UNIT III.
SITE CHARACTERIZATION
FOR CROP
❑Factors Affecting Agriculture
❑The Farm Site and the Farm Environment
❑Farm Characteristics and Factors of Crop
Production :
Biophysical Factors, Associative Economics,
Socio-cultural, and Political Determinants
❑Features of Land and Crop Adaptation
❑Factors Affecting Agriculture - Crop
Production
▪ Consist of the Natural, Biophysical, Social, Economic and
Political Environment
➢ Natural Factors
1.) Climate
2.) Soil
3.) Topography
1.) Climate - mainly temperature and precipitation
Temperature
❖ All forms of agriculture are controlled largely by
temperature. Areas deficient in heat are deficient in
agriculture.
❖ For that is one element of climate that man has not been
able to create at economic costs on a large scale.
2.) Soil
❖ A rich soil in plant food is the chief requirement of
successful agriculture.
❖ It is essential as a support for plants, and as the main
medium whereby water and all plants foods, except
carbon dioxide, are brought to the roots of the plants
3.) Topography
❖ Affects agriculture as it relates to soil erosion, difficulty of
tillage and poor transportation facilities.
❖ Mechanization of agriculture depends entirely on the
topography of land. Eg. On rough, hilly lands, the use of
agricultural machinery is impossible.
➢ Farming Systems
- is equated to the environment and the type of farming
systems to be adopted in a farm and is determined by several
factors that influence it.
- Site characteristics and qualities of the area play an
important consideration in crop production and management
a. Topography/Slope
b. Effective soil depth
c. Soil Texture
d. Available moisture
e. Water holding Capacity
f. Soil drainage
g. Flooding Hazard
h. Natural soil fertility like pH, Organic matter, available P,
exchangeable K, cation exchange capacity, etc.
➢ Effects of Soil Characteristics for Crop Production
▪ Slope – is the ratio of the vertical distance over horizontal
distance both of the same linear unit multiplied by 100%. It
influence retention and movement of water, movement of
soil materials, soil depth and rate and amount of run-off.
▪ Soil Texture - refers to the relative proportion of clay, silt
and sand. Soil structure depends on the kind and amount
of clay in the soil.
• Clay works with organic matter to hold water and
nutrients, binds soil particles together; holds more water
and nutrients than sandy soils; has higher cation
exchange capacity than sandy soils
• Medium textured soils like loam and silt loam are best
soils for diversified upland crops. Paddy rice prefers
poorly drained clayey soils.
▪ Soil Depth – Effective soil depth refers to the thickness of
the soil to layers coarser than loamy fine sand, sand,
gravels, stones, rocks or any impermeable layer or to depth
to water table.
• The thicker the effective soil depth, the more the volume
of soil that can be extracted of plant nutrient and water
• Deeper soils are more productive than shallow soils.
Crops can endure a longer drought when they thrive on
soils having a higher water holding capacity.
▪ Soil Drainage – is the removal of water from the soil
through surface run-off and by flow through the soil to
underground spaces.
• Well-drained soil promote favorable conditions for plant
growth and microbial activity.
• Factors affecting soils drainage: slope, permeability,
vegetation and land use, and amount of rainfall.
▪ Available Water and Water holding capacity– available
water is the water content of a soil held between field
capacity and permanent wilting point expressed in percent.
• Field capacity represents the maximum amount of water
a soil can hold against normal drainage.
• Permanent wilting point is the moisture of soil water when
the plants start to wilt.
- Soils with poor drainage have limited agricultural use because of
wetness. These soils are not suitable for upland crops unless
adequately drained but they are best for paddy rice.
- Medium textured soil hold the most water in available form
- Coarse textured soil hold little water because of their low water
content at field capacity.
- Fine clayey soils supply limited available water because they
return large amount of water at permanent wilting point.
▪ Soil Erosion – the degree and amount of soil erosion is
mainly dependent on steepness and length of slope,
climate, kind of soil, nature of land use and vegetative
cover, and cultural and soil management practices. Surface
erosion occurs when the amount of rainfall exceed to that
of the infiltration capacity of the soils.
• Soils with larger & steeper slopes are more susceptive to severe
soil erosion than soils with lower shorter slopes and all other
factors are equal.
• Soil erosion is more severe on areas with more frequent and
more intense alternate wet and dry periods than areas with
uniform rainfall throughout the year.
• Sandy soils are more susceptible to erosion than clayey soils due
to detachment and lack of binding materials.
• Plowing and tilling across the slopes tend to hasten soil erosion
to a great degree.
▪ Flooding Hazard
• Flooding occurs on areas occupying low physiographic
positions along rivers and streams, low alluvial terraces
of the coastal landscape
• Prolonged deep flooding prevents root respiration due to
absence of oxygen and deprives the plants of the
essential soil nutrients.
▪ Inherent Soil Fertility
• Soil fertility refers to the status of the soil in terms of its
ability to provide the plants adequate amount of nutrients
in balance proportion and on readily available forms
necessary for normal plant growth.
• It is related to pH, organic matter, CEC, available P,
extractable K and base saturation
a. Soil pH – affects plant growth on its nutritional
needs. It influences the rate of plant nutrient
released by weathering, the solubility of all
materials in the soil and the amount of nutrient
ions kept on the CEC sites
b. Organic matter content affects soil fertility in
terms of CEC and nutrient supply
– the higher the organic matter content, the
higher is the CEC supply of available N, P and S.
c. Available P – second most deficient nutrient in most
soils; is derived from mineralization of organic
matter. P availability is related to soil pH. A pH
range from 6.5-7.5 is usually best for P
availability.
d. Exchangeable K– essentially needed in large
amount by plants which comes mostly from
mineral solids. K is most available at pH 6-7.5
▪ Percentage base saturation – refers to the percentage of
CEC occupied by basic cations such as Ca, Mg, K and N
measured at 7 or 8. Cations like H and Al are excluded
because they are acid produced.
➢ Physical Component (Soil)
▪ Geography – the location of the farm affects production.
Farms near big municipalities or cities produce a variety of
crops in a small area (diversified).
▪ Topography and Elevation – the terrain or contour of the
land affects cropping patterns. Lowlands are utilized for
producing most likely annuals (cereals, etc) whereas in the
uplands with high altitudes, vegetables are raised.
▪ Land Use Pattern – It depends on the rainfall pattern of the
area and the cropping patterns used such as that after one
cropping, it is followed by a short fallow before another
cropping starts.
➢ Physical Component (Climate)
▪ Rainfall Pattern – with upland farms usually rainfed,
planting crops should be in timing with good rain.
- A planting calendar based on rainfall pattern be
adopted to fully utilize photosynthesis.
- The climate also influences cropping patterns as this
depends on the rainfall intensify and distribution as it
affects soil workability, crop growth and development,
and maturity.
▪ Temperature – plants have specific temperature
requirements to grow vigorously at different stages of
growth. In the choice of crops, the growing season has to be
considered which are also influenced by latitude, altitude and
slope of the place.
▪ Typhoon/Drought Occurrence – in areas where there are
“typhoon belts”, the crops to be planted are creeping species
(sweet potato, etc) and the annuals so that these could be
harvested with less effect from strong winds or the planting
of drought tolerant crops.
▪ Wind Velocity – still air are beneficial to crops as this aids
for self pollination process. But wind velocity also cause soil
erosion and therefore planting wind breakers are necessary.
▪ Solar Radiation – light intensity, duration and quality affects
dry matter accumulation as this is used for photosynthesis.
Plants have higher dry matter accumulation under optimum
sunlight.
➢BIOTIC FACTORS
▪ Cropping Patterns – these are temporal and spatial
arrangement of crops in the field which are based on
type of climate and soil, availability of farm inputs and
technical know of the farmer
▪ Varietal Selection – the variety to be planted in the
farm depends on its adaptability, the preference or
purpose for planting it, its resistance to pests and
diseases, maturity indices, high yielding and good
eating quality.
▪ Insects and Diseases – the prevalence of insects
and disease must be considered thus planting
synchronously is favorable and the variety should be
resistant to pests and diseases.
▪ Weeds – there must be thorough land preparation
before planting and there must be maximum
utilization of the land to prevent growth of weeds
▪ Animals – astray animals in the farm affect
production. However, draft animals are beneficial to
farmers. There must be compatibility of the animal
component to the crop components.
➢ECONOMIC FACTORS
▪ Off-farm income sources – farm management involves
capital and the capital of a farmer might not be enough hence,
he has to secure off-farm income to augment his finances.
▪ Labor market – there is shortage of labor during “peak
moths” and labor is expensive and if labor is available, it is
expensive and demand higher price.
▪ Market & Credit – in deciding what to raise in the farm, the
farmer has to consider the demand (quantity and quality) of
the products at high price based on customer preference; the
marketing outlets and the ROI.
- Credits are supplied by banks,etc. or middlemen. Credits
help farmers a lot but this may also tie down their produce to
lower prices. On the other hand, capital for inputs and services
are readily available.
▪ Transport Facilities – necessary for marketing of farm
products as well as transport of supplies and inputs.
Insufficient transport facilities in the farm will result to slow
turnover of outputs to cash, and may even result to wastage
of produce.
▪ Channels of market information – media and technicians
inform farmers of the recent product demand and prices of
commodities in the market.
▪ Landholding, inheritance pattern and land tenure status
▪ Landholding, inheritance pattern and land tenure status
- available land resources and farm distribution affect crops
grown and the farming system used. For land owners, they can
plant on extensive scale whereas others on small scale based
on farm sizes.
- Land tenure status influences production as there are
agreements and disagreements between landlord and tenants.
With fragmented holding, fields may be of different soil types
due to complex management practices.
➢SOCIO-CULTURAL FACTORS
▪ Organization and Leadership – the formal and non-formal
leaders help members in understanding the current pattern of
resource distribution and these leaders would mobilize the
members to form cooperatives and avail of and have access
to support and technical assistance.
▪ Ethnicity and idiosyncrasies - Values, outcomes and
traditions are inherent to all people and this affects farming
system. Farmers have to raise crops as handed down
traditions such as in Mt. Province, people raised vegetables
and in Cebu, people raise and eat corn.
▪ Aspirations and attitudes – Aspirations help farmers to strive
more for certain define purpose – child's education or alleviate
income. Farmer’s attitude may also limit production but if they
are taking risk as opportunities then they have to diversity
their farms to have continuous cash flow, much food, wider
host range of pests and diseases and if one crop fails, there
are still others to be harvested.
▪ Intellectual and technical perspective – Those who
engaged in farming are the middle age group and are of low
educational attainment. They lack technical know-how but with
wider farming experiences.
▪ Tradition, customs and beliefs – Whatever traditions,
customs and beliefs of the people influence the type of crops
or animals raised. They have to follow on what they “believe”
in terms of farming.
➢POLITICAL FACTORS
▪ Play a vital role in agricultural development. The political system,
i.e., capitalistic, communist or socialistic system determines the
pattern of agriculture.
- example in China, agriculture is fully controlled by
government; similar was the case of former USSR. On the
other hand, in USA, Canada and in most of the other countries
of the world, agriculture is a private concern.
▪ Government policies regarding land, irrigation, marketing and
trade, etc., have a direct impact on agriculture. Similarly, subsidies,
loan policy, purchase policies, agricultural marketing and
international trade and tax policy of the government also have a
direct impact on agricultural production and its development.
➢SALT (Sloping Agricultural Land Technology)
▪ A packaged technology on soil conservation and food
production, integrating different soil conservation measures in
just one setting.
▪ Diversified farming system which can be considered
agroforestry since rows of permanent shrubs like coffee,
cacao, citrus and other fruit trees are dispersed throughout the
farm plot.
▪ Was developed on a marginal site in Kinuskusan Bansalan,
Davao del Sur by Mindanao Baptist Rural Life Center
(MBRLC) 1971. Finally verified and completed in 1978
▪ 10 steps of Sloping Agricultural Land Technology (SALT 1)
1. Make an A-Frame
2. Locate the Contour Lines
3. Prepare the Contour Lines
4. Plant seeds of Nitrogen Fixing Trees and Shrubs (NFTS)
5. Cultivate Alternate Strips
6. Plant Permanent Crops
7. Plant Short and Medium Term Crops
8. Trim Regularly Nitrogen Fixing Trees/Shrubs
9. Practice Crop Rotation
10. Build Green Terraces
THANK YOU
The two (2) general
models of manipulating
photosynthesis
▪ Industrial Model or Conventional Model of
Agriculture
Characteristics:
✓ Farms are factories; fields, the production plants
✓ Produce animals or grain
✓ Focuses on individual farming practices
✓ Natural environment is modified or controlled (greenhouse)
✓ Capital intensive and chemical dependent
✓ Crop productivity is significantly increased
✓ Hazards to the environment and human health due to use of
agrochemicals
▪ Sustainable Model of Agriculture
Characteristics:
✓ Agricultural production as a whole system
✓ Producers to conduct their agricultural
activities in harmony with the biosphere
✓ Holistic system model
✓ Natural resource base be conserved and protected
✓ Environment should also be protected
✓ Producers manage the internal resources (natural resources) of
the farm (or agro-ecosystem)
✓ Crop production is in an environmentally responsible manner
✓ Production practices complement and accommodate the factors in
environment
✓ Describes strategies of achieving synergy for production by
integrating several practices (diversification, etc)
❖ COMPARISON
❑Industrialized agriculture is highly concentrated and mechanized, relying
on chemical inputs like fertilizers, pesticides and non-therapeutic
antibiotics. However Sustainable agriculture which uses methods that
protect the environment, public health, human communities and animal
welfare.
❑Industrialized agriculture consumes finite resources without replenishing
them, including the resources on which it depends, including soil
nutrient, fossil fuels and water. Sustainable agriculture produces its own
inputs (fertilizer from animals, feed grown on the land) and manages its
outputs (crop waste, manure) in a closed loop cycle. It contributes to soil
fertility, clean water systems, biodiversity and other ecosystem services,
rather than depleting them.
❖ Benefits of Sustainable Agriculture
❑ Environment
▪ Farms do not use chemical pesticides,
fertilizers or genetically modified seeds.
▪ They do not dispose of vast amounts of untreated manure by
spreading it in toxic quantities on cropland
▪ They grow a diversity of crops, raise animals primarily on pasture
and use techniques such as crop rotation, cover cropping, beneficial
insects and other non-synthetic methods of pest control and
fertilization.
▪ These practices increase organic matter in the soil, sequester
carbon and support biodiversity.
❑ Public Health
▪ Without the use of hazardous chemical pesticides, sustainable
farms are much safer and healthier for their farmers, workers and
surrounding communities, and the food they produce is free of
chemical residues.
▪ High organic matter in the soil of sustainable farms retains more
water, leading to less runoff overall.
❑ Animal Welfare
▪ Sustainable farmers and ranchers raise their animals in ways that
allow them to graze or forage, move outdoors freely and express
natural behaviors, without the stress and illness.
▪ Focus their practices on diminishing as much as possible (if not
eliminating) the pain and suffering that animals experience as they
live (and are killed) through the production process.
❖ What you can do
❑“Voting with your fork” – is an excellent step. It is important to buy
sustainably produced food.
❑ Voting (with your vote)
❑ Support increased investment in sustainable agriculture research, as
well as education for beginning and transitioning farmers.
➢Sustainable development
- development that meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. –
Brundtland Report (WCED, 1987)
- comprises types of economic and social development which
protect and enhance the natural environment and social equity. – Mark
Diesendorf (UNSW Sydney)
Sample of International Standards
Local:
Philippine National Standard (commodities)
PhilGAP
International:
EuroGAP
GlobalGAP
Environmental Management System (ISO 14001 ver.)
Social Accountability 8000 (SA 8000)
Rainforest Alliance
HACCP (Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point)
GMP/GHP/GDP
Quality Management System (ISO 9001:ver)
References:
Course Syllabus In Crop Science 21
Research and Policy Committee of the Committee for Economic Development. “An Adaptive
Plan for Agriculture.” Committee for Economic Development, 1962. Retrieved April 30, 2017,
from
http://www.normeconomics.org/AN%20ADAPTIVE%20PROGRAM%20FOR%20AG.pdf
USDA National Agricultural Statistics Service. “Agricultural Statistics 2015.” USDA, 2015.
Retrieved April 23, 2019, from
https://www.nass.usda.gov/Publications/Ag_Statistics/2015/Ag_Stats_2015_complete%
20publication.pdf
Ibid.
