
formulae: HF, HCl, HBr.
All the elements in Group 2 form chlorides with similar formulae: M gCl , CaCl .
2 2

Metals and Non-Metals in the Periodic Table

Key Differences
There are many differences between the properties of metals and non-metals. The two main
ones to classify them are electrical conductivity and the acid-base character of their oxides.

Property Metals Non-Metals

Electrical Do not conduct electricity (exceptions:

Conduct electricity
Conductivity graphite and silicon)
Acid-Base
Generally form basic oxides. Generally form acidic oxides.
Character
A basic oxide reacts with acids An acidic oxide reacts with bases/alkalis to
Oxides
to form salts. form salts.
Solubility of Basic If a basic oxide is soluble in If an acidic oxide is soluble in water, it will
Oxide water, it will form an alkali. dissolve to form an acidic solution.

Examples
Copper forms copper(II) oxide (CuO), a basic oxide that reacts with sulfuric acid to form
copper(II) sulfate:

CuO + H 2 SO 4 → CuSO 4 + H 2 O

Carbon dioxide, an acidic oxide, reacts with sodium hydroxide, an alkali:

CO 2 + 2N aOH → N a 2 CO 3 + H 2 O

General Properties

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Property Metals Non-Metals

Tend to be solids with high melting and Tend to have low melting and
State boiling points, and with relatively high boiling points (exceptions:
densities (mercury is an exception). carbon and silicon).
Shiny (metallic luster) when polished or Do not have the same type of
Shine
freshly cut. shine as metals.
Tend to be brittle when they are
Malleability Malleable (can be hammered into shape).
solids.
Ductility Ductile (can be drawn into wires). N/A
Electrical Poor conductors of heat
Good conductors of electricity and heat.
Conductivity (diamond is an exception).
Compound Form both ionic and covalent
Form ionic compounds.
Formation compounds.
Tend to form negative ions in
Ion Formation Form positive ions in their compounds.
ionic compounds.

Exceptions
Arsenic (As) has properties of both metals and non-metals.
Some metals form amphoteric oxides (e.g., Al O ), which react with acids and bases.
2 3

Some non-metal oxides (e.g., CO) are neutral.

The Noble Gases

The Group 0 elements are known as the noble gases because they are almost completely
unreactive. The two at the top of the group, helium and neon, don't react with anything.

The elements in Group 0 have 8 electrons in their outer shell (except helium, which has
2).
The noble gases are unreactive because the outer shell is full, and so there is no
tendency to lose, gain or share electrons in a chemical reaction.

The reason the noble gas group is usually called Group 0 and not Group 8 is
because when they were first discovered it was believed that noble gases did not
combine with anything; they had zero combining power (valency).

The key point is that the noble gases (except helium) have 8 electrons in their outer shell.
Atoms tend to form compounds by losing/gaining or sharing electrons so that they have 8
electrons in their outer shell. The noble gases already have 8 electrons in their outer shell so
they do not do that.

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Chemical Formulae, Equations and Calculations:

Part 1

Writing Equations
There are two types of chemical equation:

Word equations
Symbol equations

Symbol equations are usually called chemical equations and you should only write a word
equation if you are specifically asked to. All chemical equations must be balanced.

Balancing Equations
Chemical reactions involve taking elements or compounds and moving their atoms around
into new combinations. It follows that you must always end up with the same number of
atoms that you started with.

You must never, never change a formula when balancing an equation. All you are
allowed to do is to write big numbers in front of the formula.

Balancing Example
To balance an equation such as:

CH 4 + O 2 → CO 2 + H 2 O

You must ensure that you have the same amount of atoms on both sides.

1. Count the number of atoms of each element on both sides of the equation.
2. Adjust the coefficients (the numbers in front of the chemical formulas) to balance the
number of atoms of each element.
3. Double-check that the number of atoms of each element is the same on both sides of
the equation.

What all the Numbers Mean

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Imagine you had to write an equation for the reaction between methane, CH , and oxygen,
4

O . Methane burns in oxygen to form carbon dioxide and water. Think of this in terms of
2

rearranging the atoms in some models.

When you write equations, it is important to be able to count how many of each type of atom
you have. In particular, you must understand the difference between big numbers written in
front of formulae (sometimes called coefficients), such as the 2 in 2 HCl, and the smaller,
subscript (slightly lower on the line) numbers, such as the 3 in CaCO .
3

The big number in front tells you how many molecules you have.
The subscript number tells you how many atoms of that element are in the molecule.

If you have brackets in a formula, the small number refers to everything inside the
brackets. For example, in the formula Ca(OH ) , the 2 applies to both the oxygen
2

and the hydrogen. The formula shows 1 calcium, 2 oxygens and 2 hydrogens.

Example
Another chemical equation is 2Cl → Cl . Here, 2Cl represents 2 separate Cl atoms and Cl
2 2

means that the atoms are joined together in a molecule.

State Symbols
State symbols are often written after the formulae of the various substances in an equation to
show what physical state everything is in.

(s) - solid
(l) - liquid
(g) - gas
(aq) - aqueous solution (dissolved in water)

Remember that water is a liquid (l), not an aqueous solution (aq). An aqueous solution is
formed when something is dissolved in water.

Relative Atomic Masses

Iron atoms contain more protons and neutrons than sulfur atoms, so an iron atom is one and
three-quarter times heavier than a sulfur atom. In this or any other reaction, you can get the
right proportions only if you know about the masses of the individual atoms that take part in
the reaction.

Balancing Chemical Equations

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States of Matter
State symbols indicate the physical state of substances in a chemical equation:

(s) - solid
(l) - liquid
(g) - gas
(aq) - in aqueous solution (dissolved in water)

Example of a chemical equation with state symbols:

2K(s) + 2H 2 O(l) → 2KOH (aq) + H 2 (g)

This equation shows that solid potassium reacts with liquid water to produce an aqueous
solution of potassium hydroxide and hydrogen gas.

Balancing Strategy
To balance chemical equations:

1. Work systematically from left to right.

2. Balance elements one at a time, except if an element appears in several places; in that
case, leave it until the end.
3. If a group of atoms (like SO ) remains unchanged from one side to the other, count it as
4

a whole group.
4. Avoid changing formulas of compounds.
5. Check everything at the end to ensure nothing has been altered inadvertently.

Example: Balancing the combustion of ethane (C 2 H4 )

C 2 H 4 + O 2 → CO 2 + H 2 O

1. Balance carbons: C H + O → 2CO + H O

2 4 2 2 2

2. Balance hydrogens: C H + O → 2CO + 3H O

2 4 2 2 2

3. Balance oxygens: C H + 3O → 2CO + 3H O

2 4 2 2 2

4. This gives C H + 3O → 2CO + 3H O.

2 4 2 2 2

Another Example: Balancing the reaction between zinc and hydrochloric acid

Zn + H Cl → ZnCl 2 + H 2

1. Count zinc atoms: 1 on each side.

2. Balance hydrogen atoms: 1 on the left, 2 on the right.
Zn + 2H Cl → ZnCl 2 + H 2

3. Count chlorine atoms: 2 on each side.

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Zn + 2H Cl ZnCl 2 + H 2

Atom Left Right

Zinc (Zn) 1 1
Hydrogen (H ) 2 2
Chlorine (Cl) 2 2

Dealing with Odd Numbers of Oxygen

Sometimes, balancing equations requires dealing with an odd number of oxygen atoms. For
instance, in the combustion of ethane (C H ):
2 6

C 2 H 6 + O 2 → 2CO 2 + 3H 2 O

To balance the oxygens, you might end up with a fraction:

7
C2 H6 + O 2 → 2CO 2 + 3H 2 O
2

To remove the fraction, double all coefficients:

2C 2 H 6 + 7O 2 → 4CO 2 + 6H 2 O

Relative Mass

Relative Atomic Mass (A ) r

Atoms are incredibly small, and their actual masses are difficult to work with. Therefore, we
use a scale of relative masses. The carbon-12 scale compares the masses of atoms (and
molecules) to the mass of a carbon-12 isotope atom.

The relative atomic mass of an element is the weighted average mass of the
isotopes of the element, measured on a scale where a carbon-12 ( C ) atom has a
12

mass of exactly 12.

The mass of a hydrogen atom is approximately 1.67 × 10 g. −24

On the carbon-12 scale:

One atom of carbon-12 weighs exactly 12 units.
The most common hydrogen isotope has a mass of approximately 1.

Although elements consist of a mixture of isotopes, at International GCSE we use relative

atomic masses, including decimal places for Cl (35.5) and Cu (63.5), therefore we will take
the relative atomic mass of lithium as 7 and that of sodium as 23.

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Relative Formula Mass (M ) r

Relative formula mass is the sum of the relative atomic masses of all the atoms in
a formula unit of the substance.

Use the term "relative formula mass" for both covalent and ionic substances. Avoid
"relative molecular mass" for ionic compounds like magnesium oxide or sodium
chloride.
Relative atomic masses are usually provided in the exam.
Use the larger of the two numbers given on the Periodic Table.

Calculating Relative Formula Mass

1. Identify the formula of the compound.
2. List the elements and their quantities.
3. Find the relative atomic masses of each element.
4. Multiply the relative atomic mass of each element by its quantity in the formula.
5. Add the results to find the total relative formula mass.

Example 1: Magnesium carbonate (M gCO ) 3

Ar : Mg = 24, C = 12, O = 16
M r = 24 + 12 + (3 × 16) = 84

Example 2: Calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH ) ) 2

Ar : H = 1, O = 16, Ca = 40
M r = 40 + (16 + 1) × 2 = 74

Water of Crystallization
When some substances crystallize from solution, water molecules become chemically bound
within the salt's crystal structure. This is known as water of crystallization.

Salts containing water of crystallization are called hydrated.

Example: Copper(II) sulfate crystals (CuSO 4

⋅ 5H 2 O )

There are always 5 water molecules associated with each CuSO unit.4

To calculate the M of hydrated compounds:

r

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1. Calculate the M of the anhydrous salt (CuSO ).

r 4

2. Calculate the M of the water molecules (5H O).

r 2

3. Add them together.

CuSO 4 ⋅ 5H 2 O : M r = 63.5 + 32 + (4 × 16) + (5 × 18) = 249.5

Using Relative Formula Mass to Find Percentage Composition

1. Calculate the M of the compound.
r

2. Identify the element for which you want to find the percentage by mass.
3. Calculate the total mass of that element in the compound.
4. Use the formula:
Mass of element in compound
Percentage by mass = × 100
M r of compound

Example 1: Percentage of copper in copper(II) oxide (CuO)

Mr of CuO = 63.5 + 16 = 79.5

63.5
Percentage of copper = × 100 = 79.9
79.5

Example 2: Percentage of oxygen in sodium carbonate (N a 2 CO 3 )

M r = (2 × 23) + 12 + (3 × 16) = 106

Total mass of oxygen = 3 × 16 = 48

48
Percentage of oxygen = × 100 = 45.3
106

The Mole

Definition of the Mole

In chemistry, the mole is a unit of the amount of substance.

The abbreviation for mole is "mol."

Expressing the amount of substance in moles or grams is similar to expressing mass in

grams.

1 mole of any substance has its own particular mass.

1 mole of water (H O) has a mass of 18 g.

2

1 mole of sulfur (S ) has a mass of 32 g.

1 mole of magnesium oxide (M gO) has a mass of approximately 40 g.

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Molar Mass
The mass of 1 mole of a substance is numerically equal to its relative formula
mass (M ) expressed in grams.
r

Finding the mass of 1 mole of a substance involves calculating the relative formula
mass (M ) and attaching the units "grams."
r

The terms "molar mass" and "mass of 1 mole" are often used interchangeably, although
molar mass has units of g/mol, and the mass of 1 mole has units of g.

Formula for Mole Calculations

mass (g)
Number of moles =
mass of 1 mole (g)

You can rearrange this formula to find mass if you know the number of moles:

Mass (g) = number of moles × mass of 1 mole (g)

Calculating the Mass of a Mole of a Substance

1. Find the relative formula mass of the substance.
2. Attach the units grams to the relative formula mass.

Example: Calcium carbonate (CaCO ) 3

1. M of CaCO = 40 + 12 + (3 × 16) = 100

r 3

2. 1 mole of CaCO has a mass of 100g.

3

Simple Calculations with Moles

Finding the number of moles in 54g of water (H 2
):
O

1. M of H O = (2 × 1) + 16 = 18
r 2

2. 1 mol of H O has a mass of 18g.

2

3. Number of
mass (g) 54
moles = = = 3 mol
mass of 1 mole (g) 18

4. 54g of water is 3 mol.

Finding the mass of 0.2 mol of calcium carbonate, CaCO : 3

1. M of CaCO = 40 + 12 + (3 × 16) = 100

r 3

2. Mass (g) = number of moles × mass of 1 mole (g) = 0.2 × 100 = 20g
3. 0.2molof CaCO has a mass of 20g.
3

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Importance of Quoting the Formula

When talking about moles, it is essential to quote the formula to avoid confusion.

For example, 1 mole of oxygen can mean:

1 mole of oxygen atoms (O), with a mass of 16 g.

1 mole of oxygen molecules (O ), with a mass of 32 g.
2

Examples of Molar Masses

1 mole of oxygen gas (O ) has a mass of 32 g.
2

1 mole of calcium chloride (CaCl ) has a mass of 111 g.

2

1 mole of iron(II) sulfate crystals (F eSO ⋅ 7H O) has a mass of 278 g.

4 2

Empirical and Molecular Formulae

Molecular Formula
The molecular formula shows the actual number of atoms of each element
present in a molecule (covalent compound) or formula unit (ionic compound) of a
compound.

Empirical Formula
The empirical formula is the simplest whole number ratio of atoms of each
element in a compound.

To find the empirical formula of a compound such as copper oxide, you need to know how
many atoms of copper combine with how many atoms of oxygen. You can work out the
number of atoms from the number of moles. If you know the ratio between the number of
copper atoms and oxygen atoms in the compound, you know the formula.

Example

Cu O

masses/g 1.27 0.16

find the number of moles of atoms by dividing the mass by the mass of 1
1.27/63.5 0.16/16
mole of atoms
number of moles of atoms

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Relationship Between Empirical and Molecular Formulae

The molecular formula can be the same as the empirical formula or a multiple of it.
Calcium oxide: Empirical formula is CaO, and the molecular formula is also CaO.
Hydrogen peroxide: Empirical formula is H O, and the molecular formula is H O .
2 2

Working Out Molecular Formula from Empirical Formula

To determine the molecular formula from the empirical formula, you need additional
information, specifically the M of the compound.
r

Empirical Formula
The empirical formula shows the simplest whole number ratio of the atoms present in a
compound.

Determining Empirical Formula

1. Calculating Empirical Formula from Masses

Use a table to organize the data.

Cu O

masses/g 1.27 0.16

Ar 63.5 16
Find the number of moles of atoms by dividing the mass by the mass of 1 mole of
atoms.
Divide by the smallest number to find the ratio.
The empirical formula represents the ratio of moles.

2. Calculating Empirical Formula from Moles

If a compound contains 0.4 mol Mn and 0.8 mol O, then the formula must be
M nO because there are twice as many O atoms as Mn atoms.
2

Moles and the Avogadro Constant ‍

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1 mole of 12
C has a mass of 12g and contains approximately 6 × 10 23
carbon atoms.

This number of atoms in 12g of 12

C is called the Avogadro constant.

1 mole of anything else contains this same number of particles.

Example: 1 mole of magnesium contains 6 × 10 23

magnesium atoms (Mg) and has
a mass of 24g.

Working Out Empirical Formulae

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1. Magnesium Oxide

Procedure

Weigh a crucible with a lid.

Place a piece of magnesium ribbon (about 10cm long) in the crucible and
weigh the crucible and contents.
Set up the apparatus as shown in Figure 5.12.
Heat the crucible strongly (a roaring flame).
Lift the lid every few seconds.
When the reaction is finished, allow the crucible and contents to cool.
Weigh the crucible and contents.

Observations

Magnesium burns with a bright white flame.

Magnesium oxide, a white powder, is produced in the reaction.

Safety Note: The teacher demonstrating needs to wear a face shield and use
safety screens. The pupils require eye protection and should be no closer than 2
metres.

To find the formula of magnesium oxide, determine how many moles of

magnesium atoms combine with how many moles of oxygen atoms.

mass of empty crucible/g 32.46

mass of crucible + magnesium/g 32.70
mass of crucible + contents at end/g 32.86
mass of magnesium = 32.70 − 32.46 = 0.24g

mass of oxygen= 32.86 - 32 . 7 0 = 0.16g

Mg O

mass/g 0.24 0.16

A r 24 16
moles of atoms 0.010 0.010
divide for ratio 0.010 0.010
ratio of moles 1 1
empirical formula MgO MgO
The mass increases because the magnesium combines with the oxygen in the air.
The mass of magnesium oxide is greater than the mass of just magnesium due to
the extra oxygen.

2. Copper Oxide

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Procedure:

Weigh a ceramic dish.

Put about 3g of copper oxide in the ceramic dish and weigh the dish again.
Place the ceramic dish in a tube.
Pass hydrogen gas over the copper oxide.
Ignite the excess hydrogen, which comes out of the small hole in the boiling
tube.
Heat the copper oxide strongly until the reaction is finished (pink-brown
copper metal will be seen).

Safety Note: Wear eye protection and take care not to get burnt when raising the
crucible lid with tongs.

The oxygen is removed from the copper oxide, a process called reduction.

The hydrogen combines with the oxygen from the copper oxide to form water.

Determining the Formula of Water

Modify the apparatus to condense the water vapor produced.

Measure the mass of water that collects in the U-tube.

mass of empty dish/g 22.78

mass of dish + copper oxide/g 26.96
mass of dish + contents at end of experiment/g 26.32
mass of water/g 0.72
All the oxygen lost from the copper(II) oxide combines with hydrogen to form
water.
Determine the empirical formula of water.
H O

mass/g 0.08 0.64

moles of atoms 0.08/1 0.64/16
number of moles of atoms 0.08 0.040
divide by smallest 0.08/0.04 0.04/0.04
ratio of moles 2 1
empirical formula H₂O H₂O

Working Out Formulae Using Percentage Composition Figures

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Find the empirical formula of a compound containing 82.7 % C and 17.3 % H by mass (
A of H = 1, A of C = 12).
r r

C H

percentage% 82.7 17.3

masses in 100 g/g 82.7 17.3
number of moles of atoms 82.7/12 17.3/1
number of moles 6.89 17.3
divide by smallest to ratio 6.89/6.89 17.3/6.89
ratio of moles 1 2.5
In this case the percentages convert simply into masses.
The empirical formula is the whole number ratio of the elements present in a
compound.

Empirical Formula Calculations Involving Water of

Crystallisation

Finding the n in BaCl 2 ⋅ nH 2 O

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Heat barium chloride crystals in a crucible.

Safety Note: Barium chloride is toxic, but a Bunsen flame is not hot enough to
release it into the atmosphere.

To find n, find the ratio of the number of moles of BaCl to the number of moles
2

of water.

Mass of crucible 30 . 00g

Mass of crucible+ Barium chloride crystals, BaCl ⋅ nH 2 2O 32.44g
Mass of crucible+ anhydrous barium chloride, BaCl 2 32. 0 8g

Calculate the mass of BaCl and water.

2

BaCl 2 = 32.08 − 30.00 = 2.08g

H 2 O = 32.44 − 32.08 = 0.36g

BaCl 2 H2 O

masses/g 2.00 0.36

Mr 208 16
divide by M to find the moles
r 2.06/208 0.36/16
number of moles 0.0100 0.020
ratio of moles 1 2
empirical formula BaCl 2 /2H 2 O

Converting Empirical Formulae into Molecular Formulae

The molecular formula is the actual number of each atom present in a molecule.

If a compound has the empirical formula CH and a relative formula mass of 56, work
2

out the molecular formula.

1. Calculate the relative formula mass of CH . 2

12 + (2 × 1) = 14

2. Divide the relative formula mass of the compound by the relative formula mass of
the empirical formula.
56/14 = 4

Therefore, there must be 4 lots of CH in the actual molecule, and the molecular
2

formula is C H .
4 8

Calculations Using Moles, Chemical Equations and

Masses of Substances

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The big numbers in front of the formulae tell us the number of moles of each substance
that react.

Consider this example:

CH 4 + 2O 2 → CO 2 + 2H 2 O

1 mol CH 4 reacts with 2 mol O 2 to f orm 1 mol CO 2 and 2 mol H 2 O

Chemical Equations & Calculations

Heating Calcium Carbonate

When calcium carbonate (CaCO ) is heated, it undergoes thermal decomposition to form
3

calcium oxide (quicklime, CaO) and carbon dioxide (CO ). 2

CaCO 3 (s) → CaO(s) + CO 2 (g)

The molar mass (M ) of CaCO is 100.

r 3

The molar mass (M ) of CaO is 56.

r

If you start with a certain number of moles of CaCO , you will obtain the same number of
3

moles of CaO at the end.

Example:

Starting with 25g of CaCO : 3

1. Calculate the number of moles of CaCO : 3

mass 25
number of moles = = = 0.25mol
mass of 1 mole 100

2. Since 1 mol of CaCO produces 1 mol of CaO, 0.25 mol of CaCO will produce 0.25
3 3

mol of CaO.

3. Convert moles of CaO to mass:

mass = number of moles × mass of 1 mole mass = 0.25 × 56 = 14g

Therefore, heating 25g of calcium carbonate will produce 14g of calcium oxide.

Alternative Method (Using Ratios):

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1. Interpret the equation in terms of moles:

1 mol CaCO produces 1 mol CaO
3

100g CaCO produces 56g CaO

3

2. Do a proportion calculation:
If 100g of calcium carbonate gives 56g of calcium oxide, then 1g of calcium
carbonate gives 56/100 = 0.56g of calcium oxide.
Therefore, 25g of calcium carbonate gives 25 × 0.56 = 14g of calcium oxide.

Extracting Iron
Iron is extracted from iron oxide (F e 2 O3 ) using carbon (C ) in a reaction represented by the
equation:

F e 2 O 3 + 3C → 2F e + 3CO

Key Points:

1 mol of F e O produces 2 mol of F e.

2 3

The molar mass (M ) of F e O is 2 × 56 + 3 × 16 = 160.

r 2 3

Example:

Calculate the mass of iron (F e) which can be formed from 1000g of iron oxide (F e 2 O3 ).

1. Calculate the number of moles of F e 2 O3 :

mass 1000
number of moles = = = 6.25mol
mass of 1 mole 160

2. From the equation, 1 mol F e 2

O3 produces 2 mol F e, so 6.25 mol F e 2
O3 produces
2 × 6.25 = 12.5mol F e.

3. Convert moles of F e to mass:

mass = number of moles × mass of 1 mole mass = 12.5 × 56 = 700g

Therefore, 1000g of F e 2
O3 will produce 700g of F e.

Alternative Method (Using Ratios):

1. Interpret the equation in terms of moles:

160 g (1 mol) of F e O produces 2 × 56 g(2 mol) of F e.
2 3

160 g of F e O produces 112 g of F e.

2 3

2. From this, 1 g of F e O will produce

2 3
g of F e.
112

160

3. Therefore, 1000 g of F e O will produce 1000 ×

2 3
= 700 g.
112

160

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Extracting Lead
Lead is extracted from galena (P bS ) in two steps:

1. Roasting in air to produce lead(II) oxide (P bO):

2P bS(s) + 3O 2 (g) → 2P bO(s) + 2SO 2 (g)

2. Heating lead(II) oxide with carbon in a blast furnace: P bO(s) + C(s) → P b(l) + CO(g)

Key Points:

Arvalues: O = 16, S = 32, Pb = 207

Molar mass of P bS = 207 + 32 = 239

Example:

Calculate the mass of lead that would be produced from 1 tonne of galena.

1. Calculate the number of moles of P bS :

1000000
The number of moles of PbS = = 4184 mol
239

2. Interpret the equations in terms of moles and trace the lead through the equations:

From the first equation: 2 mol P bS produces 2 mol P bO.

From the second equation: 2 mol P bO produces 2 mol P b.

Overall: 2 mol P bS produces 2 mol P b. This can also be simplified to 1 mol P bS

produces 1 mol P b.

3. Since 4184 mol P bS are reacted, 4184 mol P b will be produced.

4. Calculate the mass of lead produced:

The mass of 4184 mol Pb is 4184 × 207 = 866088 g

5. Convert this to tonnes by dividing by 1,000,000:

866088/1000000 = 0.866 tonne

Therefore, 1 tonne of galena produces 0.866 tonne of lead.

Alternative Method (Using Ratios):

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1. Interpret the equations in terms of masses:

2 × 239 g P bS produces 2 × 207 g P b

478 g P bS produces 414 g P b

2. Do a proportion calculation:
If 478 tonnes P bS produces 414 tonnes P b, then 1 tonne P bS gives
tonne P b = 0.866 tonne.
414

478

Calculations with Substances in Excess

In many reactions, one reactant may be in excess, meaning there is more of it than is needed
to react completely with the other reactant. To solve these problems:

1. Calculate the number of moles of each reactant.

2. Use the chemical equation to determine the mole ratio required for the reaction.
3. Identify which reactant is in excess by comparing the actual mole ratio to the required
mole ratio.
4. Use the number of moles of the limiting reactant (the one not in excess) to calculate
the amount of product formed.

Example:

M g(s) + 2H Cl(aq) → M gCl 2 (aq) + H 2 (g)

0. 2 mol Mg is reacted with 0.2 mol HCl. Calculate the mass of hydrogen gas produced.
From the chemical equation, 1 mol Mg reacts with 2 mol HCl.
Therefore, 0.2 mol Mg would require 2 × 0.2 = 0.4 mol H Cl.
Since we only have 0.2 mol HCl, HCl is the limiting reactant, and Mg is in excess.

Using the number of moles of HCl:

2 mol HCl produces 1 mol H . 2

Therefore, 0.2 mol HCl produces 0.1 mol H . 2

The mass of H = 0.1 × 2 = 0.2 g.

2

Calculating Percentage Yields

Percentage yield compares the actual amount of product obtained in a reaction to
the theoretical amount that could be obtained based on calculations.
actual yield
Percentage yield = × 100
theoretical yield

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Theoretical yield: The maximum amount of product that can be formed from a given
amount of reactant, calculated using stoichiometry.
Actual yield: The amount of product actually obtained in a reaction. This is usually less
than the theoretical yield due to factors such as incomplete reactions, side reactions, or
loss of product during purification.

Example:

A student reacted 2.40g of copper(II) oxide (CuO) with hot sulfuric acid and made 5.21 g of
copper(II) sulfate crystals (CuSO ⋅ 5H O). Calculate the percentage yield.
4 2

CuO(s) + H 2 SO 4 (aq) → CuSO 4 (aq) + H 2 O(l) CuSO 4 (aq) + 5H 2 O(l) → CuSO 4 ⋅ 5H 2 O(s)

1. Calculate the theoretical yield:

Moles of CuO = 2.40

79.5
= 0.0302 mol

From the equation, 0.0302 mol CuO will produce 0.0302 mol CuSO 4 .
⋅ 5H 2 O

Mass of CuSO ⋅ 5H O = 0.0302 × 249.5 = 7.53 g (theoretical yield)

4 2

2. Calculate the percentage yield:

5.21
Percentage yield = × 100 = 69.2
7.53

Problem Solving Practice

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1. Balance the following equations:

a) F e + H Cl → F eCl + H 2 2

b) Zn + H SO → ZnSO + H 2 4 4 2

c) Ca + H O → Ca(OH ) + H
2 2 2

d) Al + Cr O → Al O + Cr 2 3 2 3

e) F e O + CO → F e + CO
2 3 2

f) N aH CO + H SO → N a SO + CO + H
3 2 4 2 4 2 2O

g) C H + O → CO + H O
8 18 2 2 2

h) F e O + H → F e + H O
3 4 2 2

i) P b + AgN O → P b(N O ) + Ag 3 3 2

j) AgN O + M gCl → M g(N O ) + AgCl

3 2 3 2

k) C H + O → CO + H O
3 8 2 2 2

2. Calculate the relative formula masses of the following compounds:

a) CO 2

b) CH CO H 3 2

c) N a SO
2 4

d) (N H ) SO 4 2 4

e) N a CO ⋅ 10H
2 3 2O

f) Cr (SO ) (
2 4 3

A r : H = 1, C = 12, N = 14, O = 16, N a = 23, S = 32, Ca = 40, Cr = 52, F e = 56 )

3. Calculate the percentage of nitrogen in each of the following substances (all used as
nitrogen fertilizers):

a) potassium nitrate, KN O 3

b) ammonium nitrate, N H N O 4 3

c) ammonium sulfate, (N H ) SO (A 4 2 4 r )
: H = 1, N = 14, O = 16, S = 32, K = 39

4. Calculate the mass of the following:

a) 1 mol of H CN
b) 1 mol of lead(II) nitrate, P b(N O ) 3 2

c) 4.30mol of methane, CH 4

d) 0.70mol of N a O 2

e) 0.015mol of N aN O 3

f) 0.24 mol of sodium carbonate crystals, N a 2 CO 3 ⋅ 10H 2 O (

A r : H = 1, C = 12, N = 14, O = 16, N a = 23, P b = 207 )

5. Calculate the number of moles represented by each of the following:

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a) 20g of magnesium oxide, M gO

b) 3.20g of iron(III) oxide, F e O
2 3

c) 2 kg of copper(II) oxide, CuO

d) 50g of copper(II) sulfate crystals, CuSO ⋅ 5H
4 2O

e) 1 tonne of iron, F e (1 tonne is 1,000,000g)

f) 0.032g of sulfur dioxide, SO (2

A r : H = 1, O = 16, S = 32, M g = 24, F e = 56, Cu = 63.5 )

6. The following calculations use

A r : H = 1, O = 16, N a = 23, Cl = 35.5, Ca = 40, Cu = 63.5 .

a) Calculate the mass of 4mol of sodium chloride, N aCl.

b) Calculate how many moles is 37 g of calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH ) . 2

c) Calculate how many moles is 1 kg (1000g) of calcium, Ca.

d) Calculate the mass of 0.125 mol of copper(II) oxide, CuO.
e) 0.1 mol of a substance has a mass of 4g. Calculate the mass of 1 mole.
f) 0.004 mol of a substance has a mass of 1 g. Calculate the relative formula mass
of the compound.

7. Determine the empirical formulae of the compounds which contain:

a) 9.39g P, 0.61 g H
b) 5.85g K, 2.10 g N , 4.80g O
c) 3.22g Na , 4.48g S, 3.36g O
d) 22.0% C , 4.6% H, 73.4% Br (by mass) (
A r : H = 1, C = 12, N = 14, O = 16, N a = 23, S = 32, K = 39, Br = 80 )
8. 1. 24g of phosphorus was burnt completely in oxygen to give 2.84g of phosphorus
oxide. Find:
a) the empirical formula of the oxide
b) the molecular formula of the oxide given that 1 mole of the oxide has a mass of
284g. (A : O = 16, P = 31)
r

9. An organic compound contained C 66.

Stoichiometry Study Guide

Calculations with Molar Volume

1 mole of any gas occupies 24 dm (24,000 cm ) at room temperature and pressure
3 3

(rtp).
rtp is usually taken as 20-25°C and 1 atmosphere pressure.
Avogadro's Law: Equal volumes of gases at the same temperature and pressure
contain equal numbers of molecules. For helium and other noble gases, the term
"atoms" is used instead of "molecules".

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Units of Volume
3 3
1 liter = 1 dm = 1000 cm

Converting Between Volumes and Moles

Use the triangles (like the one below) to convert between volumes and numbers of
moles.
Be careful with the units of volume (cm or dm ). 3 3

Conversion Operation

dm
3
→ cm
3
Multiply by 1000
cm
3
→ dm
3
Divide by 1000

Calculating Volume from Moles

Volume = Number of moles × Molar volume

Example: Calculate the volume in dm of 0.20 mol CO at rtp:

3
2

volume = 0.20 × 24 = 4.8 dm 3

Using Molar Volume in Chemical Equations

Key Point:

Calculate the number of moles of anything you can.

Use the chemical equation to deduce the number of moles of what you want.
Convert the number of moles to the required quantity (e.g., a mass or a volume).

Example: Calculate the volume of carbon dioxide produced at room temperature and pressure
when an excess of dilute hydrochloric acid is added to 1.00g of calcium carbonate.

(A r : C = 12, O = 16, Ca = 40; molar volume = 24 dm at rtp.) 3

CaCO 3 (s) + 2H Cl(aq) → CaCl 2 (aq) + CO 2 (g) + H 2 O(l)

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1. Calculate the number of moles of CaCO : 3

Mass of 1 mole of CaCO is 100g. 3

mass
number of moles =
mass of 1 mole
1.00
number of moles in 1.00g of CaCO 3 = = 0.0100 mol
100

2. From the chemical equation, 1 mol of CaCO produces 1 mol of CO , so 0.0100 mol of
3 2

CaCO will produce 0.0100 mol of CO .

3 2

3. Calculate the volume of CO : 2

volume of gas = number of moles × molar volume

3
volume of CO 2 = 0.0100 × 24 = 0.24 dm

Calculating the Number of Moles from a Volume

volume of gas
number of moles =
molar volume

If the volume of the gas is given in cm , use the molar volume as 24,000 cm . If it is
3 3

given in dm , use 24 dm .
3 3

Example: Calculate the number of moles in 120 cm of carbon dioxide. 3

120
number of moles = = 0.005 mol
24000

Calculating the Volume of a Given Mass of Gas

Example: Calculate the volume (in cm ) of 0.01 g of hydrogen at rtp (A
3
r : H = 1) .

1. 1 mol H has a mass of 2g.

2

2. 0. 01 g of hydrogen is = 0.005mol.
0.01

3. Volume = number of moles × molar volume = 0.005 × 24000 = 120 cm 3

A Problem Involving Making Hydrogen

Example: What mass of aluminum would you need to add to an excess of dilute hydrochloric
acid so that you produced 100 cm of hydrogen at room temperature and pressure?
3

(A of Al = 27; molar volume = 24000 cm at rtp.)

3
r

2Al(s) + 6H Cl(aq) → 2AlCl 3 (aq) + 3H 2 (g)

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1. Calculate the number of moles of hydrogen gas:

volume of gas 100
number of moles of gas = = = 0.00417 mol
molar volume 24000

2. Determine the moles of aluminum required:

From the equation, 3 mol of H is produced from 2 mol of Al.

2

2
number of moles of Al = 0.00417 × = 0.00278mol
3

3. Convert moles of aluminum to mass:

mass = number of moles × mass of 1 mole

mass = 0.00278 × 27 = 0.075g Al

Concentrations of Solutions
Concentrations can be measured in:

g / dm (grams per cubic decimetre)

3

mol / dm (moles per cubic decimetre)

3

M (molarity) means 'mol / dm '. For example, 2 M can be read as '2 molar'.
3

Converting Between g/dm and mol/dm 3 3

This is no different from converting moles into grams and vice versa.

Working with Solution Concentrations

Example: What is the concentration in mol/dm of a solution containing 2.1 g of sodium
3

hydrogencarbonate, N aH CO , in 250 cm of solution?

3
3

(A r : H = 1, C = 12, O = 16, N a = 23)

1. Calculate the number of moles of N aH CO : 3

2.1
2.1 g is = 0.025mol
84

2. Determine the concentration in 1 dm : 3

There are four lots of 250 cm in 1000 cm (1 dm ).

3 3 3

Therefore, there must be 4 × 0.025 = 0.10 mol in 1000 cm . 3

Example: What is the concentration of a 0.050 mol/dm solution of sodium carbonate, 3

N a CO , in g/dm ? (A : C = 12, O = 16, N a = 23)

3
2 3 r

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Excess Reactant
Excess means that more than enough acid has been added to react with all the
calcium carbonate.

Example: Limescale can be removed from electric kettles by reacting it with a dilute acid such
as ethanoic acid, which is present in vinegar:

From the chemical equation, we can see that there is a 2 in front of the CH COOH (ethanoic
3

acid) but no number (which means a 1) in front of the CaCO , so we can deduce that 2 mol of
3

CH COOH is required to react with 1 mol of CaCO .

3 3

Moles, Volume, and Concentration

Calculating Moles from Volume and Concentration

When dealing with solutions, you'll often need to calculate the number of moles given the
volume and concentration. The equation for this calculation is:
3 3
number of moles = volume of solution (dm ) × concentration (mol/dm )

Remember to convert the volume from cm to dm by dividing by 1000.

3 3

Example: Ethanoic Acid and Calcium Carbonate Reaction

Consider the reaction between ethanoic acid (CH 3
COOH ) and calcium carbonate (CaCO ):
3

CaCO 3 (s) + 2CH 3 COOH (aq) → [CH 3 COO] 2 Ca(aq) + CO 2 (g) + H 2 O(l)

If you have 50 cm of ethanoic acid with a concentration of 2 mol/dm , you can calculate the
3 3

number of moles of ethanoic acid:

50
number of moles of ethanoic acid = × 2 = 0.1 mol
1000

From the balanced equation, 2 moles of ethanoic acid react with 1 mole of calcium carbonate.
Therefore, 0.1 moles of ethanoic acid will react with 0.05 moles of CaCO . 3

To find the mass of CaCO that reacts:

3

mass = number of moles × mass of 1 mol = 0.05 × 100 = 5 g

So, 5 grams of calcium carbonate can be removed by 50 cm of the ethanoic acid solution.
3

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Using the Calculation Triangle

You can use a triangle to help with calculations involving solutions. The triangle visually
represents the relationship between the number of moles, volume, and concentration.

Concentration Calculations in Seawater

A sample of seawater has a concentration of sodium chloride (NaCl) of 35.1 g/dm . To find
3

its concentration in mol/dm : 3

mass(g)
number of moles =
mass of 1 mole(g)

mass of 1 mole of N aCl = 23(N a) + 35.5(Cl) = 58.5 g

35.1
35.1g = mol = 0.600 mol
58.5

Therefore, the concentration of NaCl in seawater is approximately 0.600 mol/dm . 3

Titration Basics
Titration: A technique to determine how much of one solution reacts with a
known volume of another solution with a known concentration.

In a typical acid-alkali titration:

1. A solution of an alkali is measured into a conical flask using a pipette.

2. An acid is added from a burette, while swirling the flask.
3. Near the end point, the acid is added drop by drop until the indicator just changes color.

If the concentration of either the acid or alkali is known, the results of the titration can be
used to find the concentration of the other solution.

Standard Titration Calculation Example

Calculate the volume of 0.100 mol/dm sodium hydrogencarbonate (N aH CO ) solution
3
3

needed to neutralize 20.0 cm of 0.125 mol/dm hydrochloric acid (H Cl). The balanced
3 3

equation is:

N aH CO 3 (aq) + H Cl(aq) → N aCl(aq) + CO 2 (g) + H 2 O(l)

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1. Calculate the number of moles of HCl:

20.0
number of moles of H Cl = × 0.125 = 0.00250 mol
1000

2. Determine the number of moles of N aH CO needed: From the equation, 1 mol of

3

N aH CO reacts with 1 mol of H Cl. Therefore, you need 0.00250 mol of N aH CO .

3 3

3. Calculate the volume of N aH CO solution: 3

3 number of moles (mol) 0.00250 3

volume (dm ) = 3
= = 0.0250 dm
concentration (mol/dm ) 0.100

Convert to cm by multiplying by 1000:

3

3
volume of N aH CO 3 solution = 0.0250 × 1000 = 25.0 cm

Therefore, you need 25.0 cm of the sodium hydrogencarbonate solution to neutralize the
3

hydrochloric acid.

Slightly Harder Titration Calculations

In cases where the equation proportions are not 1:1, the calculation becomes slightly
different.

Consider the reaction between sodium hydroxide (N aOH ) and sulfuric acid (H 2 SO 4 ):

2N aOH (aq) + H 2 SO 4 (aq) → N a 2 SO 4 (aq) + 2H 2 O(l)

If 20.0 cm of 0.050 mol/dm H SO is used to neutralize 25.0 cm of N aOH solution, find

3 3
2 4
3

the concentration of the N aOH solution.

1. Calculate the number of moles of sulfuric acid used:

20.0
number of moles of H 2 SO 4 used = × 0.050 = 0.0010 mol
1000

2. Determine the number of moles of sodium hydroxide: From the equation, 2 moles of
N aOH react with 1 mole of H SO . Therefore,
2 4

number of moles of N aOH = 2 × 0.0010 = 0.0020 mol

3. Calculate the concentration of the sodium hydroxide solution:

3 number of moles (mol) 0.0020 0.0020 3
concentration (mol/dm ) = 3
= 25.0
= = 0.080 mol/dm
volume (dm ) 0.025
1000

Therefore, the concentration of the sodium hydroxide solution is 0.080 mol/dm . 3

Reversing Titration Calculations

You may be asked to calculate what volume of a solution is needed to neutralize something
else.

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25.00 cm of 0.100 mol/dm sodium hydroxide solution required 23.50 cm of dilute

3 3 3

hydrochloric acid for neutralization. Calculate the concentration of the hydrochloric acid.

N aOH (aq) + H Cl(aq) → N aCl(aq) + H 2 O(l)

1. Calculate the number of moles of NaOH:

25.00
number of moles of N aOH = × 0.100 = 0.00250 mol
1000

2. Determine the number of moles of H Cl needed: From the equation, 1 mol of N aOH
reacts with 1 mol of H Cl. Therefore, 0.00250 mol NaOH reacts with 0.00250 mol H Cl.

3. Calculate the concentration of the hydrochloric acid:

23.50 3 0.00250 3
volume of H Cl = = 0.02350, dm concentration = = 0.106, mol/dm
1000 0.02350

Therefore, the concentration of the hydrochloric acid is 0.106 mol/dm . 3

Calculations Involving Gases

Molar volume at rtp is 24 dm (24000 cm ).
3 3

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1. Calculate the amount in moles of each of the following:

2.4 dm of O at rtp
3
2

480 dm of H e at rtp
3

100 cm of CO at rtp
3
2

2. Calculate the volume of each of the following gases at rtp:

2.0 mol H 2

0.10 mol SO 2

1.0 × 10 mol CO
−3
2

3. Calculate the mass of 200 cm of chlorine gas (Cl ) at rtp. (A : Cl = 35.5)

3
2 r

Calculate the volume occupied by 0.16 g of oxygen (O ) at rtp. (A : O = 16)2 r

If 1 dm of a gas at rtp has a mass of 1.42 g, calculate the mass of 1 mole of the
3

gas.

4. 0.240g of magnesium is reacted with an excess of dilute sulfuric acid. (A : Mg = 24) r

M g(s) + H 2 SO 4 (aq) → M gSO 4 (aq) + H 2 (g)

Calculate the amount in moles of Mg which reacted.

Calculate the number of moles of hydrogen produced in the reaction.
Calculate the volume of hydrogen (measured at rtp) produced in the reaction.

5. Potassium nitrate decomposes when heated to produce oxygen gas:

2KN O (s) → 2KN O (s) + O (g) In an experiment 1.00 dm (measured at rtp) of
3
3 2 2

oxygen gas was collected. (A : N = 14 , O = 16 , K = 39 ; molar volume = 24 dm at rtp)

r
3

Calculate the amount in moles of oxygen gas collected.

Calculate the amount in moles of KN O that reacted. 3

Calculate the mass of KN O that reacted. 3

6. Chlorine can be prepared by heating manganese(IV) oxide with an excess of

concentrated hydrochloric acid. What is the maximum volume of chlorine (measured at
room temperature and pressure) that could be obtained from 2.00g of manganese(IV)
oxide? (A : O = 16 , Mn = 55; molar volume = 24000 cm at rtp)
r
3

M nO 2 (s) + 4H Cl(aq) → M nCl 2 (aq) + Cl 2 (g) + H 2 O(l)

7. Some dilute sulfuric acid, H SO , had a concentration of 4.90g / dm . What is its

2 4
3

concentration in mol/dm ? (A : H = 1 , O = 16 , S = 32 )
3
r

8. What is the concentration in g/dm of potassium hydroxide , KOH , solution with a

3

concentration of 0.200 mol / dm ? (A : H = 1 , O = 16, K = 39 )

3
r

9. Calculate the amount in moles in each of the following:

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25.0 cm 3
of 0.100 mol / dm N aCl(aq)
3

200 cm 3
of 0.200mol /dm H SO (aq)
3
2 4

75.0 cm 3
of 0.150mol / dm H Cl(aq)
3

22.4 cm 3
of 0.280 mol / dm H N O aq)
3
3

10. Calculate the concentration in mol / dm of each of the following solutions:

3

2.00 dm of sodium hydroxide solution containing 0.100 mo! sodium hydroxide

3

25.0 cm of sulfuric acid containing 0.0200 mo! sulfuric acid

3

27.8cm of hydrochloric acid conta in ing 0.00150mol hydroc hl oric acid

3

11. Calculate th e volume in cm of eac h of t he fo ll owing solutions:

3

the vo l ume of 0.100 mol / dm H SO (aq) that contains 0 .500 mol

3
2 4

the v o l ume of 0 . 0200 mol / dm N aOH (aq) t h at co n tains 0 . 00500 mo!

3

the vo l ume of 0 . 500 mol / dm M gCl (aq) t hat contains 0.0200 mol
3
2

12. When barium ch l oride solut i on is added to co p per( r( II) su l fate solution a
precipitate of barium sulfate (BaSO ) is formed. $BaCl_2 {aq) + CuS0_4 { aq}
4

\rightarrow BaS0_4 { s} + C u Cl,{aq }Excessbariumchloridesolutionisaddedto20. 0

cm^3$ o f copper{II) su l fate so l ution of concentration 0 . 100mol/ l/ dm . (A : 0 = 16 ,
3
r

S = 32, Ba= 13 7)

Calculate t he number of moles of copper(II) sulfate.

Calculate the number of moles of barium s u lfate fo r med.
Calculate t he mass of barium su lf ate fo r med.

13. Calcium carbonate r e acts with hydrochlo ri c acid: Extra close brace or missing open brace
Calcium carbo n ate is added to 25 . 0cm of 2 .00mol/dm^3$ h y d r och l oric acid . {A
3
r

: C = 12 , 0 = 16 , C a = 40)

Calculate t he a mount in moles of hydroch l ori c acid.

Calculate the amount in moles of CaCO t hat reacts w i th t h e ac i d.
3

Calculat e t he mass of CaCO that reacts with the a c id .

3

Calculat e t he vo lu me of CO (measure re d at rt p} produced . ( Mol a r volume

2

at rtp is 24000cm .) 3

14. Solve the following questions regarding the reaction between sodium carbonate
solution and nitric acid. Sodium carbonate solutio n reacts with nitric acid according to
the fo ll owing equation:
N a CO (aq) + 2H N O (aq) → 2N aN O (aq) + CO (g) + H O(l) In each of t he follow
2 3 3 3 2 2

ing questions work out which reagent is in excess a n d calculate the volume of CO 2

produced at rtp . (Molar vo l ume at rtp is 24000cm ) 3

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0.1 mol N a CO is reacted wi t h 0 .1 mol H N O .

2 3 3

20.0cm of 0.100mol / dm N a CO is reacted with 0.0200mol H N O .

3 3
2 3 3

25.0cm of 0.300mol / dm N a CO is reacted with 20.0cm of 0.40 0mol / dm

3 3
2 3
3 3

HN O .3

15. Calculate t he volume of oxygen gas (measured at rtp) produced when 30.0cm o f 3

0.0200mol/dm hydrogen peroxide decomposes to form oxygen gas. (Molar volume at

3

rtp is 24000cm .) 3

Ionic Bonding

What are Ionic Compounds?

Ionic Compounds: Compounds held together by ionic bonds, typically formed
between a metal and a non-metal.

Examples of ionic compounds include sodium chloride, magnesium oxide, calcium fluoride,
and zinc bromide.

Formation of Ions
Ions are formed through the loss or gain of electrons.

Metals in Groups 1, 2, and 3 lose electrons to form positive ions (cations) with charges
of +1, +2, and +3, respectively.
Non-metals in Groups 5, 6, and 7 gain electrons to form negative ions (anions) with
charges of -3, -2, and -1, respectively.

Common Ions and Their Charges

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Ion Charge

Metals (Groups 1, 2, 3) +1, +2, +3

Non-metals (Groups 5, 6, 7) -3, -2, -1
Ag
+
+1
Cu
2+
+2
Fe
2+
,F e 3+
+2, +3
Pb
2+
+2
Zn
2+
+2
Hydrogen (H ) +
+1
Hydroxide (OH ) −
-1
Ammonium (N H ) +

4
+1
Carbonate (CO ) 2−

3
-2
Nitrate (N O ) −

3
-1
Sulfate (SO ) 2−
4
-2

Dot-and-Cross Diagrams
Dot-and-cross diagrams are used to show the transfer of electrons during the formation of
ionic compounds. These diagrams illustrate how atoms achieve a noble gas electronic
configuration by losing or gaining electrons. When a metal such as sodium combines with a
non-metal such as chlorine, the chlorine atom has a stronger attraction for electrons than the
sodium atom, so an electron is transferred from the outer shell of the sodium atom to the
outer shell of the chlorine atom. Because the chlorine atom gains an electron it becomes
negatively charged and when the sodium loses an electron it becomes positively charged.

Electronic Configurations of Ions

Atoms lose or gain electrons to achieve a noble gas electronic configuration.

Exceptions
There are one or two exceptions to t hi s : there are ionic compounds that do not contain a
metal al , for example those contain in g the ammonium i on (such as NH 4 C I, ( N H 4 ) 2 S0
4.## Ionic Bonding

Ionic bonding involves the transfer of electrons from one atom to another, typically between
a metal and a nonmetal.

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Forming Ions
Ions are charged particles formed when atoms lose or gain electrons.
Cations: Positively charged ions (formed when atoms lose electrons). Example: N a +

Anions: Negatively charged ions (formed when atoms gain electrons). Example: Cl −

The Octet Rule and Ionic Compounds

Ionic bonding often occurs when small numbers of electrons (usually 1, 2, or 3) need to be
transferred to achieve a stable noble gas electronic configuration.

Atoms "want" to have a full outer shell of electrons, similar to noble gases, to
achieve stability.

Electrostatic Attraction
Ionic bonds are due to electrostatic attraction between positively and negatively charged
ions. Opposites attract, holding the ions together in a compound.

Magnesium Oxide (MgO) Example

Two electrons are transferred from a magnesium atom to an oxygen atom.
2+ −
Mg → Mg + 2e
− 2−
O + 2e → O

Mg
2+
and O 2−
have the same number of electrons and are isoelectronic.

Aluminum Ion (Al 3+

)
An aluminum atom loses its 3 outer shell electrons to form an Al 3+
ion.

Nitride Ion (N 3−
)
Atoms gain electrons to form the nitride ion (N 3−
).

Formulae for Ionic Compounds

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Ionic compounds are electrically neutral. The total positive charge must equal the total
negative charge.
You must learn the charges of certain ions (see table below).
Metals form positive ions.
The name of the compound can indicate the charge of the metal ion.
Lead(II) oxide contains P b2+

Iron(III) chloride contains F e 3+

Copper(II) sulfate contains Cu 2+

Charges on Common Ions

Group in Periodic Table Charge on Ion Example

1 1+ Na
+

2 2+ Mg
2+

3 3+ Al
3+

5 3- N
3−

6 2- O
2−

7 1- Br
−

Common Ions to Learn

Charge Substance Ion

positive zinc Zn
2+

silver Ag
+

hydrogen H
+

ammonium NH
4
+

Charge Substance Ion

negative nitrate NO
−

hydroxide OH
−

carbonate CO
2−
3

sulfate SO
2−

Giant Ionic Structures

Ionic compounds form crystals consisting of lattices of positive and negative ions.
A lattice is a regular array of particles held together by strong electrostatic attractions.
The bonding extends throughout the structure in all directions.
Do not refer to ionic compounds as "molecules."

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Deducing Formulae for Ionic Compounds

1. Equal numbers of charges: The total positive charge must equal the total negative
charge.
2. Sodium oxide example: Sodium (N a) is in Group 1, so it forms N a . Oxygen is in Group+

6, so it forms O . 2−

To balance charges: N a Na
+
O
+ 2−

Formula: N a O 2

3. Barium nitrate example: Barium (Ba) is in Group 2, so it forms Ba . Nitrate is N O . 2+ −

To balance charges: Ba requires two N O ions.

2+ −

Formula: Ba(N O ) . Use brackets when there is more than one polyatomic ion.
3 2

4. Iron(III) sulfate example: Iron(III) is F e . Sulfate is SO .

3+ 2−
4

To balance charges: You need two F e ions and three SO ions.

3+ 2−
4
3+ 2−
2F e + 3SO ⇒ F e 2 (SO 4 ) 3
4

5. The criss-cross method: A shortcut to working out complicated formulae is to just

swap over the numbers in the charges.

Common Mistakes to Avoid

Pay attention to word endings! Copper(II) sulfate (CuSO ) is different from copper(II) sulfide (
4

CuS ).

'-ate' ending: Indicates the presence of oxygen.

'-ide' ending: Usually means there are only two elements in the compound.

Physical Properties of Ionic Substances

High melting and boiling points: Due to strong electrostatic forces in the lattice.
Electrical conductivity:
Do not conduct electricity when solid because ions are fixed.
Conduct electricity when molten or dissolved in water because ions are free to
move.
Important: talk about the ions being free to move, not electrons.
Solubility:
Tend to be soluble in water because water is polar and can form strong forces
with ions, breaking the lattice apart.
Tend to be insoluble in organic solvents (e.g., hexane) because organic solvents
are nonpolar and cannot form strong attractions to ions.
Brittleness: Distortion of the crystal brings ions of like charge together, causing
repulsion and splitting.

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Structure of Magnesium Oxide (MgO)

MgO has the same structure as sodium chloride but stronger electrostatic forces because it
involves 2+ and 2− ions instead of 1+ and 1− ions.

Structure of Sodium Chloride (NaCl)

Giant ionic lattice: No individual molecules.
Each sodium ion is surrounded by 6 chloride ions, and vice versa.
Ions are usually drawn in an 'exploded' view in diagrams.

Electronic configuration of covalently bonded Hydrogen

Chloride (HCl)
The electronic configuration is [2,8,8]. The hydrogen now has 2 electrons in its outer shell -
the same as helium.

What is a Covalent Bond?

In a covalent bond, a pair of electrons is shared between two atoms. What holds the atoms
together is the strong electrostatic attraction between the nuclei (positively charged) of the
atoms that make up the bond, and the shared pair of electrons (negatively charged).

Covalent Bonding
In virtually all molecules, electrons will be shared so that:

H atoms have a total of 2 electrons in their outer shell.

All other atoms will have 8 electrons in their outer shell.

Some refer to the 8 electrons in the outer shell as the 'octet rule'. Shared electrons count as
belonging to the outer shells of both atoms.

In the examples you will meet, the inner electrons never get used and are often left out of
bonding diagrams.

Covalent Bonding: A type of chemical bonding where atoms share one or more
pairs of electrons to achieve stability.

Energy and Stability

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Whenever a bond is formed, energy is released, making the things involved more stable than
they were before. The more bonds an atom can form, the more energy is released and the
more stable the system becomes.

The H molecule is much more stable than two separate hydrogen atoms. In H , each
2 2

hydrogen atom has only one electron to share, so it can only form one covalent bond. The
shared pair of electrons is in the outer shell of both, therefore each atom has the same
number of electrons as a noble gas atom (helium in this case).

Molecules
Molecules contain a certain fixed number of atoms, which are joined together by covalent
bonds.

Diatomic molecules: molecules containing two atoms.

Other sorts of molecule may have as many as thousands of atoms joined together, for
example proteins and DNA.

Chlorine Example
A chlorine atom has 7 electrons in its outer shell. Each Cl shares 1 electron so that both Cl
atoms will have 8 electrons in their outer shell. Remember that, although the electrons are
drawn as dots or as crosses, there is absolutely no difference between them in reality; the
dots and the crosses simply show that the electrons come from different atoms.

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