The zamindar class played a significant role in the political, economic, and cultural life of medieval

India. During the Mughal period, their importance grew, and their position in society became more
complex. The extra agricultural produce taken from farmers was shared among the Emperor, his
nobles, and the zamindars. The zamindars held immense power over the country’s economy,
including farming, crafts, and trade.

There was constant competition between the Mughal government and the zamindars for a larger
share of the produce. Despite this, the zamindars became partners with the Mughal rulers in
exploiting the economy. Politically, there were clashes of interest between the two, yet the
zamindars were essential to the stability of the empire. Many of the challenges faced by the Mughal
administration stemmed from the actions of zamindars, but the government also heavily relied on
their support.

In the cultural sphere, the zamindars' close ties with the Imperial court contributed significantly to
cultural blending across regions and communities, as well as between urban and rural areas.
However, the zamindars also encouraged local and regional divides, which sometimes weakened the
empire. The Mughal Empire achieved great power and glory due to the collaboration with this class,
but the tensions between the centralized government and the zamindars eventually weakened the
empire, leading to its downfall even before Western powers gained dominance in India.

Understanding the Term "Zamindar"

The word "zamindar" became common during the Mughal era and referred to various hereditary
landholders, ranging from powerful chieftains to small village-level intermediaries. Before the
Mughals, these roles were referred to by different titles such as rajas, rais, thakurs, chaudhuris, or
muqaddams. The Mughals used the term "zamindar" for all these roles to establish a system where
powerful chiefs were treated as intermediaries but compensated in other ways.

The structure of land ownership evolved over many centuries, with a pyramid-like hierarchy in place
by the 12th century. While there were regional differences, the basic system of land rights was
similar across most of the country. The Mughal period saw faster changes in this structure.

Zamindari rights

Zamindari did not mean owning the land itself. Instead, it gave zamindars a claim on the crops
produced on the land, alongside the state's demand for land revenue. Even though zamindari wasn't
land ownership, it was treated like private property — it could be bought, sold, inherited, and divided
among heirs.

Zamindars gained their rights because of the control they and their families had over specific villages.
In some cases, zamindars had settled villages and assigned land to farmers. In places like eastern
Rajasthan, a category of peasants called wasidar was settled by the zamindars to help with farming.
These zamindari rights existed before the rulers or kings came into power, though kings could
appoint zamindars where none existed. Kings could also remove a zamindar if they rebelled or didn't
pay taxes.

Rulers recognized the zamindar's rights but also saw them as agents for collecting taxes. When
zamindars collected taxes, they were allowed to keep a percentage as payment for their service. This
percentage was typically 10% and called nankar. If the government decided to collect taxes directly,
bypassing the zamindar, the zamindar would still get 10% of the total revenue, called malikana.
In Gujarat, the zamindar's claim was called banth or vanth, which was higher than the 10% given in
Northern India. In the Deccan, it was called chauth, meaning one-fourth (25%) of the revenue, while
sardeshmukhi was another claim for 10%. Under the Marathas, these taxes were collected by force
rather than legal rights, with Shivaji's rule stating that the Marathas kept three-fourths of the chauth
and all of the sardeshmukhi, while the rest went to local barons.

In addition to their main share of the revenue, zamindars also collected smaller taxes from the
people. These included:

 Dastar shumari (turban tax)

 Khana shumari (house tax)

 Taxes on marriages, births, and other events

 Taxes from weekly markets or tolls on goods passing through their land

These smaller taxes were probably not very significant compared to the main revenue collection but
still added to the zamindar’s income.

Types of Zamindars

Zamindars in the Mughal Empire can be grouped into three categories:

1. Autonomous Chieftains: Independent rulers who had their own territories.

2. Intermediary Zamindars: Those who managed groups of smaller zamindars or villages.

3. Primary Zamindars: Village-level landholders with basic rights over land.

These categories often overlapped. For example, within the territories of an autonomous chieftain,
there could be vassal chiefs, intermediary zamindars, and primary zamindars. Similarly, a single
zamindar might hold primary rights in some areas while acting as an intermediary in others.

The lands managed by zamindars were not separate from the khalisa (imperial treasury lands) or
jagir (lands assigned to officers). The main difference between khalisa and jagir lands was in how the
state’s revenue was distributed. Khalisa lands sent revenue directly to the Emperor’s treasury, while
jagir lands were assigned to officials as payment. Both types of lands included various types of
zamindars, making it clear that zamindars existed in nearly every part of the Mughal Empire.

The Chieftains in Mughal India

The chieftains were hereditary rulers of their territories, wielding significant power and often acting
independently. They were required to acknowledge the Mughal Emperor as their overlord, pay
tribute, and provide military support. However, this relationship was marked by frequent resistance
and rebellion. The extent of Mughal control over these chieftains depended on the empire’s military
strength.

Over time, some chieftains lost territories or were overthrown when they opposed the empire.
Conversely, during periods of Mughal weakness, chieftains regained independence or expanded their
territories. This balance shifted frequently, but the rights of their vassals and subordinate zamindars
remained largely unchanged.

Akbar’s Reforms
Akbar introduced several key strategies to strengthen the Mughal relationship with the chieftains:

1. Incorporation into the Mughal Hierarchy:

Akbar and his successors integrated chieftains into the Mughal administrative and military
system. Many were granted high-ranking mansabs (military ranks) and significant jagirs (land
assignments), which provided them with more revenue than their hereditary lands. This
system encouraged loyalty and made Mughal service more attractive than rebellion.

2. Paramountcy of the Emperor:

The emperor asserted the right to determine succession among chieftains, undermining their
hereditary authority. For instance, Jahangir decided who would succeed in certain princely
states, sometimes overruling traditional practices of inheritance.

3. Matrimonial Alliances:
Marriages between Mughal royalty and the families of chieftains strengthened bonds.
Additionally, chieftains were often required to remain at the imperial court, ensuring their
loyalty.

4. Military Service:
Even those chieftains without mansabs were obliged to provide troops during Mughal
campaigns. Their forces significantly contributed to the empire’s military strength.

5. Direct Relations with Vassals:

The Mughals bypassed powerful chieftains by dealing directly with their vassals, thus
reducing the influence of larger chieftains.

6. Watan Jagir System:

The Mughals treated the hereditary lands of chieftains as jagirs, subject to imperial revenue
policies. While the policy had limited success, it increased the empire's control and economic
influence over these territories.

7. Law and Order:

Chieftains were compelled to maintain peace in their domains, ensure safe passage for
traders, and follow imperial directives.

Challenges and Rebellions

Despite these reforms, tensions persisted. As the empire’s resources were strained, the Mughals
struggled to satisfy all chieftains with lucrative positions and jagirs. Many chieftains attempted to
consolidate or expand their territories, leading to frequent revolts.

The dissatisfaction grew during Aurangzeb’s reign, with widespread uprisings in regions like
Maharashtra, Bundelkhand, and Rajputana. These revolts often involved not just chieftains but also
zamindars and peasants, especially those from the same caste or community as the rebels.

Decline of the Mughal Empire

The continuous rebellions and military campaigns drained the empire’s economy, disrupted
agricultural production, and weakened its administrative unity. By the late 17th century, the
advantages of a centralized empire had diminished, contributing to the decline of the Mughal
Empire.

The Intermediary Zamindars

This group included different types of zamindars who collected revenue from primary zamindars and
either passed it on to the imperial treasury, officials, or chieftains—or sometimes kept it themselves.
They played a key role in managing land revenue and maintaining law and order. For their work, they
were given benefits like commissions, deductions, revenue-free lands, and cesses, keeping 2.5% to
10% of the revenue. Most of them held their positions as hereditary rights, though some worked
under short-term contracts.

Types of Intermediary Zamindars

These zamindars included various local officials such as chaudhuris, deshmukhs, deshpandes,
muqaddams, and ta’alluqadars. By the second half of the 17th century, many were broadly referred
to as malguzars. Nearly the entire country was under the control of some type of intermediary
zamindar.

Many intermediary zamindars were from the same caste, often holding large areas of land
collectively. This created regional dominance by specific families or clans.

State Control Over Rights

Although their rights were usually hereditary, the state could intervene in cases of succession or
disputes. Rulers like Akbar and Aurangzeb sometimes dismissed or transferred zamindars for
misconduct, such as harassing pilgrims or exceeding their authority. Occasionally, the state appointed
individuals as zamindars to help maintain order or improve tax collection.

Some high-ranking officials, not traditionally zamindars, were given permanent jagirs (land grants) as
rewards. Over time, these jagirs often turned into zamindari rights, as seen in cases like the
Anupshahr zamindars in Bulandshahr.

Responsibilities and Challenges

The main duties of intermediary zamindars included:

 Preparing revenue records.

 Collecting land revenue.

 Encouraging farming and extending cultivation.

 Assisting in law and order.

 Supplying military contingents to the state.

However, in reality, many sought to expand their power and revenue share. Some only paid taxes
when forced, while others avoided sharing proper records or detailed figures. They also exploited
peasants and undermined primary zamindars, sometimes collecting taxes directly from farmers and
trying to take over as landowners.

Struggles and Rebellion

As the Mughal Empire weakened, these zamindars often rebelled, sometimes aligning with other
discontented groups. Their actions led to political unrest, reduced agricultural productivity, and
hardships for peasants. Despite efforts by the state to control them, their rebellions weakened the
Empire’s revenue system and military strength. This often forced officials to demand transfers or
request cash salaries instead of land grants.
Under strong administrators, intermediary zamindars generally followed imperial regulations. But
under weak rulers, they exploited their position, leading to chaos. Despite their disruptive potential,
the state could not afford to completely suppress them, as they were essential to revenue collection
and governance.

The Primary Zamindars

The primary zamindars were essentially the owners of agricultural and residential lands. They
included small peasant-proprietors who cultivated their lands themselves or with hired labor, as well
as proprietors of one or more villages. All agricultural lands in the Mughal Empire were under some
form of primary zamindar control.

Rights and Responsibilities

 Hereditary and Transferable Rights: Their ownership rights were hereditary and could be
sold. Many sale deeds from as early as the 16th century still survive, indicating this practice.

 State Support: The Mughal state protected their rights, encouraged registration of property
transfers with local courts, and maintained proper records.

 Land Development: The Mughals often granted zamindari rights to individuals willing to
bring forests and uncultivated lands under cultivation. Over time, revenue-free land grants
(madad-i-ma’ash) also transformed into zamindari rights.

Land and Tenant Relations

 Tenant Leases: Primary zamindars typically leased their lands to tenants under hereditary
agreements, ensuring security of tenure as long as tenants paid their land revenue.

 Respect for Tenants: Even in cases of non-payment, tenants were rarely evicted. Instead,
zamindars found other ways to recover arrears.

 Tenant Obligations: Due to a shortage of cultivators, tenants were often required to farm all
arable land and were discouraged from leaving the property.

Revenue and Duties

 Revenue Collection: Primary zamindars were responsible for collecting land revenue from
tenants and passing it to higher authorities. They retained about 10% of the collected
revenue as their share (malikana).

 Law and Order: They also helped maintain law and order and, in some cases, provided
troops for state purposes.

Struggles and Exploitation

Primary zamindars were caught between the demands of superior zamindars and the state on one
side, and the needs of peasants on the other. This often led to conflict:

 Economic Burden: Unable to resist pressures from above, they frequently passed on revenue
demands to the cultivators, worsening peasant exploitation.

 Revolts: They sometimes led peasant revolts against excessive taxation, using caste or clan
networks to rally support. If revolts were not feasible, some resisted by refusing to pay
revenue until coerced.
  Intermediary Zamindar Influence: Superior zamindars often tried to suppress primary
zamindars, creating new layers of sub-proprietors like birtyas to strengthen their control.

Agrarian Structure and Crisis

Over time, a complex hierarchy of land rights emerged, with layers of obligations stacked on top of
one another. This created a heavy burden on cultivators, straining the agricultural economy:

 Imperial Regulations: The Mughal government tried to limit the peasants' tax burden to 50%
of their produce.

 Decline of Authority: As Mughal authority weakened in the 18th century, growing demands
from jagirdars (land grantees) deepened the crisis in the agricultural sector.

The primary zamindars played a critical role in the agrarian system, but their position was precarious.
Sandwiched between the state and peasants, they faced constant challenges, which ultimately
contributed to the decline of the agrarian economy during the later Mughal period.

Other intermediaries

Military Strength of Zamindars

Zamindars had their own armies, which included foot soldiers and cavalry. These forces helped them
collect land revenue and control the peasantry. Many zamindars also had their own forts (called
qilachadgarhi), which could be large or small. According to the Ain-i Akbari, the total number of
troops controlled by zamindars in the Mughal Empire was over 44 lakh. In Bengal, zamindars also had
thousands of boats for transport and military purposes.

Chaudhuris
Some zamindars were assigned the title of chaudhuri for the specific purpose of collecting land
revenue. A chaudhuri was usually appointed for each administrative division (called a pargana). Their
role was to collect taxes from other zamindars in the pargana. Apart from the usual nankar (revenue
share), they were entitled to an additional amount called chaudhraai, which was 2.5% of the revenue
they collected. Unlike the zamindars, chaudhuri were appointed by the state and could be dismissed
for mismanagement.

Other Intermediaries
Each village had hereditary officials who helped with local administration. The most important of
these was the muqaddam (in Northern India) or patel (in the Deccan). The muqaddam was
responsible for collecting land revenue and maintaining law and order in the village. In return for
their work, they were granted a portion of the village’s land revenue, and in some cases, they were
paid a percentage of the total revenue. They could also receive some produce from the peasants.

The muqaddam was assisted by the patwari (in Northern India) or kulkarni (in the Deccan). The
patwari kept records of the revenue collected from peasants and the payment made to the state.
These records were crucial for assessing how much the peasants could pay and determining the total
revenue due from the village. Like the muqaddam, the patwari could be given land free of revenue
or paid a commission on the total revenue collected. However, their earnings were generally smaller
than those of the muqaddam. Both the positions of muqaddam and patwari were hereditary.

Conclusion

The zamindar class generally supported the Mughal Empire and played a key role in administration
and politics. They helped collect revenue and maintain law and order. However, conflicts often arose:
 1. Zamindars vs. the State:

o Zamindars sometimes clashed with the government over land control and revenue
demands, creating tension.

2. Conflicts Among Zamindars:

o Different classes of zamindars competed for power, leading to disputes that

disrupted peace and weakened the Mughal administration and military.

The Mughal rulers tried various solutions to manage these conflicts, which worked for a while.
However, by the mid-17th century, problems started to grow. After Aurangzeb’s death, the central
government became too weak to handle these issues effectively.

The Mughals heavily relied on zamindars for revenue and administration. Because of this
dependence, it was impossible to fix the root problems in the agrarian system. A new, independent
class that could replace the zamindars was needed for such changes, but it had not emerged by the
mid-18th century.