16: Reproduction
Asexual Reproduction
Asexual reproduction is a process which results in the production of genetically identical
offspring, known as clones. This only requires one parent, unlike sexual reproduction. Asexual
reproduction occurs predominantly in plants, although some animals such as starfish also
reproduce in this way.
Advantages of asexual reproduction:
● Only one parent is required - this is helpful for organisms which live in desolate
environments where finding a mate is difficult.
● Can reproduce quickly - large quantities of offspring can be produced quickly to
rapidly populate an area. This helps to dominate a habitat and prevent competition
from other species.
● It takes less energy to reproduce asexually.
Disadvantages of asexual reproduction:
● Lack of diversity - all offspring are genetically identical.
● Prone to extinction - as each organism produced is genetically identical, a disease
which harms one will be dangerous to all of them, thus it is easy for the whole
population to be destroyed by one pathogen.
● Cannot adapt - organisms are adapted to one environment and cannot adapt to
changes. If the environment changes, e.g. the temperature rises, they are likely to be
killed.
● Overpopulation - too many offspring may be produced, which causes overcrowding in
a habitat.
Sexual Reproduction
Sexual reproduction requires two parents. The nuclei of two gametes, one from each parent,
fuse together to form a zygote. Each offspring is genetically different. The process of the
gametes fusing is called fertilisation.
Most cells in the body are diploid cells, meaning that they have a full set of chromosomes,
whereas haploid cells (egg and sperm cells) only have half as many chromosomes. This means
that when two haploid gametes fuse during fertilisation, a complete set of chromosomes is
produced - half from the mother and half from the father. The nucleus of a zygote is therefore
diploid as it has a complete set of chromosomes.
Advantages of sexual reproduction:
● Wide diversity - each offspring is genetically unique.
● Promotes survival - each organism is unique so disease cannot spread as easily.
● Organisms can adapt - as each offspring is born with different genes, those with a
genetic advantage are more likely to survive and pass their positive traits on to their
offspring, whilst those with a genetic disadvantage are more likely to die without
producing offspring. This allows the species to evolve through natural selection.
Disadvantages of sexual reproduction:
● Two parents are required - it may be difficult for some species to find mates,
especially when there is an imbalance of males and females in an area or if the species
is endangered.
● Fewer offspring produced - it takes longer and requires more energy to produce
offspring, therefore it is less efficient than asexual reproduction.
Sexual reproduction in plants
Plant reproductive system:
Difference between insect pollinated and wind pollinated flowers
Insect pollinated flowers Wind pollinated flowers
anthers / stamens / filaments / stigma, hang
Anthers and stigma inside the flower outside the flowers
large, anthers, produces very large quantities
Anther produces large quantities of pollen of pollen , round and smooth and light
,sticky and spiky
Stigma is sticky feathery, stigma
Large and colourful petals to attract insects No or small petals
Nectar, scent and honey guide to guide No nectar or scent
insects to nectaries
Pollination- Pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from an anther to a stigma
Self pollination
--Transfer of pollen grains from anther of flower to stigma of same flower or a different flower
on the same plant
Implications
Advantages Disadvantages
1. less pollen is wasted 1.less variation
2.no need of pollinating agent 2.less ability to adapt in
3. greater chance of pollination and changed environment
fertilization 3.less chance of evolution
4.well adapted variety
5. single plant can reproduce
Cross pollination
--Transfer of pollen grains from anther of a flower to a stigma of a different plant of same
species
Implications
Advantages Disadvantages
1.greater variation 1.large amount of
2.greater ability to pollen wasted
adapt in changed 2.less chance of
environment fertilization
3.Depends on pollinators
Cross-pollination vs self-pollination:
● Cross-pollination results in more genetic diversity in a species, thus the species can
adapt and is more resilient to diseases.
● Self-pollination uses less energy as the plant does not need to expend energy in
attracting pollinating insects.
● Self-pollinating plants can spread to areas where the species does not currently exist
as other pollinators are not required. Cross-pollinating plants, however, are reliant on
pollinators.
● Cross-pollination can only occur when the flowers are open.
Fertilisation:
1. Pollen grains land on a plant stigma.
2. A pollen tube begins to grow.
3. The pollen tube grows through style to the ovary.
4. Pollen tube enters ovule through micropyle.
5. Fertilisation occurs when pollen tube opens and the male gamete fuses with the egg cell[
female gamete] in the ovule. This produces a diploid zygote.
6. The zygote divides by mitosis and develops into an embryo plant.
Fig- How a male gamete travels to female gamete
After fertilization flower parts wither and die.
Zygote divides by mitosis to become an embryo[plumule and radicle]
Ovule develops into seed and ovary develops into fruit.
Factors affecting seed germination:
● Water - water moves into the seed, causing it to swell. This activates the enzymes to
perform hydrolysis reactions and embryo begins to grow.
● Oxygen - used in aerobic respiration to produce energy for growth.
● Temperature - the seed contains enzymes, e.g. for respiration, which will work faster at
the plant’s optimum temperature. This is why seeds are dormant in the winter and grow
again in the spring.
Q. Discuss the advantages of sexual reproduction to a wild population of flowering
plants
genetic variation / diversity ;
ref to, alleles / genes / DNA, from different, plants / parents ;
allows mutations to be, expressed / AW ;
allows adaptation to, new conditions / changed environment / AW ;
(new species) can evolve / allows natural selection to occur ;
pollen exchanged between individuals / cross pollination ;
seeds are dispersed ;
can colonise new areas / AW ;
less competition (with parent plant / among offspring) ;
seeds may be dormant ;
survival through, harsh / adverse, conditions
Sexual reproduction in humans
Male reproductive system:
● Testes - there are two testicles. This is where sperm cells are produced, as well as
testosterone.
● Scrotum – Sac of skin containing testes.
● Sperm ducts - Tubes that carry sperm from the testes to the urethra.
● Prostate gland - Secretes nutritive fluid which combines with sperm to form semen and
in which sperm can swim.
● Urethra - Tube which allows excretion of urine and semen from body at different times.
● Penis – Placed in vagina to release sperm.
Fig:Front view of the male reproductive
organs.Fig:Side view of the male reproductive
organs.
Female reproductive system:
● Ovaries - there are two ovaries. Their function is to develop egg cells/female gametes.
Woman have undeveloped egg cells from birth, whereas men produce new sperm
throughout their lives.Hormones are secreted from ovaries.
● Oviducts or fallopian tubes - connect to each ovary and uterus it has cilia to transport
the egg cells through the tube. This is where fertilisation occurs.
● Uterus or womb – Implantation occurs here. This has very thick wall made up of muscle,
it is quite small but can stretch. This is where the foetus develops.
● Uterus lining or endometrium- for implantation
● Cervix or neck of uterus- separates the vagina from the uterus, and also holds the
baby in place during pregnancy. The cervix is made up of ring of muscles that relaxes
to allow the baby to born.
● Vagina - Tube that leads from the cervix to outside of the body. Sperms are
deposited here during intercourse.
Figure:The female reproductive organs. Fig: The
side view of the female reproductive organs.
Fertilisation:
Fertilisation occurs when a sperm cell and an egg cell fuse their nuclei together. Sperm cells
are male gametes produced in large numbers in the testes. They are adapted by having a
tail-like flagellum which allows movement to the egg cell. Sperm cells also contain many
mitochondria to produce energy for this movement. Eggs, in contrast, are much larger than
sperm and are unable to move themselves. Egg moves by peristalsis[rhythmic contraction and
relaxation of oviduct] and by cilia present on the inner lining of the oviducts.
Figure: A human egg cell.
Figure: A human sperm. Sperm are motile (can move) and have adaptations to help them to
swim.
Compare egg cell with sperm cell:
Process of fertilization:
When the sperm cell reaches the egg cell, it releases digestive enzyme from the acrosome
to digest the jelly coat of the egg cell.
Male and female gametes fuse together to form a diploid zygote
Jelly coat of egg cell hardens after fertilisation and ensures that only one sperm cell can
enter.
Zygote moves along the oviduct towards uterus
Zygote divides by mitosis using the energy stores from egg cell.
Once fertilisation has occurred, the zygote undergoes mitosis (cell-division) to produce many
cells which make up an embryo. The egg cell contains energy stores to allow this to happen.
The embryo is implanted into the wall of the uterus, where it grows.
Figure: Fertilisation.
Growth and development of fetus
Development of the foetus:
Key structures:
● Umbilical cord - allows the exchange of substances between the foetus and the mother
through the cord.
[2-arteries and 1 vein]
-umbilical artery carries deoxygenated blood and waste from fetus to placenta
- umbilical vein carries oxygenated blood and nutrients from placenta to fetus
● Placenta - Connects to the foetus end of the umbilical cord and allows exchange of
substances. It also produces hormones such as oestrogen and progesterone.
Placenta is soft,red and has fingure like projections called villi.The villi
fits closely into the uterus wall
-prevents maternal and fetal blood mixing
-prevents fetus against mother's immune system
-supply oxygen,glucose to fetus
-carries co2 away from fetus
-protects against pathogens[ acts as abarrier to toxins and pathogens
-provides passive immunity
-secretes progesterone
How the placenta is adapted for efficient diffusion
large surface area ;
short diffusion distance ;
concentration gradient is maintained
● Amniotic sac - Surrounds the foetus, produces amniotic fluid and prevents entry of
pathogens through vagina.
● Amniotic fluid - protects the foetus from any mechanical shock. maintains temperature ;
provides support of the fetus ;provides a sterile environment / prevents
infections ;allows movement of the fetus ; helps in development of bones and muscles ;
Fig- Magnified diagram showing placenta and the uterine wall
The mother passes essential nutrients to the foetus through the umbilical cord, such as amino
acids, oxygen and glucose. These help build cells, and hence structures, in the foetus. In
addition, waste products diffuse out of the foetus to be excreted from the mother’s body.
This prevents a build-up of toxins which could harm the foetus. In addition, antibodies are
passed to the foetus, allowing it to develop a resistance to pathogens.
Throughout this exchange of substances, the blood of the foetus and mother do not mix;
instead, substances diffuse between them. This is to prevent diseases passing to the foetus
through the blood, although some toxins, such as nicotine from cigarettes, and pathogens
such as the rubella virus, can still pass from the mother to the foetus.
Compare the development of a fetus in the early stages of pregnancy to its development in
the late stages of pregnancy
growth in all stages ;
development during all stages ;
(more) increase in complexity in early stages ;
(more) increased in size in later stages
Sex hormones in humans
Two hormones are key to the development of secondary sexual characteristics during puberty
and the subsequent regulation of these characteristics:
● Testosterone - Testosterone is produced in the testes of males, and in small amounts
in the ovaries of females. It is responsible for muscle development and the deepening
of the voice, amongst other things.
● Oestrogen - made in the ovaries of females. It leads to the development of widened
hips, breasts, and plays a part in the menstrual cycle.
Menstrual cycle:
The menstrual cycle happens approximately every 28 days. During each cycle, an egg cell is
released from the ovaries. The uterus wall thickens by filling with blood capillaries in
preparation for a pregnancy, which would occur if the egg is fertilised. If this egg is not
fertilised, the egg dies and menstruation occurs, where the dead egg cell and old uterus lining
is expelled from the body in a period.
At the beginning of the cycle, levels of FSH and LH are high to stimulate egg production and
cause the production of oestrogen which thickens the uterus lining. When the egg is released,
the levels of LH, FSH and oestrogen decrease, whilst progesterone is released to maintain the
uterus lining. If the egg is not fertilised, progesterone levels decrease and the uterus lining
breaks down, causing menstruation.
The menstrual cycle is regulated by four hormones:
● FSH - Follicle stimulating hormone stimulates the development of an egg cell[follicle
cell] in the ovary[causes an egg to mature in an ovary] and also stimulates oestrogen
production in the ovaries. This is produced in the pituitary gland.
● Oestrogen – Stimulates repair of uterus lining[endometrium];
Thickens the uterus lining;
prepares endometrium for implantation;
Stimulates LH production to release egg;
Inhibits FSH production so no more egg is produced;
● LH - Luteinising hormone triggers an egg to be released from ovaries to the
fallopian tube, which is called as ovulation
Stimulating progesterone production in the ovaries.
● Progesterone – Produced from two sites:
First site- Corpus luteum [empty follicle/yellow body]-----during menstrual cycle
Thickens endometrium of uterus
Prepares endometrium for implantation
Prevents menstruation
Second site -Placenta [during pregnancy]
Promotes development of blood vessels in endometrium
Prevents FSH secretion
Inhibits LH
Prevents more follicle development/ovulation
Prevent muscle contraction of uterus wall
Promotes development of mammary gland
Figure - Changes in hormonal levels and the uterus lining during the menstrual cycle.
Sexually transmitted infections
Sexually transmitted infections, known as STIs, such as HIV/AIDS, are transmitted through sexual
contact.
HIV is a viral pathogen that causes AIDS.
It can be transmitted by sexual contact, direct blood-to-blood contact, or through breast feeding.
Tracing contacts, using condoms, using antiretroviral drugs and avoiding sharing needles can help
to reduce its spread.
HIV
Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is an example of an STI. HIV is present in the bodily fluids of
infected people, such as blood and semen, and can be transmitted during sexual intercourse. In
the blood, HIV attaches to lymphocytes (white blood cells) and enters the cell. Here, it uses the
cell to replicate itself and thus the cell cannot carry out its normal functions.
Consequently, HIV reduces the number of functioning lymphocytes, as well as reducing the body’s
ability to produce antibodies to fight off infection. HIV leads to AIDS, which makes the person
extremely susceptible to other pathogens as the white blood cells can no longer fight off disease,
which can be fatal.
Figure: The human immunodeficiency virus, HIV. The letters nm stand
for nanometre, and there are 106 nanometres in one millimetre.
