Theories of Language Change
🏷️: 💻 Language Change in the Digital World 🧬 How Language Changes 9093 A2 English
Language Diary Language Change Glossary 9093 Language Change Diary Social Media and
Language Change Cultural Transmission Theory Halliday's Functions of Language Random
Fluctuation Theory (Charles Hockett) Substratum Theory Lexical Gap Theory Wave Model + Tree
Model of Language Change The S-Curve Model (Chen, 1968) Progress or Decay (Jean Aitchison,
1991) The Unfolding of Language (Guy Deutscher, 2005) ELA05 ELA04 ELA02
Key Language Change Theories
Cultural Transmission Theory (Based on Multiple Linguists)
Halliday's Functions of Language
Random Fluctuation Theory (Charles Hockett)
Substratum Theory
Lexical Gap Theory
Wave Model + Tree Model of Language Change
The S-Curve Model (Chen, 1968)
Progress or Decay (Jean Aitchison, 1991)
The Unfolding of Language (Guy Deutscher, 2005)
Theories which need to be discussed, understood and then tested with the corpus of English
language available.
Halliday's Functions of Language in Language Change
Explains language change as a tool that allows changing social, economic, cultural and
technological functions to be carried out
Neologisms made to fit the user's/time's functions/needs. e.g 'telegraph' during the
Industrial Revolution
Language adapts to the functions of the user (interactional, heuristic, instrumental,
personal, representational, regulatory, imaginative)
Language adapts to technological change, lexis for old technology is not discarded, rather it
is phased out of the common lexis to make way for new terminology
User's may need speed and effiiciency in their communication, a function. This may result in
the shortening, abbreviating or clipping of words, such as 'DVD-ROM (Digital Versatile Disk-
Read Only Memory)' or 'USB (Universal Serial Bus)' (Can also be explained via The Unfolding
of Language (Guy Deutscher, 2005))
Focuses more on lexical, graphological & orthographical changes compared to grammatical
and semantic changes
Cultural Transmission Theory in Language Change
Explains language change as the transmission and the evolution of a culture, which contain
the ideas, traditions, social norms, and customs, behaviour of a society. Occurs when
individuals perceive a benefit in change
Occurs through imitation, teaching and communication through language
Process of learning language through socialization with others in an act known as cultural
learning
A perceived benefit in change can be :
Gaining a new accent, which may boost chances of a job in certain sectors (e.g
monotonous or flat accents in telemarketing and tele-customer service)
or to sound like others in a specific society to blend in
Knowing and learning internet terminology and lexis
Passed on from older to living/current generations
Plays with the idea that there must be an innateness to the ability of learning language, as
we have a biological advantage through it. But the language and the knowledge itself is
passed down from people in the society
Does not cover all aspects of learning such as trial and error, and variety of language
The evolution of language and the increase in the lexis needed to survive inhibits and incites
language change, according to the Cultural Transmission Theory
What does it affect?: Lexis, grammar, syntax, phonology, graphology, orthography,
semantics
Random Fluctuation Theory (Charles Hockett) in
Language Change
Contradicts Halliday's Functions of Language, saying that language change occurs due to
sporadic and random events, such as errors, mistypes, mispronunciations, different
pronunciation styles/accent, which somehow becomes favourable and used in discourse
Can be used to discuss trend words and terminologies occassionally made due to the
internet (LOL, TL;DR, poggers, pwned, simp)
Can potentially lead credence to the development of Received Pronunciation & Estuary
English, however it may just be considered a coincidence or be too general
Can be used to contrast Halliday's Functions of Language
What does it affect?: Lexis, orthography, graphology.
Substratum Theory in Language Change
Based on William Labov's study of Jewish communities (immigrants) in New York
It was found that the Jewish population highly influenced the distinctive New York
English accent
Pronunciation changes made it into future generations of the immigrants, seeping into
the new yorker dialect, creating the distinctive accent
Focuses on how one variety of English influences the other through contact
Can be used to discuss language change in relation to language globalization, similar to
borrowing or loanwords, but only doing so from other Englishes/varieties of English
Can be used to describe borrowed slang from other Englishes, such as the London English
gaining some slangs from Carribean English
What does it affect?: Phonology, Grammar, Syntax
Lexical Gap Theory in Language Change
Offshoot of Halliday's Functions of Language
Deals with changes/additions to English that are needed when certain lexis simply do not
exist (How Neologisms come to emerge)
'Nonsense' words, usually not included in the dictionary
Mostly used in phonetically with no applications in formal settings. Requires very specific
context that the user is in. e.g slang marketing terms or 'nonsense words' made for
commercials
Changes are usually morphological, may edit existing words to fit upon the various
combinations possible with the English Language
E.g 'Perfect' --> 'Perfect-er' (-er morphological ending suffix type being used to modify the
word 'Perfect' to mean 'more perfect', whihc is nonsensical)
What does it affect?: Lexis (Spoken), Phonology, Morphology
Wave Model + Tree Model of Language Change
Fig 1.1 the Wave Model by Johannes Schmidt
Focuses on how new language features, such as pronunciation and lexis spread from their
original source (Geographically, or socially)
Deals with the idea that ideas, innovations, and features in a language ripple like a wave to
slowly reach outwards and fade out. Those closer to the wave's apex are more strongly and
quickly affected. Those farther away are less
affected, with the information reaching them much
slower or later
Contrasts to the tree model, which puts language
on a branching timeline, much like historic
genealogy
Where the Tree Model lacks is that it subverts the
possibility that there were other pidgins or creoles
in a given diagram or besides the proto-language
Wave model can be used to discuss the spread of
slang, ideas, trending terminology, cultures, dialect
merging/formation through a process known as
diffusion
Tree model can be used to discuss languages went
from Proto-Indo-European to Germanic family of
Languages, to Middle English and so on and so forth towards many more regional variants
The S-Curve Model (Chen, 1968) in Language Change
Fig 1.2: The S Curve Model (Chen,1968) depicting the use of You against Ye
Assumes that language change occurs like an 'S-Curve' on a graph, starting off limited and
low in use, with higher acceptance and popularity, it rises, and eventually levels/plateaus at a
state where it is standardized
Whether or not the change will be recognized and adopted will rely on people's acceptance
of the lexical/syntactical/etc. change
Measures one change against the alternative or existing standard in % of use and time taken
Can be used to discuss the n-gram
Progress or Decay (Jean Aitchison, 1991) in Language
Change
Asseses whether language change is progressing language or decaying language
Raises questions about the standards of the English language, with that being more relevant
than ever due to the rise of rapid language change via the internet
Two main views to the argument:
Prescriptive approach: the view that there is a 'golden standard' of English Language
which needs to be preserved
Descriptive approach: the view that change to language is natural, necessary and
occurs to adapt to the user's functions and that there is no 'golden standard'
In her book, Jean Aitchison leans towards descriptivism, and concludes that language is
neither decaying or progressing, it is simply in a state of constant evolution, change and is
simply inevitable (not necessarily stating that it is good like descriptivists would iterate, but
also not saying that it is a bad thing, like prescriptivist views would would say)
Jean attacks prescriptivist views through some metaphors, such as:
Damp Spoon Syndrome: Views that some changes to language are simply due to
laziness of the current generation
Crumbling Castle Syndrome: View that language was perfect as it was and
complaining about new slang ruining it
Infectious Disease Assumption: View that there are "bad" language habits and that
these spread to further decay language
Use to discuss Descriptivism vs Prescriptivism, modern Digital English, negative reaction to
slangs, and how all change is necessary change, compare with Halliday's Functions of
Language The Unfolding of Language (Guy Deutscher, 2005)
The Unfolding of Language (Guy Deutscher, 2005) in
Language Change
Theorises that language was never "invented", but came along due to the mind's desire for
order and need to find regularity in communicating (thus, language)
The human brain needs to establish patterns in a language, which is developed by its user
for their own needs and for future purpose
(Analogy)
Refers back to the Substratum Theory when it states that we usually take shortcuts to
pronunciations and grammar for efficiency and speed of communication (Economy)
Contrarily, it also tackles expressionism in language, stating that many of us have a knack to
be original and descriptive, using MORE words than needed, potentially devaluing the
message. He states that we do this as a need for originality and expression (Expression)
Also largely supports and complements Progress or Decay (Jean Aitchison, 1991) &
Halliday's Functions of Language, mirroring it on many occasions, viewing language as ever
changing and adapting as a bi-product of the user's Economy, Expressiveness & Analogy
Descriptivist in nature
Use to discuss Descriptivism vs Prescriptivism, modern Digital English, negative reaction to
slangs, and how all change is necessary change
📊 📚 Language Change Theories — Full Comparison Chart
Theory Proposed Key Idea How Example Best Use
by Language in 9093
Changes
Wave Johannes Language Gradually 'Th- Explaining
Model Schmidt change across fronting' regional
(1872) spreads social/geo moving dialect
like graphical out from spread
ripples space London
from a
central
source
Tree Historical Languages Through Proto- Tracing
Model linguists branch genealogi Germanic historical
(e.g. out from cal → Old language
Schleicher) a descent English → families
common Middle
ancestor English
Functional M.A.K. Language Vocabular 'Podcast', Explaining
Theory Halliday changes y and 'AirDrop', tech-
(1975) to meet grammar gender- driven or
new evolve for neutral social
social/com new terms language
municative contexts innovation
needs
Random Charles Language Mistakes, 'Yeet', 'on Explaining
Fluctuatio Hockett change is trends, fleek', slang,
n Theory (1960s) random, slang, and 'LOL' internet
like social language,
fashion imitation trend-
trends or driven
errors change
Theory Proposed Key Idea How Example Best Use
by Language in 9093
Changes
Substratu William Language Borrowing MLE Explaining
m Theory Labov changes s, slang, multicultur
(applied through phonetic Caribbean al, urban,
in 1966) contact influence, English in and
with other code- London, historical
languages switching Norse contact
/dialects loanwords change
in Early
Modern
English
Lexical Modern New Creation 'Selfie', Explaining
Gap linguistics words of 'ghosting', neologism
Theory (e.g. emerge neologism 'cancel creation
David to fill s and culture' and
Crystal) gaps in borrowing borrowing
language’s s
vocabulary
Jean Jean People Language Damp Analysing
Aitchison’ Aitchison view changes Spoon, attitudes
s (1991) language naturally, Crumbling to
Metaphor change as resisting Castle, language
s progress prescriptiv Infectious change
or decay, ist myths Disease (progress
often metaphors vs decay
irrationally essays)
Theory Proposed Key Idea How Example Best Use
by Language in 9093
Changes
The Guy Language Driven by 'Going to' Supportin
Unfolding Deutscher changes economy, → g
of (2005) through expressive 'gonna', descriptivi
Language cycles of ness, and grammar st views,
erosion analogy simplificati explaining
and on grammar
innovation erosion or
slang
adoption
