ENLIGHTENMENT

Introduction

• 18th century Europe witnessed very wide sweeping changes in all spheres of life.
• Although these changes did not occur at the same time or at the same pace in all countries,
they structured a distinct historical era – one that laid the foundations of the modern age.
• The Enlightenment or the Age of Reason, as it came to be known subsequently, marked a
sharp break from the past.
• Enlightenment was one of the greatest intellectual movements in human history. Along with
the Renaissance and the Reformation, it is considered to have provided the intellectual
foundations of modernity
• Even though its anti-clericalism echoed the sentiments of the Renaissance and the
Reformation it neither endorsed the paganism of the former nor did it share the faith of the
latter.
• It clearly identified two enemies: religion and hierarchy, and attempted to displace the
centrality accorded to both in social and political life.
• The Enlightenment men were not irreligious or atheists but they were bitterly opposed to
and intolerant of the institutions of Christianity and they sought to challenge them by
articulating a conception of man, history and nature that relied heavily upon the world-view
expressed by the new discoveries in the natural sciences.
• At the most general level, the Enlightenment used the scientific method of enquiry to launch
a systematic attack on tradition per se. They questioned blind obedience to authority,
whether that of the priest or the ruler. Nothing was any longer sacred and beyond critical
scrutiny.
• The new social and political order that the Enlightenment thinkers aspired for expressed
the optimism that came with the advancement of material and scientific knowledge.
• They strongly believed that human beings were in a position to create a world in which
freedom, liberty and happiness will prevail over all else.
• Even though this vision was very widely shared it was most clearly evident in the writings
of Voltaire, Diderot, d’Alembert and Condorcet in France, Adam Ferguson, Adam Smith
and David Hume in Scotland, Christian Wolff and Immanuel Kant in Germany and
marchese di Baccaria in Italy.
• The writings of these theorists best express the spirit of the Enlightenment and its influence
upon the modern age.
• It is generally considered that Enlightenment began in Western Europe from where it spread
to other parts of Europe, then to North America and South America. Finally, during the
nineteenth century, in the course of European incursions in all parts of the world,
Enlightenment ideas made their mark throughout the world.

Meaning of Enlightenment

• To the question ‘What is Enlightenment?’ the German philosopher Immanuel Kant

(1724-1804) responded: ‘Dare to know! Have the courage to make use of your own
understanding’.
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• This response put emphasis on the individual, on critical thinking, and a rejection of the
traditionally imposed way of thinking whether by religion or any other overarching
authority.
• Kant’s response was in keeping with the strong intellectual current during his time
which stressed intellectual freedom and the use of Reason for seeking knowledge and
progress.
• The Enlightenment thinkers, including Kant, wanted their ideas to reach to a wider
audience which should consist of autonomous individuals with independent thinking.
• They, therefore, emphasized on wider education moving beyond the confines of formal
schooling which, in many cases, was managed by religious institutions.
• In their opinion, a wider and broadly secular education would make the people capable
of applying critical enquiry in their lives.
• And yet the notion of the intellectual freedom was limited to educated and rational
persons, mostly belonging to the upper and middle classes.
• The democratic reach of the Enlightenment did not encompass the masses, or even
women.
• Many of the Enlightenment thinkers believed that it was dangerous for masses to take
their own decisions.
• The same applied to most non-European peoples also. However, the Enlightenment
thinkers thought that the masses, women, and the non-European people could benefit
from the use of reason if they were properly guided.
• Peter Gay, one of the important historians of Enlightenment, characterised it as the ‘rise
of modern paganism’.
• This was in view of the anti-Church pronouncements of many thinkers particularly
during French Enlightenment.
• However, many historians have now contended that such a characterisation cannot be
applied because Enlightenment cultures in most other countries, including Italy,
Germany, Austria, Scotland, America and England, were not anti-Christianity.
• Even in France, only in limited cases could anti-Christian or anti-religious stance could
be discerned.
• It is true that there was a general thrust against superstition and restrictive institutional
forms of religion, and the wealth, power and corruption of the clergy was denounced.
• But the religion as such was not rejected, and there was a wide spectrum of attitudes
towards religion.
• At the same time, there was a more general insistence on separating the civil from the
sacred or the religion from the state.
• This attitude led in the direction of secularization of politics where institutional
religions were supposed to play no role.
• Moreover, the material development was considered a more desirable goal and a better
arena for human activity than search for the divine.
• On the basis of the writings in recent decades, it is difficult to offer a precise definition
of Enlightenment.
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• The most we can attempt is to broadly describe it. On this ground, we can say that the
Enlightenment was an intellectual movement in Europe during the eighteenth century.
• Its centre was France, but other European countries were also significantly involved in
evolving their own versions of Enlightenment.
• The most common factor in all these different versions was the rejection of traditional
and religious dogma with an appeal to reason and emphasis on the individual.

Background of the Age of Enlightenment

1. Intellectual Roots
▪ Enlightenment drew from modern science (16th century) and modern philosophy (17th
century).
▪ Key influences: Observation, experimentation, analysis, and reasoning.
▪ Major figures: René Descartes (rationalism), Isaac Newton (modern science), John Locke
(liberal philosophy), and Pierre Bayle (skepticism).
2. Philosophical Foundations
▪ Newton combined Descartes' rationalism with Bacon's experimental method.
▪ Newton’s view of the universe as a self-propelling machine which did not need God’s
intervention for its day-to-day functioning, it was originally set in motion by the God, who
then withdrew and let the machine function on its own resonated with Enlightenment
thinkers.
▪ Locke applied the scientific method to society, proposing the mind as a blank slate and
promoting individual liberty and equality.
▪ Bayle’s skepticism towards traditional religious and moral philosophies supported the
Enlightenment’s critical stance on authority.
3. Religious and Social Changes
▪ The Scientific Revolution and religious changes since the 16th century fostered skepticism
and questioning of traditional beliefs.
▪ Dissenting religious sects and the rise of skepticism contributed to a secular outlook,
diminishing the role of organized religion.
▪ Enlightenment thinkers found a receptive audience in those disillusioned with established
religions.
4. Economic and Social Shifts
▪ The spread of print culture and a new public sphere beyond Church and state control
facilitated the dissemination of Enlightenment ideas.
▪ The growth of merchant and bourgeois classes supported intellectual and social
interaction.
▪ Salons (upper-class) and coffee houses (middle-class) became hubs for Enlightenment
discussions and idea exchange.
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5. Colonial Influence
▪ Knowledge from European colonization of non-European countries influenced
Enlightenment thought.
▪ Enlightenment figures like Montesquieu, Voltaire, and Rousseau used colonial insights to
critique European states and develop theories on human society.
▪ Montesquieu, for example, used Asian knowledge to support his theories on climate and
geography’s impact on society.
In essence, the Enlightenment was shaped by advances in science and philosophy, social and
religious shifts, the rise of a critical public sphere, and the infusion of knowledge from colonial
encounters. These factors combined to foster an era that valued reason, individual liberty, and
skepticism towards traditional authorities.

Spread and Phases of the Enlightenment

1. Geographical Spread
▪ Initially anchored in France, especially Paris.
▪ Quickly spread to Germany, the Dutch Republic, Britain, Italy, and North America.
▪ Reached Eastern Europe, including Russia, Poland, and the Balkan countries.
2. Reception in Different Regions
▪ Italy: Enabled anti-Church thinkers to challenge clerical and papal political intervention.
▪ Britain: Gave rise to the distinctive ‘Scottish Enlightenment.’
3. Dissemination Channels
▪ Parisian salons and coffee houses were central to idea exchange.
▪ French and international intellectuals gathered to discuss societal, political, educational,
and natural ideas.
▪ Ideas spread across France, Europe, and America, creating the 'republic of letters,' an
informal network of public intellectuals.
4. Stages of Enlightenment

• First Phase (Early 18th Century)

▪ Influenced by the Scientific Revolution.
▪ Derived early ideas from significant intellectual changes of the previous century.
• High Enlightenment (Mid-18th Century)
▪ Key figures: Montesquieu, Voltaire, and Rousseau.
▪ Notable work: Montesquieu’s *The Spirit of Laws* (1748).
▪ Period ended around 1778 with the deaths of Montesquieu, Voltaire, and Rousseau.
• Late Enlightenment (Late 18th Century)
▪ Shift from reason to emotions and passions (e.g., Rousseau’s influence).
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▪ Monarchs began adopting Enlightenment ideas in governance.

▪ Broader dissemination among common people led to revolutionary ideas, particularly
in France.
▪ Economic liberalism emerged, advocated by Adam Smith, shifting from mercantilism
to free trade.
▪ Rise of distinctive national cultures and identities.
▪ Involvement of common people in adapting Enlightenment ideas, often with a radical
stance.
5. German Idealist Philosophy
▪ Emerged in late Enlightenment, beginning with Kant.
▪ Stressed that ideas, not just reason and sensory perceptions, are central to knowledge.
▪ Emphasized individual experiences over the universality of rational objectivity.
The Enlightenment’s spread across Europe and beyond was facilitated by vibrant intellectual
hubs and diverse regional receptions, evolving through distinct phases influenced by scientific
and philosophical advancements. Each phase contributed uniquely to the intellectual and socio-
political transformations that defined the era.

Main Ideas of the Enlightenment

1. Intellectual Milestone
▪ The Enlightenment was a pivotal period in intellectual history, deeply influencing the
modern world.
▪ Its ideas extended to nature, human society, economy, state, international relations, and
human freedom.
2. Secularization and Rationalism
▪ Enlightenment thinkers, or philosophes, pushed for secularization, challenging the
authority of the Church.
▪ Emphasized individual thinking and rational analysis, questioning traditional ideas and
practices.
3. Attitude Toward Religion
▪ Critical of organized religions, particularly Catholicism, but not anti-religion.
▪ Many believed in deism, a belief in a non-interfering God, allowing rational and scientific
analysis of the universe.
4. Skepticism and Reason
▪ Hallmark: Skepticism towards traditional authority.
▪ Belief in universal reason and the innate goodness and reasonableness of humans.
▪ Emphasis on scientific analysis for understanding the world and achieving continuous
progress.
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5. Political and Social Ideas

▪ Advocated popular sovereignty and rule of law.
▪ Critical of unbridled monarchical power, but did not wholly reject monarchy.
▪ Anti-imperialist stance, condemning colonial violence and exploitation.
6. Economic Thoughts
▪ Promoted economic liberalism, advocating free trade and criticizing mercantilism.
▪ Emphasized individual property rights and equality before the law, not in social or
economic terms.
7. Communication and Influence
▪ Relied on writings (letters, manuscripts, books, pamphlets) to disseminate ideas.
▪ Differences in interpretation and emphasis among thinkers like Voltaire, Montesquieu,
Rousseau, Diderot, Holbach, and Helvetius.
8. Scottish Enlightenment
▪ Key figures: David Hume, Adam Smith, William Robertson.
▪ Emphasized political economy, commerce, and technological innovation.
▪ Advocated free commerce and criticized mercantilist practices, promoting universal
application of political economy.
9. Critique and Legacy
▪ Enlightenment thinkers were often critical of the arbitrary authority and advocated for
cultivating virtues among rulers.
▪ Believed in reason as the primary tool for human progress and understanding, promoting
a secular and rational society.
▪ Emphasized the distinction between humans and animals based on rationality, which also
led to marginalization of those deemed irrational.
▪ Enlightenment ideas varied by region and thinker, with differences in interpretation and
emphasis on topics like religion, progress, and societal organization.
10. Impact on Modern Thought
▪ Although primarily intellectual, Enlightenment ideas laid the groundwork for modern
secular and rational thought.
▪ Emphasized a scientific and rational approach to understanding and improving society.
▪ Contributed significantly to the secularization of society, promoting a vision of progress
and universal human nature.
The Enlightenment’s emphasis on reason, critical enquiry, and secularization profoundly
influenced modern Western thought, shaping concepts of governance, economics, and societal
progress. Despite varying interpretations, the common belief in reason and skepticism toward
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traditional authority unified Enlightenment thinkers in their quest for intellectual and societal
advancement.

Important Enlightenment Thinkers

A. Montesquieu (1689-1755)

• Key Work: The Spirit of Laws (1748)

• Ideas
▪ Climate and Geography: Montesquieu believed that climate and geography significantly
influenced the nature of governments. Hot and humid climates led to despotism,
temperate climates encouraged democracies, and constitutional monarchies were ideal in
temperate regions.
▪ Size of Territories: Large territories were best governed through despotism, medium-sized
areas suited monarchies, and republics thrived in small regions.
▪ Human Characteristics: People in cold climates were seen as strong and courageous,
while those in hot climates were considered weak and volatile.
▪ British System: Praised the British constitutional government and advocated for the
separation of powers within the state.
▪ Constitutional Rule: Believed in the importance of constitutions to ensure public order
and individual freedom.
▪ Nobility's Role: Saw the nobility as a check against the unrestrained power of despotic
kings.
B. Voltaire (1694-1778)

• Key Work: Numerous writings, including essays, letters, and pamphlets.

• Ideas
▪ Criticism of Determinism: Voltaire opposed Montesquieu's deterministic views, arguing
that civilized nations across the globe, from India to Europe, shared the same truths.
▪ Civilized vs. Uncivilized: Distinguished between civilized societies (Asian and European)
and uncivilized ones (African and pre-modern American).
▪ Attack on Religion: Strongly criticized the French religious system and the Church's
power, while praising Confucianism and Hinduism for their truths.
▪ Natural Religion: Advocated for a natural religion based on reason to maintain societal
order and provide hope, preventing chaos and anarchy.
▪ Toleration: Supported non-religious toleration to ensure the well-being of society and
reject fanaticism and dogmatism.
▪ Admiration for Britain: Praised Britain's constitutional government, free press, religious
tolerance, and commercial success.
▪ Centralized Monarchy: Favored a centralized monarchy to protect common people from
the oppression of the nobles, in contrast to Montesquieu's views.
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C. Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)

• Jean-Jacques Rousseau had a unique stance in the Enlightenment, balancing reason and
emotions.
• Ideas
▪ Human Nature and Society: Rousseau saw human nature as a mix of rationality and
instinct. He believed history moved from freedom to unfreedom and from equality to
inequality, critiquing the moral decline of modern society.
▪ Primitive vs. Modern Societies: He idealized primitive societies as simple and egalitarian,
contrasting them with corrupt, wealth-obsessed modern civilizations.
▪ The Social Contract: In The Social Contract’ (1762), Rousseau proposed that individuals
surrender their natural rights to the "general will" to form a just community, emphasizing
citizen-rule over autocracy.
▪ Sovereignty: Rousseau argued that sovereignty belonged to the people, not kings,
rejecting the idea of divine right and future enlightenment of monarchs.
Rousseau's critique of modern society and his emphasis on popular sovereignty distinguished
his ideas within the Enlightenment.

Legacies of Enlightenment
The Enlightenment's legacies are profound and far-reaching, continuing to influence our world
today.
▪ Reason and Critical Scrutiny: The Enlightenment championed reason over tradition and
blind faith, promoting the critical examination of various phenomena.
▪ Human Potential and Progress: The belief in human potential, science, and progress
remains strong. Enlightenment thinkers argued that rational human beings can shape their
destinies without relying on divine authority.
▪ Universal Human Faculties: It was believed that all humans possess the same reasoning
abilities, though not all are at the same developmental stage.
▪ Popular Sovereignty and Human Freedom: The concept of popular sovereignty and the
value of human freedom are central today. Enlightenment ideas led to the critique and
eventual abolition of slavery and bondage.
▪ Modern Values: Enlightenment ideas underpin modern values like cosmopolitanism,
universalism, rationalism, the scientific method, secularism, tolerance, human rights,
democracy, and gender equality.
However, the Enlightenment also reinforced the perceived superiority of modern European
countries. It suggested that non-European peoples were at lower developmental stages, to be
"rescued" by Europeans. This mindset justified European colonialism and the "civilizing
mission" in colonial territories, preaching both liberation from superstition and domination by
European values and rulers. This dual legacy reflects both the Enlightenment's ideals and its
contradictions.