WRITTEN REPORT IN ENPS0302

(GEOLOGY FOR CIVIL ENGINEERS)

TOPIC: DISTRIBUTION OF ROCKS AT AND BELOW THE SURFACE (STRATIGRAPHY,

PLATE TECTONICS, AND SEISMICITY)

ANTONIO, RANIEL JOHN

BERNABE, VYNZ
ESPINOCILLA, DALE
LARGO, MA. LARRAINE JANE
NOMURA, JAN MUSASHI
QUIMSON, LEAH NADINE
RAMOS, CHRISTELLA MAE
Reporters

Engr. Aiza Santos

Instructor in ENPS0302

March 2025
Date Submitted
1. INTRODUCTION ( LEAH )
A. The distribution of rocks at and below the surface is the result of two factors:
(a) The original distribution of these rocks at the time they were formed
— When rocks form, their placement depends on the geological
processes at play. For example, igneous rock, sedimentary rock, and
metamorphic rocks.
(b) The change produced by later deformation, as the rocks are buckled
and fractured within the Earth — Over time, the Earth's dynamic
processes alter the arrangement of these rocks. This occurs through:
● Tectonic activity, where the movement of Earth’s plates causes
rocks to fold, fault, or be uplifted.
● Erosion and deposition, which wear away and transport
material, reshaping rock formations.
● Seismic activity, where earthquakes can fracture and shift rock
layers.

2. STRATIGRAPHY ( LARRAINE )
A. Stratigraphy is the branch of geology that studies the layers (or strata) of rocks
and how they relate to each other in time and space. It focuses on understanding
the sequence, distribution, and age of rock layers, as well as the processes that
led to their formation.
B. Steno's Laws of Stratigraphy
(a) Law of superposition
- The geologic principle that asserts in a sequence of layered rocks,
the bottom layer is the oldest, and the top layer is the youngest,
with each layer being younger than the one below it and older
than the one above it. This concept is grounded in the process
where newer sedimentary layers are deposited on top of older
ones.
(b) Law of original horizontality
- The geologic principle that states sedimentary layers are typically
laid down in horizontal or nearly horizontal layers, parallel or
almost parallel to the Earth's surface.
(c) Law of cross-cutting relationships
- The geologic principle that says the relative ages of rock layers
and geological features can be determined by noting that younger
rocks or structures cut through older ones.
(d) Law of lateral continuity
- The principle states that sediment layers originally spread out
laterally in all directions, meaning they were once continuous.
Therefore, rocks that are now separated by a valley or erosion can
be assumed to have been connected. However, these sediment
layers don't extend endlessly; their boundaries are determined by
 the amount and type of sediment available, as well as the shape
and size of the basin. As long as sediment continues to be
transported to an area, it will eventually be deposited, but the layer
will become thinner as the material decreases further from the
source.
C. Geologic Time Scale (GTS)
- The geological time scale is an important tool in science and geology. It
helps us compare rocks and fossils worldwide, similar to how the periodic
table organizes elements. The time scale's boundaries are often set by
the appearance or extinction of specific fossils, which are crucial for
dating rocks. For example, finding a trilobite fossil in a rock indicates it
comes from the Paleozoic era (541 to 252 million years ago), and
knowing the exact species can help us determine its age more precisely.

- This concept connects to the principle of faunal succession. This

principle explains that different fossil species represent different time
periods due to natural changes like evolution and extinction. William
"Strata" Smith, an English surveyor, discovered this principle while
working on rock layers for canal projects. He observed that certain fossils
appeared in the same sequence across various locations. By
documenting these patterns, Smith was able to match rock layers from
different areas and identify their age, eventually creating the first
geological map of an entire country.

- The method of temporal correlation, which means matching rock layers

based on their fossils, has been vital in locating valuable resources like
fossil fuels. It has also helped us understand Earth's geological history
since no single spot has a complete record. The geological time scale
acts as a global summary of these local and regional connections, mainly
based on fossil patterns over time and across different places.

3. STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY ( CHRISTALLE )

A. Structural geology is the branch of geology that studies the three-dimensional
distribution of rock units concerning their deformational histories. It focuses on
the analysis of geological structures such as folds, faults, joints, and foliation that
result from various forces acting on the Earth's crust. Structural geology aims to
understand the past and present stress conditions that have shaped geological
formations, which is essential for applications in natural resource exploration,
geotechnical engineering, and earthquake risk assessment.

B. When analyzing the structural evolution of geological formations, geologists

employ different approaches to understand their formation, movement, and the
forces acting upon them. These approaches include:
 (a) Descriptive and Geometric Analysis
● This approach involves the identification and classification of
geological structures based on their morphology and spatial
relationships.
● It includes measuring orientations of rock layers, folds, and faults
using tools such as compasses and clinometers.
● The data collected helps construct geological maps, cross-
sections, and models that depict the structural framework of an
area.
(b) Kinematic Analysis
● Kinematic analysis focuses on the movement history of rock
bodies and structures.
● It examines the displacement, rotation, and deformation of rock
masses without considering the forces responsible for these
movements.
● Techniques such as strain analysis, fault slip analysis, and
microstructural studies help reconstruct past tectonic events and
movements of rock units.
(c) Dynamic Analysis
● Dynamic analysis investigates the forces and stresses responsible
for rock deformation.
● It involves studying stress-strain relationships and the mechanical
properties of rocks to understand their behavior under different
pressure and temperature conditions.
● By analyzing the driving forces behind geological structures,
geologists can infer tectonic regimes and predict future geological
activity.

4. PLATE TECTONICS ( MUSASHI & VYNZ )

A. EARTH’S INTERIOR — The earth’s interior (the layers beneath the Earth’s
surface) is divided into three main layers, this includes the crust, mantle, and
core. These layers vary in composition, temperature, and state of matter, and
they interact to influence geological processes such as plate tectonics and
volcanic activity.
Crust — The outer surface of the Earth is known as the crust and it is a
cold, thin, brittle outer shell made of rock. There are two types of crust
each with its own distinctive physical and chemical properties.
● Oceanic Crust — The oceanic crust is made of magma that
erupts on the surface of the seafloor to create basalt lava flows. It
sinks deeper down and creates intrusive igneous rocks.
● Continental Crust — The continental crust is composed of many
types of metamorphic, igneous, and sedimentary rocks.
 Mantle — The layer located beneath the crust, the mantle has two
important characteristics: that it is made of solid and it is hot. The mantle
is separated into two parts: the lower mantle, which is more solid and
extends deeper, and the upper mantle, which contains the
asthenosphere, a semi-fluid layer that permits tectonic plate movement.

Core - The centre of the Earth is made of a dense metallic core. It is due
to the metallic nature of the Earth’s core, a magnetic field is present on
the planet. The Earth’s core is composed of a solid inner core and a liquid
outer core.
● Inner Core — It is the center and the hottest layer of the Earth.
The inner core is solid and made up of iron and nickel with
temperatures up to 5,500oC. Due to its immense heat energy, the
inner core is more like the engine room of the Earth. The inner
core has pressures and temperatures so high that the metals are
squeezed together and not able to move like a liquid but are
forced to vibrate instead of solid.
● Outer Core — The outer core of the Earth is similar to a very hot
ball of metals, whose temperature is around 4000 oF to 90000F. It
is so hot that the metals inside are all liquid.

B. TECTONIC PLATE — A tectonic plate, also known as a lithospheric plate, is a

massive, irregularly shaped slab of solid rock comprising the Earth's crust and
upper mantle, and these plates move independently, causing geological activity
like earthquakes and volcanoes.
Seven Major Plates
1. Pacific Plate
— The Pacific major plate is the largest which underlies the
Pacific Ocean. Specifically, it stretches all the way along the west
coast of North America to the east coast of Japan and Indonesia.
This plate forms most of the Pacific Ring of Fire which has some
of the most violent and catastrophic earthquakes and volcanoes
on the planet.
2. North American Plate
— The North American major plate not only contains the continent
of North America but also part of the Atlantic Ocean. This plate
extends all the way over the North Pole and even contains Siberia
and the northern island of Japan. It also includes Greenland,
Cuba, and the Bahamas.
3. Eurasian Plate
— The Eurasian major plate consists of most of Europe, Russia,
and parts of Asia. This plate is sandwiched between the North
American and African Plates on the north and west sides. The
west side has a divergent boundary with the North American plate.
 The south side of the Eurasian plate neighbors the Arabian,
Indian, and Sunda plates.
4. African Plate
— The African plate contains the whole continent of Africa as well
as the surrounding oceanic crust of the Atlantic Ocean. Oddly, it
looks like a larger boundary of the African continent, itself.
— Its size is 61,300,000 km²
5. Antarctic Plate
— The Antarctic plate holds the entire continent of Antarctica
including its surrounding oceanic crust. This plate is surrounded
by parts of the African, Australian, Pacific, and South American
plates.
— Antarctica was once grouped as part of the supercontinent
Gondwana with Australia and India. But about 100 million years
ago, Antarctica broke apart to its current location at the south
pole.
— It’s estimated that the Antarctica's major plate moves about 1
cm per year.
— Its size is 60,900,000 km².
6. Indo-Australian Plate
— The Indo-Australia plate is a major plate combining the
Australian and Indian Plates. But they are widely considered to be
two separate plates.
— The Indo-Australian plate stretches from Australia to India. It
also includes the oceanic crust of the Indian Ocean. The northeast
side of the Australian plate converges with the Pacific Plate.
— It covers the continent and ocean of Australia, India, Oceania,
and the Indian Ocean. Its size is 58,900,000 km²

7. South American Plate

- The South American plate is a major plate that includes the
continent of South America and a large portion of the ocean from
the Atlantic Ocean.

- On the west side of South America, it experiences devastating

earthquakes due to the convergent plate tectonic boundaries.

- But the eastern edge lies in the Atlantic Ocean at a divergent plate boundary. Alongside the
African Plate, these two plate boundaries pull apart from each other creating some of the
youngest oceanic crust on the planet.

- its size is 43,600,000 km²

C. THREE MAIN TYPES OF PLATE BOUNDARIES

(a.) DIVERGENT PLATE BOUNDARIES

- occur along spreading centers where plates are moving apart and new crust is created by
magma pushing up from the mantle. Picture two large conveyor belts facing each other but
slowly moving in opposite directions as they transport newly formed crust away from the ridge
Crest.

Examples of Divergent Plate Boundaries

· Mid-Atlantic Ridge
- The rate of spreading along the Mid-Altantic Ridge averages about 2.5 cm per year, or
25km in a million years.
- The seafloor spreading over the past 100-200 million years has caused the Atlantic Ocean
to grow from a tiny inlet of water into the vast Ocean that exists today

· Volcanoes
- They also cause volcanoes to occur. An example of this is in Iceland — the island of Iceland
is actually being pulled apart and the result are lava fountains like the Krafla Volcanoes.

· African Rift Valley

- A 6,000 mile crack in Earth's crust stretching from Lebanon to Mozambique. The force of the
plates pulling apart caused huge chunk of the crust to sink and force up motlen rock in volcanic
eruptions

(b.) CONVERGENT PLATE BOUNDARIES

- two plates moving towards each other, and collides
- exist wherein one plate is subducted underneath another plate
- where convergent plates exist, the Earth's crust is being destroyed as it slowly moves
underneath another section of crust and melts into the mantle

Kinds of Convergent Plate Boundaries

· Ocean-ocean plate convergence
- When two oceanic plates meet, they form large trenches underwater. Material that is liquified
under the pressure is pushed upwards, forming underwater volcanoes which can create islands.
· Ocean-Continent Plate Convergence
- When one oceanic and one continental plate meet, the denser oceanic plate subducts under
the less dense continental plate. This forms a trench on the oceanic side, and volcanoes and
mountains on the continental side.
· Continent-Continent Plate Convergence
- When two continental plates collide, the impact is so significant that the material in the
subduction zone is pushed upwards. This is how mountain ranges form, including even the
biggest ones in the world, like the Himalayas.
(c.) TRANSFORM PLATE BOUNDARIES
- most transform boundaries are found on the ocean floor, and a few occur on land. An example
of this is the San Andreas fault in California
- the result of two plates sliding past each other

Example: San Andreas fault

- Stretches about 1,300 km long
- Slices through 2/3 of the length of California
- The land on the west side of the fault (The Pacific Plate) is moving in a Northwesterly direction
relative to the land on the east side of the fault zone (on the North American Plate)

5. Earthquake

A. Definition

· It is a sudden and violent shaking of the ground, often caused by movements within
the Earth's crust along fault lines or by volcanic activity.

(a) Fault/ Fault plane

· A fault is a fracture or zone of fractures between two blocks of rock.

· A fault plane is the flat surface along which there has been significant displacement of rock
due to faulting.

(b) Hypocenter

· The hypocenter is the actual point at which an earthquake occurs and the point from which
body waves of an earthquake ultimately originate.

(c) Epicenter

· Epicenter is the location on Earth’s surface directly above where an earthquake occurs and
spreads. It is used as a reference point by seismologists to study the spread and effects of
earthquakes.

B. Two ways to measure the strength of an earthquake

(a) Magnitude

· Magnitude is the quantified value of seismic energy produced during an earthquake. It is a

specific value with no correlation to distance from epicenter.
(b) Intensity

· Intensity is the quantum of negative impact of earthquake on surrounding areas. Unlike

magnitude, the intensity that is the devastation caused by earthquake varies with the location
and is not a single numerical value.

C. Two types of earthquakes

(a) Tectonic earthquakes

· Most earthquakes are tectonic earthquakes, which happen when the large, thin plates of the
Earth's crust and upper mantle become stuck as they move past one another. They lock
together, and pressure builds up. When they finally release, earthquakes occur.

(b) Volcanic earthquakes

· Volcanic earthquakes happen due to the movement of magma or other fluids within a
volcano. As magma pushes through the rock beneath a volcano or fluids shift within its
chambers, the surrounding rock can crack and fracture. These fractures release smaller bursts
of energy compared to tectonic earthquakes, causing tremors and vibrations near the volcano.

D.Seismology is the study of earthquakes and the movement of waves through the Earth.
Scientists that are responsible for this study are called seismologists. They use special
instruments, especially seismometers that can measure vibrations in the ground. These
vibrations, or seismic waves, help us understand things like how earthquakes happen, what the
inside of the Earth looks like, and even how to predict future earthquakes. Seismology is very
important because it helps keep people safe by giving early warning systems for earthquakes
and improving building designs.

The two main types of seismic waves

Body Waves – It is a seismic wave that travels through the inside of the Earth. It is classified
into two main types:

• P-waves (Primary waves): These are the fastest seismic waves and move in a push-and-pull
motion (like a slinky). They can travel through solids, liquids, and gases.

• S-waves (Secondary waves): These are slower than P-waves and move in a side-to-side or
up-and-down motion. They can only travel through solids, not liquids or gases.

Surface Waves – These travel along the Earth's surface and are responsible for most of the
damage during an earthquake. It is classified into two main types:
• Love waves- These move the ground side to side, causing strong shaking.

• Rayleigh waves- These create a rolling motion, similar to ocean waves, making the ground
move in circles.

Earthquake hazards are dangers or risks caused by an earthquake. When the ground shakes,
it can lead to serious damage and dangerous situations.

• Ground Shaking – This is the violent movement of the ground caused by seismic waves. It
can make buildings collapse, roads crack, and falling debris depends on several factors. Larger
earthquake makes the shaking stronger or if the ground is near the epicenter.

• Liquefaction – When the soil is loose, wet soil behaves like a liquid during an earthquake.
This can make buildings and roads sink or tilt.

• Landslides – Earthquakes can cause rocks, soil, and mud to slide down hills and mountains,
destroying homes and blocking roads near the hazard.

• Tsunamis – It is underwater earthquakes that can create huge ocean waves that flood
coastal areas, causing massive destruction. Tsunamis also happen if the tectonic plates collide,
large landslides that are adjacent in the ocean, and volcanic eruption.

• Aftershocks – Smaller earthquakes that happen after the main earthquake. They can cause
more damage, especially to already weakened buildings.