University of Setif I

Course of Algebra II
Pr. Abdelbaki Merouani
Chapter 1

Vector space

1.1 Vector Space

Definition 1. Given a field K (usually R or C):
The triplet (E, +, ·) formed by:

−A set E, whose elements are called "vectors".




−An addition law + : E × E → E, (u, v) 7→ (u + v)
−A scalar multiplication law · : K × E → E, (λ, u) 7→ λ · u



is called a K-vector space if:

1. (E, +) is a commutative (abelian) group.

2. For all λ, µ ∈ K and u, v ∈ E, the following hold:

(a) (λ · µ) · u = λ · (µ · u)
(b) (λ + µ) · u = λ · u + µ · u
(c) λ · (u + v) = (λ · u) + (λ · v)
(d) 1 · u = u

1.1.1 Properties
Given (E, +, ·) as a K-vector space, the following properties hold for all u, v ∈ E and
λ, µ ∈ K:

1. 0 · u = 0E

2. λ · 0 = 0E

3. λ · u = 0E =⇒ λ = 0 or u = 0E

4. (−λ) · u = λ · (−u) = −(λ · u)

5. λ · (u − v) = λ · u − λ · v

6. (λ − µ) · u = λ · u − µ · u

7. For all u ∈ E, there exists −u ∈ E such that u + (−u) = 0E

Example 1. 1. (R, +, ·) is a K-vector space.

1
 2. (C, +, ·) is a K-vector space.

3. (R2 , +, ·) with operations + and · defined as specified is a K-vector space.

4. Let E be a K-vector space, and X a non-empty set. Consider F (X; E), the set of all
functions from X to E. For f, g ∈ F (X; E) and λ ∈ K, define:

(f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x)

(λ · f )(x) = λ · f (x)

Then, F (X; E) is a K-vector space.

5. The set of polynomials Rn [X] of degree less than or equal to n is a vector space.

1.2 Subspace
Definition 2. Let E be a K-vector space and F a subset of E. F is called a subspace of E
if and only if:

1. F ̸= ∅

2. For all u, v ∈ F , u + v ∈ F

3. For all λ ∈ K and u ∈ F , λ · u ∈ F

Remark 1. If F is a subspace of a vector space E, so 0E ∈ F . Hence, to prove that F ̸= ∅,

we can just see that 0E ∈ F .

Example 2. 1. {0E } and E are subspaces of E.

2. If E = R2 , then F = {(x, 0) | x ∈ R} is a subspace of R2 .

3. F = {(x, y, z) | z = 0} is a subspace of R3 .

4. If E = Rn [X] (the set of polynomials of degree n), then F = {P ∈ E | P = aX 2 , a ∈ R}

is a subspace of E.

5. If E = R2 , then F = {(x, 2) | x ∈ R} is not a subspace of R2 since (0, 0) is not in F .

Remark 2.
F is a subspace vectorial of E



and =⇒ F is a subspace vectorial of G.
E is a subspace vectorial of G



Corollary 1. Let E be a vector space and F a subset of E. If F satisfies the following

properties:
1. F ̸= ∅
2. ∀ α, β ∈ K, ∀ u, v ∈ F, αu + βv ∈ F,
then F is a subspace vectorial of E.

Proposition 1. Let E be a vector space and F ⊆ E. If F is a subspace vectorial of E, then

it is itself a vector space for the induced operations in E.

2
1.2.1 Sum and Direct Sum of Subspaces
Sum of Subspaces
Definition 3. Given two subspaces F and G of a vector space E, their sum, denoted F + G,
is defined as:
F + G = {u + v | u ∈ F, v ∈ G}
So, for any w ∈ F + G, there exist u ∈ F and v ∈ G such that w = u + v.

Example 3. Let’s consider two subspaces F and G of R3 :

F = {(x, y, z) | y = z = 0} = {(x, 0, 0) | x ∈ R3 }

G = {(x, y, z) | x = z = 0} = {(0, y, 0) | y ∈ R3 }
These are two subspaces of R3 , and the sum F + G is:

F + G = {(x, y, z) | z = 0} = {(x, y, 0) ∈ R3 }

Direct Sum
Definition 4. Two subspaces F and G of a vector space E are said to be in direct sum,
denoted F ⊕ G, if and only if:
F ∩ G = {0E }

Example 4. For the previous example, we have F ∩ G = {0E }. Thus, the sum F + G is a
direct sum.

Characterization of Direct Sum

For two subspaces F and G to be in direct sum, it is necessary and sufficient that every
element in the sum F + G can be uniquely decomposed into the sum of an element from F
and an element from G, i.e.:

w ∈ F ⊕ G ⇐⇒ ∃!u ∈ F, ∃!v ∈ G such that w = u + v.

Properties
If F and G are two subspaces of a vector space E, then:

1. F ∩ G is a subspace of E.

2. F ∪ G is a subspace, and F ⊆ (F ∪ G) and (F ∩ G) ⊆ G.

3. F + G is a subspace of E.

4. If F ⊕ G = E, then for any w ∈ E, there exist unique u ∈ F and v ∈ G such that

w = u + v.

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1.2.2 Complementary Subspaces
Definition 5. Given a vector space E and two subspaces F and G of E, F and G are said
to be complementary in E if and only if:

F ∩ G = {0E } and F + G = E.

Example 5. For E = R2 and subspaces F and G defined as follows:

F = {(x, y) ∈ R2 | x = 0}

G = {(x, y) ∈ R2 | y = 0}
F and G are two subspaces of E, and they are complementary in E.

1.3 Linear Combinations, Generating Families, Linear

Independence
Definition 6 (Linear Combination). Given two vectors u1 and u2 in a vector space E, the
linear combination of these vectors is any vector w in E of the form:

w = λ1 u1 + λ2 u2

where λ1 , λ2 ∈ K.

Definition 7 (Linear Combination of a Family). Given a family (ui )i∈I of vectors in a vector
space E, a linear combination of this family is any vector w in E of the form:

w=
X
λi ui
i∈J

where J is a finite subset of I and λi ∈ K for all i ∈ J.

Example 6. For vectors u = (9, 10, 9), u1 = (1, 1, 1), u2 = (1, 0, 1), u3 = (2, 1, 1), the vector
u is a linear combination of u1 , u2 , and u3 .

Definition 8 (Generating Families). A family A is called a generating family of a vector

space E if every element of E can be expressed as a linear combination of elements of A.
Then, we have nX o
vect(A) = λi ui ; λi ∈ K, ui ∈ A .
i∈J

Therefore, an element u belongs to vect(A) if and only if there exist u1 , u2 , . . . , un ∈ A and

scalars λ1 , λ2 , . . . , λn ∈ K such that u = λ1 u1 + λ2 u2 + . . . + λn un .

Theorem 1.3.1. Let A be a subset of a vector space E. vect(A) is the unique subspace
vectorial of E satisfying:

1. A ⊆ vect(A).

2. vect(A) is contained in every subspace vectorial of E containing A.

Remark 3. The subspace vectorial vect(A) is the smallest subspace vectorial containing A,
and it is called the vector space generated by A.

Corollary 2. vect(A) is the intersection of all subspace vectorials of E containing A.

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Corollary 3. A is a subspace vectorial if and only if vect(A) = A.

Definition 9. A family F = {u1 , u2 , . . . , un } of n vectors in a vector space E is said to be

generating E or that F generates E if every element u in E is a linear combination of the
vectors in the family F .

Example 7. 1.
F = {(x, y, z) | y = z = 0} = {(x, 0, 0) | x ∈ R3 }.
G = {(x, y, z) | x = z = 0} = {(0, y, 0) | x ∈ R3 }.

2.
F = {(x, y, z) | x = y = z} = {(x, x, x) | x ∈ R3 } = vect((1, 1, 1)).
G = {(x−3y, 2y, x+y) | x, y ∈ R} = {(x, 0, x) | x ∈ R}+{(0, y, 0) | y ∈ R} = vect((1, 0, 1), (−3, 2, 1

3.
(x, y, z) = y(3, 1, 2) + (x − 3y)(1, 0, −2) + (z + 2x − 8y)(0, 0, 1)

This shows that {v1 , v2 , v3 } forms a generating family for R3 .

Therefore, {v1 , v2 , v3 } is a basis for R3 .

Proposition 2. Let E be a vector space, and let A and B be two subsets of E.

1. vect(∅) = {0} because the zero space is the smallest subspace vectorial of E.

2. vect(E) = E because vect(E) is the smallest subspace vectorial containing E.

3. A = vect(A) if and only if A is a subspace vectorial of E.

4. vect(vect(A)) = vect(A).

5. If A ⊆ B, then vect(A) ⊆ vect(B).

6. vect(A ∪ B) = vect(A) + vect(B).

7. If A = {0}, then vect(A) = Ku, where u is the zero vector.

1.3.1 Linear Independence

Definition 10. A family (ui )i∈I of vectors in a vector space E is called linearly independent
if the only way to express the zero vector 0E as a linear combination of vectors from the
family is by taking all coefficients to be zero. It means that

λ1 u1 + λ2 u2 + · · · + λn un = 0E ⇒ λ1 = λ2 = · · · = λn = 0.

Otherwise, the family F is said to be linked (linearly dependent).

Example 8. 1. The family F = {(x, x, x) | x ∈ R} is linearly dependent.

2. The family G = {(1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0), (0, 0, 1)} is linearly independent.

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 3. The vectors v1 (1, 0, −2) and v2 (3, 1, 2) from R3 forms a free family. Indeed, Let λ1 , λ2 ∈
R. Suppose that λv1 + λv2 = 0, i.e., λ(1; 0; −2) + λ(3; 1; 2) = (0; 0; 0). Therefore,

λ + 3λ = 0 (1)
λ2 = 0 (2)
−2λ + 2λ = 0 (3).

From equation (2), we obtain λ2 = 0, and substituting this into equation (1), we get
λ1 = 0. This proves that v1 , v2 form a linearly independent family in R3 .

4. In Rn [X], the family (1; X; X 2 ; . . . ; X n ) is linearly independent. Indeed, let’s assume

λ0 + λ1 X + λ2 X 2 + . . . + λn X n = 0.

This implies λ0 = λ1 = λ2 = . . . = λn = 0.

Remark 4. 1. If a vector in a family of vectors F is the zero vector, then the family is
linearly dependent.

2. In a vector space E, a vector u is linearly independent if and only if u ̸= 0.

3. Every subfamily of a linearly independent family of vectors is also linearly independent.

1.4 Basis, Dimension

1.4.1 Basis
Definition 11. A family of vectors F is a basis for the vector space E if F is both a linearly
independent family and a generating family for E.

F Basis = F Free + F Generating.

Proposition 3. A family F = (ui )i∈I is a basis for E if and only if, for every vector u ∈ E,
u can be uniquely written as u = i∈I αi ui .
P

Remark 5. Finding a basis for a vector space is equivalent to finding a family of vectors in
E that is both linearly independent and spans E.

Example 9. Let v1 , v2 , and v3 be vectors in R3 given by:

1 3 0
     

v1 =  0  , v2 = 1 , v3 = 0 .
     

−2 2 1
We are going to show that {v1 , v2 , v3 } forms a basis for R3 . It means that

{v1 , v2 , v3 } is linearly independent. and {v1 , v2 , v3 } is a generating family.

Let’s prove that {v1 , v2 , v3 } is linearly independent. Assume α1 v1 + α2 v2 + α3 v3 = 0. This

gives us the system:
α + 3α2

 1

 = 0,
α2 = 0,

−2α1 + 2α2 + α3 = 0.



6
 Solving this system yields α1 = 0, α2 = 0, and α3 = 0, showing that {v1 , v2 , v3 } is linearly
independent.
Now, let’s show that {v1 , v2 , v3 } is a generating family. For any vector (x, y, z) in R3 , we
can express it as a unique linear combination of v1 , v2 , and v3 :

0 1
     
−2
(x, y, z) = y 1
  + z 
 2 
 + x 3 .
 

0 1 0

Therefore, {v1 , v2 , v3 } is a basis for R3 .

Example 10. 1. The set B = {(1, 0), (0, 1)} is a basis for R2 and is called the canonical
2
basis of R .

2. The set B = {(1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0), (0, 0, 1)} is a basis for R3 and is called the canonical
basis of R3 .

3. The set B = {1, X, X 2 , . . . , X n } is a basis for Rn [X], and it is called the canonical
basis of Rn [X].

1.4.2 Dimension
Definition 12 (Dimension). The dimension of a vector space E, denoted as dim(E), is the
cardinality of any basis of E. So, a K-vector space E admitting a basis with a finite number
of elements is said to be of finite dimension. Its dimension is denoted as dim E.

Theorem 1.4.1. All bases of a vector space E of finite dimension have the same number of
elements.

Definition 13. The dimension is the number of vectors forming the basis. By convention,
if E = {0}, then dim E = 0.

Example 11. 1. The set B = {(1, 0), (0, 1)} is a basis for R2 , so dim R2 = 2.

2. The set B = {(1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0), (0, 0, 1)} is a basis for R3 , so dim R3 = 3.

3. The set B = {1, X, X 2 , . . . , X n } is a basis for R[X], so dim R[X] = n.

Proposition 4. In a vector space of finite dimension n:

1. Any linearly independent family has at most n elements.

2. Any generating family has at least n elements.

Properties 1. • If F is a subspace of E, then dim(F ) ≤ dim(E).

• If F and G are subspaces of E such that F ⊆ G, then dim(F ) ≤ dim(G).

• If F and G are subspaces of E, then dim(F + G) = dim(F ) + dim(G) − dim(F ∩ G).

Theorem 1.4.2. Let E be a K-vector space of finite dimension, and F a subspace of E.

Then:

1. F is of finite dimension.

2. dim F ≤ dim E.

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 3. If F = E, then dim F = dim E.
Proposition 5. Let E be a K-vector space of finite dimension n.
1. Any linearly independent family of n vectors in E is a basis for E.
2. Any generating family of n vectors in E is a basis for E.
This proposition allows proving that a family is a basis without verifying both axioms
(linear independence and generation).
Example 12. Let v1, v2, v3 be vectors in R3 given by:
1 3 0
     

v1 =  0 

, v2 = 1 ,
 
v3 = 0 .
 

−2 2 1
We have shown in Example 9 that v1, v2, v3 are linearly independent, hence they form a
basis for R3 .
Theorem 1.4.3. Let F and G be two subspaces of finite dimension in a vector space E.
Then:
1. F + G and F ∩ G are of finite dimension.
2. dim(F + G) = dim F + dim G − dim(F ∩ G).
Proposition 6. Let F and G be two subspaces of finite dimension in a vector space E.
Then, if F and G are supplementary in E, i.e., E = F ⊕ G, then dim(F + G) = dim E.

1.5 Exercises
1.5.1 Corrected Exercises
Exercise 1
Determine which of the sets E1 , E2 , E3 , and E4 are subspaces of R3 . Calculate their dimensions.
1. E1 = {(x, y, z) ∈ R3 | x + y − z = x + y + z = 0}
2. E2 = {(x, y, z) ∈ R3 | x2 − z 2 = 0}
3. E3 = {(x, y, z) ∈ R3 | exey = 0}
4. E4 = {(x, y, z) ∈ R3 | z(x2 + y 2 ) = 0}
Correction
1. E1 is a subspace vector of R3 . Indeed:
(a) (0, 0, 0) ∈ E1.
(b) Let u = (x, y, z) ∈ E1 and v = (x0 , y0 , z0 ) ∈ E1. Then:
x + y − z = x + y + z = 0,
x0 + y0 − z0 = x0 + y0 + z0 = 0.
Adding these equations results in:
(x + x0 ) + (y + y0 ) − (z + z0 ) = (x + x0 ) + (y + y0 ) + (z + z0 ) = 0.
So, u + v belongs to E1.

8
 (c) Let λ ∈ R and (x, y, z) ∈ E1. Then, the relation x + y − z = x + y + z = 0
holds. Multiplying by λ, we get λ(x, y, z) = (λx, λy, λz) with λx + λy − λz =
λx + λy + λz = 0, so λ(x, y, z) belongs to E1.

2. E2 is not a vector space. (Counterexample: u + v ∈

/ E2 )

3. E3 is not a vector space. (0 ∈

/ E3)

4. E4 is not a vector space. (Counterexample: u + v ∈

/ E4 )

Exercise 2
Among the following sets, identify those that are subspaces.

1. E1 = {(x, y, z) ∈ R3 | x + y + a = 0, x + 3az = 0}

2. E2 = {f ∈ F(R, R) | f (1) = 0}

3. E3 = {f ∈ F (R, R) | f (0) = 1}

4. E4 = {P ∈ Rn [X] | P (0) = 3}

5. E5 = {(x, y) ∈ R2 | x + λy + 1 ≥ 0}

Correction

1. E1 : It is not a subspace if a ̸= 0 because 0 ∈

/ E1. However, if a = 0, then E1 is the
intersection of the subspaces

F = {(x, y, z) ∈ R3 | x + y = 0},

and
G = {(x, y, z) ∈ R3 | x = 0}.

2. E2 is a subspace of F(R, R).

(a) The zero function f (x) = 0 is in E2 .

(b) For any f, g ∈ E2 , (f + g)(1) = f (1) + g(1) = 0, so f + g ∈ E2 .
(c) For any f ∈ E2 and λ ∈ R, (λf )(1) = λf (1) = 0, so λf ∈ E2 .

3. E3 is not a subspace because the zero function does not belong to E3 .

4. E4 is not a subspace because the zero polynomial is not in E4 .

5. E5 is not a subspace. In fact, E5 is not even a subgroup of (R2 , +) since (2, 0) ∈ E5,
but −(2, 0) = (−2, 0) ∈
/ E5 .

9
Exercise 3
Let E be a vector space (over R or C), and let F and G be two subspaces of E.

1. Show that F ∪ G is a subspace of E if and only if F ⊆ G or G ⊆ F .

2. Let H be a third subspace of E. Prove that if G ⊂ F , then F ∩ (G + H) = G + (F ∩ H).

Correction:

1. (a) Forward direction:

Assume F + G is a subspace of E. By contradiction, suppose F is not contained
in G and G is not contained in F . Then, there exist x ∈ F ∩ G and y ∈ G ∩ F .
Since x ∈ F + G, and y ∈ F + G, it implies that x + y ∈ F + G, which contradicts
the fact that F + G is a subspace. Hence, either F ⊆ G or G ⊆ F .
(b) Reverse direction:
Suppose F ⊆ G or G ⊆ F . If F ⊆ G, then F + G = G, which is a subspace.
Similarly, if G ⊆ F , then F + G = F , which is also a subspace. Therefore, in
either case, F + G is a subspace.

2. Suppose G ⊂ F .
Let x ∈ G + (F ∩ H). Then, there exist a ∈ G and b ∈ F ∩ H such that x = a + b.
Since G ⊂ F , it follows that a ∈ F , and additionally, b ∈ F . Therefore, x = a + b ∈ F .
On the other hand, a ∈ G, b ∈ H, so x = a + b ∈ G + H. Thus, x ∈ F ∩ (G + H).
Let x ∈ F ∩ (G + H). Since x ∈ G + H, there exist a ∈ G and b ∈ H such that
x = a + b.
Now, b = x − a, where x ∈ F and a ∈ G ⊂ F . Therefore, b ∈ F , and hence, b ∈ F ∩ H.
Consequently, x = a + b ∈ G + (F ∩ H).

Exercise 4
Let u1 = (1; 2; 3; 4) and u2 = (1; −2; 3; −4) be vectors in R4 .

1. Can we determine x and y such that (x, 1, y, 1) ∈ Vect{u1 , u2 }?

2. And for (x, 1, 1, y) ∈ Vect{u1 , u2 }?

Correction

1. It is not possible for the first case, (x, 1, y, 1) ∈ Vect{u1 , u2 }. For any s, t ∈ R,

(x, 1, y, 1) = s(1, 2, 3, 4) + t(1, −2, 3, −4) = (s + t, 2s − 2t, 3s + 3t, 4s − 4t).

By comparing coefficients, we get the system:

1 =s+t




1 = 2s − 2t







y = 3s + 3t
1 = 4s − 4t



Solving this system leads to 1 = 5

12
and 1 = 14 , which is impossible for any x, y ∈ R.

10
 2. However, for the second case, (x, 1, 1, y) ∈ Vect{u1 , u2 }, we follow the same reasoning:

(x, 1, 1, y) = (s + t, 2s − 2t, 3s + 3t, 4s − 4t).

Solving the corresponding system:

x=s+t




1 = 2s − 2t







1 = 3s + 3t
y = 4s − 4t



Results in x = 31 , y = 19 12
. We can show that this family is generating: let V =
(x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 ) ∈ R4 . To express V as a linear combination of u1 and u2 , we solve a
system (with a non-zero right-hand side) for λ1 , λ2 such that λ1 u1 + λ2 u2 = V . In this
case, V = −x2 u1 − x3 u2 − x4 u1 (using x1 + x2 + x3 + x4 = 0).

Exercise 5
Determine real numbers x and y such that the vector v = (−2, x, y, 3) belongs to the subspace
generated by the family F = {(1, −1, 1, 2), (−1, 2, 3, 1)}.
Correction
The vector v ∈ Vect(e1 , e2 ) is equivalent to the existence of two real numbers λ and µ
such that v = λe1 + µe2 . So, (−2, x, y, 3) = λ(1, −1, 1, 2) + µ(−1, 2, 3, 1) is equivalent to the
system:

−2 = λ − µ




x = −λ + 2µ







y = λ + 3µ
3 = 2λ + µ



Solving this system results in:

=

1


 λ 3
= 7

µ

3




x= 13
3
y= 22


3

Hence, the suitable values are x = 13

3
and y = 22
3
.

Exercise 6
Let u1 = (0, 1, −2, 1), u2 = (1, 0, 2, −1), u3 = (3, 2, 2, −1), u4 = (0, 0, 1, 0), and u5 =
(0, 0, 0, 1) be vectors in R4 .

I) Verify that u3 = 2u1 + 3u2 .

II) Determine the validity of the following propositions and provide justification for your
answer.

1. Vect(u1 , u2 , u3 ) = Vect((1, 1, 0, 0), (−1, 1, −4, 2)).

2. (1, 1, 0, 0) ∈ Vect(u1 , u2 ) ∩ Vect(u2 , u3 , u4 ).

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 3. dim(Vect(u1 , u2 ) ∩ Vect(u2 , u3 , u4 )) = 1.
4. Vect(u1 , u2 ) + Vect(u2 , u3 , u4 ) = R4 .
5. Vect(u4 , u5 ) is a complementary subspace to Vect(u1 , u2 , u3 ) in R4 .

Correction

I) It is easy to verify that u3 = 2u1 + 3u2 , indicating that Vect(u1 , u2 , u3 ) is a subspace of

dimension 2.

II) 1. Vect((1, 1, 0, 0), (−1, 1, −4, 2)) is included in Vect(u1 , u2 , u3 ) since (1, 1, 0, 0) = u1 +
u2 and (−1, 1, −4, 2) = −u1 + u2 . Since they have the same dimension, they are
equal. True.
2. (1, 1, 0, 0) = u1 + u2 , so (1, 1, 0, 0) ∈ Vect(u1 , u2 ). However, Vect(u1 , u2 ) =
Vect(u2 , u3 ) ⊈ Vect(u2 , u3 , u4 ). False.
3. Similarly, Vect(u1 , u2 ) ∩ Vect(u2 , u3 , u4 ) = Vect(u1 , u2 ) and has dimension 2.
False.
4. Vect(u1 , u2 ) + Vect(u2 , u3 , u4 ) = Vect(u1 , u2 , u4 ) ̸= R4 . False.
5. The intersection is {0} and the sum is R4 . True.

Exercise 7
In R3 , consider the subspace F defined by:

F = {(x − y, 2x + y + 4z, 3y + 2z) | x, y, z ∈ R}

1. Provide a basis for F and determine its dimension.

2. Is F equal to R3 ?

Correction

1. Basis of F
Let u ∈ F , then for (x, y, z) ∈ R3 :

u = (x − y, 2x + y + 4z, 3y + 2z)

u = x(1, 2, 0) + y(−1, 1, 3) + z(0, 4, 2)

Thus, F is generated by {v1 = (1, 2, 0), v2 = (−1, 1, 3), v3 = (0, 4, 2)}.

Now, let’s show that this family is linearly independent.
Suppose λ1 , λ2 , λ3 ∈ R such that λ1 v1 + λ2 v2 + λ3 v3 = (0, 0, 0). This implies:

(λ1 − λ2 , 2λ1 + λ2 + 4λ3 , 2λ1 + λ2 + 4λ3 ) = (0, 0, 0)

This system of equations leads to λ1 = λ2 = λ3 = 0. Therefore, the family {v1 , v2 , v3 }

is linearly independent.
Hence, the dimension of F is 3, and {v1 , v2 , v3 } forms a basis for F .

2. F = R3 because dim(F ) = 3 = dim(R3 ).

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Exercise 8
Show that the two vector subspaces of R3 :

E = {(x, y, z) ∈ R3 | x + y + z = 0}

F = Vect((2, 0, 0))
are in direct sum.
Correction
It is sufficient to demonstrate that the intersection between E and F reduces to the
zero vector. The elements of F are vectors colinear with (2, 0, 0), meaning vectors of the
form (2λ, 0, 0) where λ ∈ R. They satisfy the equation x + y + z = 0 of E if and only if
2λ + 0 + 0 = 0, which implies λ = 0.
Therefore, E ∩ F = {0}, i.e., E and F are in direct sum.

Exercise 9
In the vector space F of functions from R to R, consider the two subspaces E and G formed
respectively by even and odd functions:

E = {f ∈ F (R, R) | f (−x) = f (x)}

G = {f ∈ F (R, R) | f (−x) = −f (x)}
Show that F = E ⊕ G.
Correction
First, we show that the two vector subspaces E and G are in direct sum. Let f be a
function that is both even (f (−x) = f (x)) and odd (f (−x) = −f (x)). It implies 2f (x) = 0,
which means f (x) = 0 for all x in R. Consequently, E ∩ G = {0}.
Next, we demonstrate that the sum of E and G spans the entire space F (R, R). For any
function f , it can be expressed as the sum of an even function f1 (x) = 12 [f (x) + f (−x)] and
an odd function f2 (x) = 21 [f (x) − f (−x)]. Therefore, we have shown that F = E ⊕ G.

1.5.2 Supplementary exercises

Exercise 1
Let E = {f ∈ C 1 (R, R) | f − f ′ = 0}. Show that (E, +, ·) is a vector space.

Exercise 2
Show that (5, 12, 13) is a linear combination of (1, 2, 3) and (1, 3, 2).

Exercise 3
1. Write the following sets as the span of subspaces and specify in which vector space:

• F = {x 7→ α ln(x) + β exp(x) | α, β ∈ R}
• G = {(x, y, z) ∈ R3 | x + y + z = 0, x + 2y = 0}
• H = {P ∈ R2 [X] | P − P (0) = 0}

2. Determine generating families for the sets F , G, and H above.

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Exercise 4
Show that (5, 12, 13) belongs to Vect((1, 2, 3), (1, 3, 2)).

Exercise 5
Determine which families of three vectors are linearly independent in the following cases:

• v1 = (1, 0, 1), v2 = (0, 2, 2), v3 = (3, 7, 1) in R3 .

• v1 = (1, 0, 0), v2 = (0, 1, 1), v3 = (1, 1, 1) in R3 .

Exercise 6
Determine if the following families are linearly independent:

• F1 = {(1, 2), (1, 2)}

• F2 = {(1, 0, 1), (1, 1, 0), (0, 1, 1)}

• F3 = {ln, exp} in A((0, 1), R)

• F4 = {X 2 + X + 1, X 2 + 2X + 2}

• F5 = {X, X 2 }

Exercise 7
Let E1 = {(x, y, z) ∈ R3 | x − y + z = 0} and E2 = {(x, y, z, t) ∈ R4 | x + y + z + t = 0}.
Determine bases for E1 and E2 .
Exercise 8
Let E = Vect((1, 1, 3), (1, −1, 1), (1, 0, 2), (1, 3, 5)). Determine a basis for E.

Exercise 9
Let B1 = {(1, 2), (2, 1), (1, 1)} and B2 = {(1, 1, 1), (1, 2, 1)}.

1. Is B1 linearly independent in R2 ?

2. Is B2 a spanning set for R3 ?

Exercise 10
Let E = {(x, y, z) ∈ R3 | x+y−2z = 0, 2x−y−z = 0} and F = {(x, y, z) ∈ R3 | x+y−z = 0}.
Let u = (1, 1, 1), v = (1, 0, 1), and w = (0, 1, 1).

1. Show that E and F are subspaces of R3 .

2. Determine a generating family for E and show that it forms a basis.

3. Show that {v, w} is a basis for F .

4. Is E ⊕ F = R3 ?

5. Given X = (x, y, z), express X in the basis {u, v, w}.

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Exercise 11
Consider the subspace E = {(x, y, z) ∈ R3 | x + y − 2z = 0, 2x − 3z = 0} and F = {(x, y, z) ∈
R3 | x + y − z = 0}.

1. Determine a basis for E and specify the dimension of E.

2. Determine dim F where F is the subspace of R3 generated by the vectors u1 = (1, 2, 2),
u2 = (0, 6, −2), u3 = (1, 5, 1).

3. Determine E ∩ F .

4. Is E ⊕ F = R3 ?

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