ORIGINAL RESEARCH

published: 11 July 2022

doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.919020

Consumer Perceptions of Brand

Localness and Globalness in
Emerging Markets: A Cross-Cultural
Context
Asif Ali Safeer 1* , Yewang Zhou 1* , Muhammad Abrar 2 and Fang Luo 1
1
Business School, Huanggang Normal University, Huanggang, China, 2 Lyallpur Business School, Government College
University Faisalabad, Faisalabad, Pakistan

The globalization of markets and consumer behavior has changed dramatically in recent
years. Similarly, global and local brands are facing many challenges in emerging markets.
Thus, in this backdrop, this research is intended to examine the impact of consumer
perceptions of brand localness and globalness on brand attitude in order to predict
consumer behavioral intentions (purchase intention, price premium, and word of mouth)
in cross-cultural emerging markets (China and Pakistan). Additionally, this research
considered the moderating effects of consumer ethnocentrism and brand familiarity as
a control variable. This study used an online survey to examine 1,562 responses from
Edited by:
Myriam Ertz, Chinese (n = 768) and Pakistani (n = 794) consumers regarding local and global brands.
Université du Québec à Chicoutimi, The proposed hypotheses were analyzed by using the partial least square-structural
Canada
equation modeling method. The findings indicated that the consumer perceptions of
Reviewed by:
brand localness and brand globalness had a substantial impact on brand attitude, which
Klaus G. Grunert,
Aarhus University, Denmark in turn favorably influenced consumer behavioral intentions in China and Pakistan. The
Khairul Anuar Mohammad Shah, brand attitude was a crucial mediator in both markets but was more critical in China than
Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM),
Malaysia Pakistan. The interaction moderating effects of consumer ethnocentrism and consumer
*Correspondence: perceptions of brand localness positively influenced brand attitude in China, whereas
Asif Ali Safeer consumer ethnocentrism and consumer perceptions of brand globalness negatively
aasafeer@outlook.com
influenced brand attitude in Pakistan. Interestingly, brand familiarity was discovered a
Yewang Zhou
whuw@sina.com substantial control variable in both markets, except for purchase intention in Pakistan.
This research contributed to Fishbein’s attitude theory and social identity theory. This
Specialty section:
This article was submitted to
research offers important recommendations to local and global marketers and brand
Organizational Psychology, managers in formulating and employing several positioning, market segmentation, and
a section of the journal targeting strategies that may assist them in competing effectively in emerging markets.
Frontiers in Psychology
Received: 13 April 2022 Keywords: brand globalness, brand attitude, brand localness, consumer behavioral intentions, consumer
Accepted: 15 June 2022 ethnocentrism
Published: 11 July 2022
Citation:
Safeer AA, Zhou Y, Abrar M and
INTRODUCTION
Luo F (2022) Consumer Perceptions
of Brand Localness and Globalness
The growing impact of globalization has had a profound effect on emerging markets. Similarly,
in Emerging Markets: A Cross-Cultural the impact of globalization on numerous markets has gained many researchers’ attention to study
Context. Front. Psychol. 13:919020. the issues affecting consumers’ preferences, attitudes, and behaviors toward local and global brands
doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.919020 (Diamantopoulos et al., 2019; Steenkamp, 2019). On the other side, many local and international

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Safeer et al. Consumer Perceptions of Brand Localness and Globalness

companies are targeting consumers with the flood of various consumer ethnocentrism (CET) has recently emerged as a
products and services in emerging markets. These products highly emphasized concept, and several authors strongly
and services influenced consumers’ lifestyles and consumption advocated that it must be investigated further in the context
ideologies (Liu et al., 2020). In these dynamic environments, of emerging markets (Halkias et al., 2016; Mandler, 2019;
consumers are increasingly adopting a critical attitude, as Srivastava et al., 2020). The worldwide consumer preference
evidenced by several countries in South America, Asia, for brands has been linked to a construct, such as a consumer
and the Middle East, which continue to enjoy significant ethnocentrism. Ethnocentric consumers demonstrate national
growth with transformations and effectively fulfill consumer favoritism in their buying decisions because they believe
needs in their markets (Mandler et al., 2021). Similarly, imported products pose a substantial threat to the national
emerging markets continue to expand more rapidly than economy’s employment and growth opportunities (Sharma,
developed markets. Emerging markets are defined as economies 2015). These ethical intentions support domestic products
experiencing significant economic growth due to government (Lee et al., 2017). Thus, CET has been postulated as a
policies aimed at economic liberalization (Paul, 2020). Similarly, critical theoretical construct inextricably associated with the
emerging markets are increasingly acknowledged as a unique local and global brands that require immediate managerial
mix of business, economic, cultural, financial, legal, political, attention when managing brands competing in various markets
institutional, and social environments in which to evaluate, (Diamantopoulos et al., 2019).
re-evaluate, and revive earned knowledge and wisdom about The current body of knowledge is available on a limited scale
how the corporate world operates, prevalent theories and their in a single country and a cross-cultural context. For instance,
supporting information, and new discoveries that will improve CPBL and CPBG have been examined on retail patronage
human welfare in all environments, including the developed, in China (Swoboda et al., 2012), behavioral intentions (single
transition, developing, and poorest countries of the world construct) in China (Xie et al., 2015), purchase intention in
(Kearney, 2012). Likewise, emerging markets, particularly China Austria (Halkias et al., 2016), and India (Srivastava et al., 2020)
and Pakistan, are important, offer a wide range of opportunities, and brand loyalty in Trinidad and Tobago (Rambocas and
and have a great potential for future research (Mushafiq, 2021; Narsingh, 2022) by using various mediating concepts in a single
Hertenstein and Alon, 2022). country context. Similarly, prior research has examined the
According to Srivastava et al. (2020), with $30 trillion in impact of CPBL and CPBG on purchase likelihood/intentions
annual expenditures, emerging markets are projected to account in the United States and South Korea (Steenkamp et al.,
for 50 percent of the world’s population by 2025. These enticing 2003), Denmark, Turkey, and Singapore (Özsomer, 2012),
prospects have led to the entry of numerous global brands into Austria and Bulgaria (Sichtmann et al., 2019), Bosnia and
emerging markets (He and Wang, 2017). As a result of this Herzegovina and Slovenia (Kolbl et al., 2020), and price
transition, several multinational firms are investing extensively premium (PP) in South Korea and Germany (Mandler et al.,
in emerging markets to strengthen their global brands and 2021) through various mediating concepts in a cross-cultural
increase market dominance (Srivastava et al., 2021). Thus, context. Thus, the current literature highlights the gap by
emerging markets have tremendous potential for growth (Jiao emphasizing consumer perceptions of brand localness and
et al., 2021; Xinglong and Antwi, 2022). Similarly, local brands globalness in various environments, and researchers are urged
are also active, posing stiff competition for global brands. to conduct additional studies on the topic (Liu et al., 2021),
Additionally, emerging markets are seeing a transformation in particularly using the brand attitude in emerging markets
consumer behavior and consumption patterns, with domestic (Mandler, 2019; Srivastava et al., 2020). On the other side,
brands rapidly substituting international brands (Cambefort, previous research demonstrated that brand familiarity (BF) is an
2020). Given this evolution, marketers need to understand how essential element that may affect brand attitude and consumer
consumers perceive homegrown and international brands in behavioral intentions (Halkias et al., 2016; Kolbl et al., 2020;
emerging markets (Srivastava et al., 2020). On the other hand, the Mandler et al., 2021). Thus, BF was considered an important
significance of consumer attitudes and behavior has increased in control variable in this study. In this background, we propose
recent years. Thus, domestic and international market dynamics new research in cross-cultural emerging markets (China and
have been completely changed. Consequently, managers must Pakistan) context to investigate the impact of CPBL and CPBG
develop effective branding strategies to understand consumers’ on predicting consumer behavioral intentions (PI, PP, WOM)
attitudes and behavioral intentions in emerging markets via brand attitude while considering the moderating impact of
(Safeer et al., 2021a). CET and BF as a control variable. As a result, we address the
Recent research has revealed the importance of brand attitude following questions:
(Ko et al., 2021) and argued that global brands have come To what extent do consumers’ perceptions of brand localness
under criticism for various reasons, including their brand and globalness influence brand attitude and consumer behavioral
attitude (Lopez-Lomelí et al., 2019b). Many scholars have intentions (PI, PP, WOM) regarding local and global brands?
also emphasized the importance of consumer perceptions of To what extent does CET act as a moderator between CPBL,
brands, urging additional research on consumer perceptions CPBG, and brand attitude in emerging markets?
of brand localness (CPBL) and brand globalness (CPBG) To what extent does brand attitude mediate the relationships
and their impact on brand attitude (BAT) in emerging between CPBL, CPBG, and consumer behavioral intentions in
markets (Mandler, 2019; Srivastava et al., 2020). Similarly, emerging markets?

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Safeer et al. Consumer Perceptions of Brand Localness and Globalness

Theoretically, this research is expected to contribute to with the value and emotional significance attached to that
Fishbein’s attitude theory for assessing consumer attitude and membership” (Tajfel, 1981, p. 255). Social identity theory is
its subsequent impact on consumer behavior in emerging centered on prejudice, discrimination, and other situations that
markets. Similarly, this study is expected to contribute to the promote intergroup behavior (Hogg et al., 1995). Following in-
social identity theory by examining the moderating effects of group and out-group, individuals classify on a cognitive basis
consumer ethnocentrism. Practically, this research is anticipated by identifying differences and similarities among groups with
to reveal meaningful managerial implications by emphasizing meaningful relationships, such as perceptions based on attitudes
the diverse mechanisms underlying how local and global brand and behavior (Turner, 2010). From a global perspective, the
preferences may increase CPBL and CPBG to improve brands’ home country is considered an in-group while the foreign
evaluations in emerging markets. To organize this research, we country is an out-group (Zeugner-Roth et al., 2015). Social
first describe the significance of the topic, the research gap, identity theory suggests that individuals strive to improve the
and associated questions, then develop hypotheses supported status of their group. Ethnocentric consumers are the most
by theory and literature. After that, we demonstrate the likely to have a strong sense of “us” about home-grown versus
methodology, results, and discussions of the findings. Finally, we international brands (Steenkamp et al., 2003). Consequently,
present the conclusion, implications, research limitations, and ethnocentric consumers are more willing to embrace domestic
research agenda for the future. market products’ advantages and minimize the advantages of
foreign market products (Watson and Wright, 2000). Further,
ethnocentric consumers tend to emphasize the Black and White
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND distinction between in-group (domestic products) and out-group
HYPOTHESES DEVELOPMENT (foreign products) (Shankarmahesh, 2006). Thus, we predict that
consumer ethnocentrism will have a positive effect on brand
The proposed research model is supported by Fishbein’s attitude attitudes about local brands but a negative effect on attitudes
and social identity theories. Fishbein and Ajzen (1975) offered toward global brands. Figure 1 illustrates the theoretical model
the most lucid explanation of the theoretical underpinning and the subsequent hypotheses generated for China and Pakistan.
for attitudes. Attitude theory defines that the formation of
an attitude is determined by the evaluation of an attribute,
which is then amplified by the attribute’s strength of association
Consumer Perceptions of Brand
with the object (Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975; Huber and Leone, Localness, Brand Globalness, and Brand
1979). Similarly, an individual’s attitudes are determined by Attitude
his most prominent beliefs at a given time. Beliefs are the The consequences of rapid globalization claimed that many
subjective associations between distinct notions. In a given multinational corporations launched aggressive marketing
context, salient beliefs are those triggered from memory and strategies for their international brands (Alden et al., 2006).
“considered” by the individual (Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975; Olson However, some researchers suggested that international
et al., 1979). The fundamental theoretical premise of Fishbein’s interdependence and interconnection do not refer to
attitude theory is that beliefs create attitude. Since attitude is homogeneity and conformity (Ger, 1999; Holton, 2000);
formed by a collection of salient beliefs, attitude modifications the local culture also influences consumer behavior (Samli,
must be mediated by these beliefs. Therefore, in order to alter an 1995). Building a link based on local culture could be one tactic
individual’s attitude toward a concept, it is essential to change the to shape local brands’ perceptions (Ger, 1999). The local brand
individual’s core beliefs about that concept (Fishbein and Ajzen, is described as an available brand within a particular geographic
1975; Lutz, 1975). Thus, consumers’ perceptions about a brand’s area (Dimofte et al., 2008). According to Eckhardt (2005), a
attributes are of primary importance to marketing researchers, brand is created for the home country consumers; or an iconic
who have concentrated on the brand’s attitude to comprehend brand that is culturally connected with the domestic market.
consumer behavior (Mitchell and Olson, 1981). As global and The CPBL refers to the consumer perceptions about the local
local brands are associated with several abstract concepts, brand. Thus, CPBL can be defined as the consumers’ perceptions
such as brand attitude. A brand’s functional attributes serve as “a brand symbolizes the values, needs, and aspirations of
consumer needs and positively influence consumer behavior the local country members” (Özsomer, 2012). Davvetas et al.
by delivering cognitively oriented benefits (Punyatoya et al., (2016) defined that CPBL captures consumers’ perceptions,
2014; Halkias et al., 2016). Thus, we predict that consumer and based on those perceptions, a brand is manufactured using
perceptions of brand localness and globalness influence the local resources. The perceptions of brands as locals also benefit
local and global brands, which in turn influence consumer from originality, authenticity, and adaptability according to
attitudes and behavioral intentions toward those brands. As local needs and expectations (Ger, 1999; Steenkamp and De
a result, CPBL and CPBG are hypothesized to be linked Jong, 2010). Consumer perception of brand localness develops
with brand attitude, resulting in favorable consumer behavioral an association with native cultures that support building
intentions (PI, PP, WOM). value for local brands (Özsomer, 2012). Such perceptions
Social identity theory is described as “that part of an toward local brands can be more favorable in order to foster
individual’s self-concept which derives from his knowledge favorable consumer attitudes about them (Hoskins et al., 2021).
of his membership in a social group (or groups) together Past research signifies the importance of brand attitude in

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Safeer et al. Consumer Perceptions of Brand Localness and Globalness

Consumer Ethnocentrism (High vs. Low)

Consumer Consumer Behavioral

Perception of Intentions

Brand Purchase Intention

Localness
Brand
Attitude Price Premium

Brand

Globalness Word of Mouth

Brand Familiarity

FIGURE 1 | Proposed research model.

different consumers’ settings and geographic environments. H2: CPBG positively affects brand attitude in
For example, Igelbrink (2020) revealed that CPBL favorably emerging markets.
affected consumer brand attitude, indicating that local brands
with local affinity were more positively perceived in developed
markets. Local brands benefit from strong ties to local culture
The Brand Attitude and Consumer
and communities, which helps them understand local consumer Behavioral Intentions
needs. These associations foster favorable sentiments regarding The term “brand attitude” refers to consumers’ continual liking or
homegrown brands and result in beneficial consumer behavior disliking of a brand, as well as their overall evaluation of the brand
(Halkias et al., 2016). (Wu Paul and Wang, 2011). Behavioral intentions are described
Steenkamp et al. (2003) defined CPBG as “consumers believe as “the degree to which a person has formulated conscious
that a brand is marketed in multiple countries and recognized plans to perform or not to perform some specified future
as global.” Several scholars defined the global brands based on behavior” (Westerbeek and Shilbury, 2003, p. 14). Behavioral
consumer perceptions as per the following: intentions can be characterized as favorable or unfavorable
(1) Global product units with a central organizational toward products and services (Chen and Chen, 2010). Behavioral
structure through the use of the same brand name globally; intentions could have consisted of purchase intentions (PI),
applying the targeting and segmentation toward relatively similar positive word of mouth (WOM), and paying premium prices
interests and needs worldwide, and eventually a unique global (PP; Zeithaml et al., 1996; Coudounaris and Sthapit, 2017). To
identity (Douglas et al., 2001). know about consumer behavioral intentions (CBIs), business
(2) Brands that provide global myth (signs of international managers usually use purchase intention measures to introduce
ideals) with quality signals and promise the social responsibility new products, demand forecasting, and make marketing mix
(Holt et al., 2004). decisions for offering in the relevant markets (Morwitz et al.,
(3) The wide availability of brands that enjoy global 2007). While using CBIs measures, academic researchers and
recognition across many markets (Dimofte et al., 2008). Thus, business managers can predict subsequent purchases of products
CPBG affects consumer brand attitudes, as numerous consumers and services. This concept is the foundation of numerous
favor global brands for their established worldwide image, theoretical research models of consumer behavior (Naseem et al.,
quality, and prestige (Steenkamp et al., 2003). According to 2015). For instance, Fishbein and Ajzen (1975) suggested that
Davvetas et al. (2015), CPBG significantly impacted brand “If one wants to know whether or not an individual will
attitude in developed markets (Austria). Likewise, Halkias et al. perform a given behavior, the simplest and probably the most
(2016) demonstrated that strengthening consumer perceptions efficient thing one can do is to ask the individual whether he
of brand globalness helps in developing positive brand attitudes intends to perform that behavior.” Similarly, Bagozzi (1983)
in Austria. Punyatoya et al. (2014) discovered that global explained that “intentions constitute a willful state of choice
brands with extended names positively impacted consumer brand where one makes a self-implicated statement as to a future
attitude from the Indian perspective. Thus, we can hypothesize: course of action.” According to Warshaw (1980), consumer
behavior research models usually indicate intentions as an
H1: CPBL positively affects brand attitude in intervening construct between choice and attitude, inferring that
emerging markets. intentions overtake beliefs when behavior correlates. Marketing

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Safeer et al. Consumer Perceptions of Brand Localness and Globalness

literature reported that behavioral intentions are generally cultural influence, and have strong associations with the
associated with consumers or customers, also called consumer products. They develop favorable attitudes toward domestic
behavioral intentions (CBIs) and CBIs outcomes play an essential brands while developing negative attitudes and adopting a
role in guiding firms to develop and implement various rigid purchasing behavior toward global brands (Steenkamp
marketing strategies (Risitano et al., 2017). Behavioral intentions et al., 2003). On the other side, consumers with a low level
are commonly used in branding research. Many researchers of ethnocentricity place a high value on the status, prestige,
use consumer behavioral intentions by measuring purchase and high quality of global brands (Vuong and Khanh Giao,
intentions, positive WOM, and price premium (Risitano et al., 2020). Social identity theory posits that individuals aspire to
2017; Safeer et al., 2021b). enhance their group’s standing. Thus, ethnocentric consumers
According to Steenkamp and De Jong (2010), consumers have a more favorable perception of domestic products
have varying attitudes toward domestic and international (in-group) and enjoy the advantages of domestic products
products across many categories. Özsomer and Altaras (2008) while developing prejudiced attitudes toward imported
demonstrated that consumers’ favorable attitudes toward global products (out-group) in order to reduce the advantages
brands might increase their willingness to purchase. Ger (1999) of foreign market products (Watson and Wright, 2000;
asserted that domestic products could foster positive brand Shankarmahesh, 2006). In light of this background, we
attitudes and impact consumers’ buying intentions by fulfilling hypothesize:
local requirements. According to Dimofte et al. (2008), the
positive consumer tendency toward global brands (by explicating H4: CET exerts a positive moderating effect on the link
its affective components) generates positive consumer feelings between CPBL and brand attitude. This favorable association
toward the preferences for global brands. Thus, global brands is stronger for high ethnocentric customers but weaker for low
appreciate consumers’ positive word of mouth, ranging from ethnocentric consumers in emerging markets.
favorable brand attitude to increasing their willingness to H5: CET exerts a negative moderating effect on the link
pay premium prices for the global brands (Davvetas et al., between CPBG and brand attitude. This negative association
2015). Additionally, Chaudhuri and Holbrook (2001) argued is stronger for high ethnocentric customers but weaker for low
that positive brand evaluations should translate into a brand’s ethnocentric consumers in emerging markets.
favorable consumer behavioral intentions. As a result, it is
predicted that a favorable brand attitude will subsequently The Mediating Role of Brand Attitude
translate into favorable consumer behavioral intentions by Prior research highlighted the importance of brand attitude in
stimulating their purchase intentions (Halkias et al., 2016). the local and global branding perspectives. According to Batra
Likewise, local brands can also increase purchase intentions et al. (2000), perceived non-localness origin brands positively
in developed and emerging markets by stimulating consumer influence consumer attitudes toward global brands in emerging
attitudes (Özsomer, 2012; Swoboda et al., 2012). Fishbein and markets (India) and wish to see these brands as local. Thus, CPBG
Ajzen (1975) demonstrated that attitude theory influences the increases consumer attitudes toward global brands. Similarly,
attitudes of individuals, which in turn shapes their intentions and Winit et al. (2014) found that brand globalness positively
behavior. As a result, we can hypothesize: impacted brand attitudes that directly influenced positive
purchase intentions. Therefore, irrespective of a local or global
H3: Brand attitude positively affects consumer behavioral brand, having a global image may favorably influence consumer
intentions such as PI (H3a), PP (H3b), and WOM (H3c) in attitudes and behavioral intentions. Consumers consider global
emerging markets. brands more positively due to their high quality and global
reach around the world, their globalness positively affect brand
The Moderating Impact of Consumer attitudes which influence them to pay higher prices for the global
Ethnocentrism brands in Austria (Davvetas et al., 2015). According to Naseem
Consumer ethnocentrism is “the beliefs consumers hold et al. (2015), favorable global brand attitude may favorably impact
about the appropriateness, indeed morality, of purchasing consumer behavioral intentions toward local and global brands.
foreign-made products” (Shimp and Sharma, 1987). Similarly, Consumers are always associated with global brands because
ethnocentric customers prefer homegrown products over of their best quality, higher prestige, and symbolic and functional
imported ones because they believe that purchasing native benefits (Swoboda et al., 2012). These consumers’ associations
products strengthens their economy, which is beneficial to them with global brands considered global brands can fulfill consumer
(Sharma, 2015). Additionally, ethnocentric consumers believe demands at local and global levels (Holt et al., 2004). These
that adopting imported products is an unpatriotic act and poses consumer perceptions assist global brands, which gain consumer
a considerable threat to the domestic economy, resulting in confidence through a positive attitude that results in favorable
job losses for many people. As a result, individuals develop behavioral intentions toward global brands (Halkias et al., 2016).
unfavorable attitudes toward imported goods (Kaynak and In the same way, local brands are also considered an icon
Kara, 2002). Thus, the effects of the CPBL and CPBG on brand of local culture and provide benefits of quality and prestige
attitude are contingent upon consumers’ ethnocentric level. (Steenkamp et al., 2003; Özsomer, 2012), which help consumers
For example, consumers with a high level of ethnocentricity in developing a positive attitude and consumer behavioral
believe that their domestic products are authentic, have intentions toward that brand.

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Safeer et al. Consumer Perceptions of Brand Localness and Globalness

Halkias et al. (2016) found that perceived brand localness and impacts of CPBL and CPBG on brand attitude and consumer
perceived brand globalness positively impacted brand attitude behavior in emerging markets, such as China and Pakistan
that significantly led to consumer behavioral intentions (purchase (Mandler, 2019; Srivastava et al., 2020). Due to cultural and ethnic
intentions) in Austrian (European) perspectives. Recent research diversity, consumers have a wide range of preferences for local
also revealed that local and global brands favorably impacted and global brands in these countries (Akram et al., 2011; Xie et al.,
consumer attitudes due to their excellent quality, positive 2015).
image, and familiarity and significantly influenced consumers’ The product categories and brands were chosen in both
purchase likelihood (Lopez-Lomelí et al., 2019b). Similarly, countries through focus group discussions. In accordance
local and global brand evaluation based on attitudes and with the research objectives, we selected paired local and
purchase intentions helps companies segment their markets global brands across three product categories, namely fast
and consumers effectively (López-Lomelí et al., 2019a). In this food, shoes, and apparel, depending on consumers’ brand
background, we predict that CPBL and CPBG may positively familiarity with the brands (Özsomer, 2012; Mandler et al.,
impact brand attitudes that may influence consumer behavioral 2021). In China, the paired (local/global) brands were fast
intentions (PI, PP, WOM) toward the preference of local and food: Real Kungfu/McDonald, shoes: Li-Ning/Nike, and apparel:
global brands in emerging markets. In this situation, brand Septwolves/Levis. Similarly, in Pakistan, the paired (local/global)
attitude may perform an influential role as a mediator in brands were fast food: Fri-Chicks/McDonald, shoes: Servis/Nike,
emerging markets, particularly in China and Pakistan. Therefore, and apparel: ChenOne/Levis. For generalizing the findings, this
this study develops the following hypotheses: study followed durable and non-durable as well as similar
global brands to minimize the specific brand effects in both
H6: Brand attitude positively mediates the relationships emerging markets. Each participant was exposed to three product
between CPBL and consumer behavioral intentions, including categories and rated a pair (local/global) of brands in that
PI (6a), PP (6b), and WOM (6c) in emerging markets. category (Steenkamp et al., 2003; Mandler et al., 2021).
H7: Brand attitude positively mediates the relationships
between CPBG and consumer behavioral intentions, including Data Collection Method
PI (7a), PP (7b), and WOM (7c) in emerging markets. This research applied the survey technique for data collection
from the intended consumers of China and Pakistan. Sekaran
Brand Familiarity as a Control Variable and Bougie (2016) described a survey as “a system for collecting
According to Kent and Allen (1994), “Brand familiarity reflects information from or about people to describe, compare, or
the degree of direct and indirect experiences of a consumer with explain their knowledge, attitudes, and behavior.” The survey
a brand.” Campbell and Keller (2003) defined brand familiarity method allows the researchers to test the theoretical models and
(BF) as the knowledge that consumers acquired from brands, hypotheses drawn from the literature (Bhattacherjee, 2012). The
and through brand association, these consumers save the brand’s email survey has been widely employed by various researchers
knowledge in their memory. The brand’s knowledge can be in developed, emerging, and cross-cultural contexts to determine
acquired through advertising exposure, WOM communication, consumers’ perceptions of brand localness and globalness
product trials, consumption, and interaction with salespeople (Steenkamp et al., 2003; Özsomer, 2012; Kolbl et al., 2019)
(Tam Jackie, 2008). Many researchers have agreed that familiarity because email surveys facilitate the researchers (for timely data
affects consumer behavior and decision-making (Tam Jackie, collection) and respondents (to provide information on the
2008). Thus, brand familiarity (BF) is a vital control variable proposed questionnaire) in an electronic environment (Mandler
when assessing the consumers’ perceptions toward perceived et al., 2021). In this background, the email survey method was the
local and global brands (Steenkamp et al., 2003). Prior research best fit and appropriate for this research.
also acknowledged that brand familiarity might influence brand The structured questionnaire was designed both in English
attitude and consumer behavioral intentions (PI, PP, WOM) (Xie and Chinese language. The English version of the questionnaire
et al., 2015; Halkias et al., 2016). As a result, BF was included was circulated in Pakistan. While the same questionnaire was
as a control variable in this study to examine the relationships translated into the Chinese language and distributed in China.
between CPBL, CPBG, brand attitude, and consumer behavior The questionnaire included only brand names and did not
intentions (PI, PP, WOM) in emerging markets. include the brand logos. The questionnaire was posted online
and organized using a leading Chinese survey website, https://
www.wenjuan.com. This study utilized well-known (seven-point)
MATERIALS AND METHODS scales. For example, the construct of CPBL was modified from
Swoboda et al. (2012), CPBG and CET were modified from
Despite the fact that the two countries (China and Pakistan) have Steenkamp et al. (2003). The brand attitude was taken from
significant religious, ethnic, cultural, and economic disparities Halkias et al. (2016). Consumer behavioral intentions (PI, PP,
(Waheed and Zhang, 2020), this study was undertaken in two WOM) were derived from previous research (Zeithaml et al.,
emerging markets. According to World Meter (2021), China is 1996; Price and Arnould, 1999), and BF was used from Xie et al.
the world’s most populous country, while Pakistan is the fifth (2015).
most populous country. Moreover, this research lacks in these For the initial pilot study, a total of 150 responses were
emerging markets, and several authors suggested examining the received from Chinese and 130 responses from Pakistani

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Safeer et al. Consumer Perceptions of Brand Localness and Globalness

consumers. After data reviewing and screening, 110 replies TABLE 1 | Participants’ profile.
from Chinese and 96 responses from Pakistani consumers were
Type China Pakistan
analyzed. Using SmartPLS software, the results revealed that
composite reliability (CR) values in China ranged from 0.81 Sample size (final responses) 768 794
to 0.96, and the CR values in Pakistan were between 0.78 and Gender % %
0.94. As a result, it demonstrated that both cultures validated Male 51.3 76.7
the constructs and had a firm grasp on the questions. After Female 48.7 23.3
assessing pretesting results, we employed the non-probability Age
(convenience) sampling approach to collect data from the 20–27 84.9 81.49
intended large consumer population. Prior research related to 28–35 11.07 9.82
consumers’ perceptions of brand localness and globalness has 36–43 4.04 8.69
commonly used the non-probability sampling method, and it Education
was the best fit technique to fulfill the research objectives High school 1.56 2.9
(Davvetas et al., 2015; Davvetas and Halkias, 2019; Kolbl Bachelor 39.71 36.65
et al., 2019; Sichtmann et al., 2019). Similarly, the convenience Master 47.53 45.72
sampling method is frequently applied in consumer behavior Doctoral 10.42 11.34
and marketing research (Safeer et al., 2021a), and it is the most Other professional degree 0.78 3.4
effective way to collect information quickly and timely manner Profession
(Sekaran and Bougie, 2016). Students 86.33 76.45
It is essential to decide the sample size before data collection. Government/Public organization sector officials 5.86 11.34
However, this is very complex due to different considerations Private business sector officials 7.29 6.93
(Bryman, 2016). These considerations could be research design Self-employed/Unemployed 0.52 5.29
such as qualitative or quantitative, number of constructs used in Monthly family income (USD)
research, target population, time constraints, budget limitations, Up to $1,000 30.73 52.77
statistical analysis, confidence interval, and generalization of $1,001 to $1,500 25.78 20.65
results (Hair et al., 2019). Therefore, a larger sample is generally $1,501 to $2,000 14.71 11.34

suitable for quantitative research (Bryman, 2016). The sample $2,001 to $2,500 12.5 4.41

size may be calculated on the researcher’s assessment, or a $2,501 to $3,000 3.65 2.39

mathematical formula can be used by following a table (Cohen More than $3,000 12.63 8.44

et al., 2017). Krejcie and Morgan (1970) introduced a table

widely used by researchers to calculate a given population’s
of globalization, making them a highly attractive segment for
sample size. Accordingly, the sample size must be 384 with
many companies (Mandler et al., 2021). The demographics of the
a 95% confidence level and at 5% confidence interval by
consumers are summarized in Table 1.
following that table. Hair et al. (2011) recommended that it
is vital to consider data characteristics and model complexity
while computing the PLS-SEM sample size. Further, Hair RESULTS
et al. (1998) suggested that a sample size between 300 and
500 is considered the best fit for variance-based structural Partial least square (PLS) structural equation modeling (SEM) is
equation modeling analysis. Considering all statistical methods extensively used in many social sciences disciplines, including
and after pretesting, this research collected data from 480 marketing and consumer behavior (Hair Joseph et al., 2019).
consumers (n = 960 responses from each country and a Likewise, PLS is a causative prediction SEM technique that
total of n = 1,920 responses) from China and Pakistan. The forecasts statistical models by associating their structure with a
methodology suggested collecting sample data in pairs (global- causal explanation (Sarstedt et al., 2017). PLS is also a robust
local brand) to evaluate consumer perceptions in emerging multivariate method for examining complex research issues
markets (Steenkamp et al., 2003; Özsomer, 2012; Mandler et al., incorporating unobserved variables and complex multi-faceted
2021). It indicates that the sample size qualified for all the interactions between distinct constructs. According to Hair
statistical and prior research requirements. After a rigorous Joseph et al. (2019), PLS-SEM performs very well with a larger
assessment, filtering, and removing biased responses, 1,562 sample size and is better for regression analysis to determine
responses, including 768 responses from 384 Chinese consumers mediation effects.
and 794 responses from 397 Pakistani consumers, were accepted
for data analysis. Measurement Model Assessment
This study’s sample composition (male vs. female) was almost According to Hair et al. (2018), it is critical to analyze
equal in China’s context. However, this composition revealed CR to examine internal consistency, indicators reliability, and
that male participation was higher than female in Pakistan evaluation of average variance extracted (AVE) to determine the
because of a Muslim country. Further, mainly students (who reflective model’s convergent validity. Further, Hair et al. (2018)
are young and well-educated) participated in this study because added that indicators with values between 0.70 and 0.90 should be
students are brand savvy, fashion-conscious and at the forefront deemed more suitable. Using the PLSc technique, we discovered

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Safeer et al. Consumer Perceptions of Brand Localness and Globalness

that all outer loadings were within an acceptable range according others surpassed it (see Table 5). As a result, this study
to cutoff criteria (see Table 2). Similarly, CR, AVE values, and did not achieve full invariance. However, partial invariance
factor loadings were all within an acceptable range (Hair et al., allows assessing construct relationships across groups
2011, Hair et al., 2018) in China and Pakistan. (Henseler et al., 2016).
To determine the discriminant validity, our results satisfied
the Fornell and Larcker (1981) measure which evaluates that the Structural Model Assessment
construct’s square root of the AVE values should be greater than The structural model evaluation process comprises determining
the correlations with other constructs (Hair et al., 2018). Henseler the model’s collinearity, the relevance and significance of
et al. (2015) later proposed the HTMT ratio as a criterion. Our relationships, the coefficient of determination (R2 ), model
results also met the criterion (see Table 3), indicating that the fit, and the predictive relevance of the model (Hair et al.,
correlations between constructs should be less than 0.90. As a 2018). Collinearity must be evaluated before assessing structural
result, the discriminant validity of the HTMT ratio method has relationships to ensure that it does not bias the regression
also been established. outcomes. This study discovered that all VIF values were less
than 3 (Hair Joseph et al., 2019), which assured no biases and
Cross-National Invariance Measurement multicollinearity in the data. Thus, structural relationships can be
Before comparing results between China and Pakistan, it is evaluated. We applied multi-group analysis with bootstrapping
critical to consider cross-national measurement invariance. 5000 subsamples two-tailed at the 0.05 significance level to
Steenkamp et al. (2003) proposed that all brand attribute test the hypothesized relationships (Hair et al., 2012). After
measurements should be evaluated across groups before adjusting for BF effects, we observed that CPBL had a substantial
performing SEM multi-group analysis. Hult et al. (2008) effect on brand attitude in China. However, this effect was
demonstrated that when estimating constructs, a lack of positive and slightly lower in Pakistan. Thus, hypothesis H1 was
measurement equivalence between groups might result in supported. On the other side, CPBG was strongly positive on
measurement errors, which can lead to misleading conclusions. brand attitude in Pakistan. However, this effect was positively
Following PLS-SEM, Henseler et al. (2016) presented a three- significant but slightly lower in China than in Pakistan. Thus,
step measurement invariance of composite models (MICOM) hypothesis H2 was also supported. H3a–H3c found that brand
approach for determining invariance. According to Henseler et al. attitude positively influenced consumer behavioral intentions,
(2016), the MICOM method can be applied to examine reflective including PI, PP, and WOM, in both emerging markets.
and formative models using PLS-SEM. Thus, previous research Therefore, H3a–H3c were supported. The controlling effects of
widely employed the MICOM method on reflective models in BF positively impacted brand attitude and PI, PP, and WOM
order to measure invariance between groups (Rasoolimanesh in China. Similar effects were reported in Pakistan except for
et al., 2017; Cheah et al., 2019; Zhang et al., 2019; Al-Swidi et al., PI. Thus, it demonstrates that BF did not influence the PI of
2021; Rastegar et al., 2021). Pakistani consumers.
Step 1: Configural Invariance is an essential requirement for According to H4, the interaction moderating effects of CET
all group analyses. It implies that the indicators, data processing, and CPBL were significantly positive on brand attitude in the
algorithm settings, and applications should be similar across Chinese context but had no effects in Pakistan. Thus, H4 was
groups. This study met the first step by assuring that indicators, partially supported. H5 discovered that CET and CPBG had
data processing, algorithms settings, and applications were the negatively significant on brand attitude in Pakistan but had no
same across groups. effects in China. As a result, H5 was also partially supported. To
Step 2: Compositional Invariance is established when the examine the mediation effects, this study found that the direct
original correlation value is higher than 5% (Henseler et al., effects of CPBL were non-significant on Chinese consumers’
2016). We performed permutation analysis at a two-tailed 0.05 behavioral intentions (PI, PP, WOM). Thus, full mediation was
significance level using 5000 bootstrapped subsamples. The reported in China. However, CPBL directly affected Pakistani
results exhibited a significant difference between the two groups consumers’ behavioral intentions (PI, PP, WOM), and partial
in terms of CPBL3 outer loadings. We removed the indicator mediation was found in Pakistan. Accordingly, H6a–H6c were
CPBL3 and discovered that all results met the recommended supported. Similarly, the direct effects of CPBG were found
criteria with a p-value greater than (>) 0.05 (see Table 4). positively significant on consumer behavioral intentions (PI, PP,
The absence of the indicator had no effect on the results or WOM) in Pakistan, indicating partial mediation. In contrast,
interpretations of reflective models (Henseler et al., 2016). The CPBG was observed non-significant direct effect on PI in
establishment of step 1 and step 2 indicates that partial invariance China, indicating complete mediation. While CPBG discovered
has been established. Thus, structural relationships between significant direct effects on PP and WOM in China, indicating
groups can be analyzed. partial mediation. Therefore, the positive mediation influence of
Step 3: If the mean values and variances are within the brand attitude demonstrates that the hypotheses H7a–H7c were
range of 2.5–97.5%, with a p-value greater than 0.05. It supported (see Table 6).
denotes that complete invariance has been established. Finally, the permutation test results revealed no significant
This research revealed differences in the third stage and differences (with a p-value greater than 0.05) in all hypothesized
determined that mean values have not achieved the threshold; relationships between China and Pakistan. Therefore, it was
while only one value of variances achieved the threshold, demonstrated that consumers from two cultures perceived and

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Safeer et al. Consumer Perceptions of Brand Localness and Globalness

TABLE 2 | Construct reliability and validity values.

Variable Items China data (n = 768) Pakistan data (n = 794)

Factor loadings CR AVE Factor loadings CR AVE

BF BF1 0.82 0.82 0.7 0.88 0.85 0.74

BF2 0.85 0.84
CPBG CPBG1 0.86 0.86 0.68 0.84 0.87 0.69
CPBG2 0.76 0.85
CPBG3 0.86 0.81
CPBL CPBL1 0.75 0.79 0.57 0.88 0.88 0.71
CPBL2 0.81 0.84
CPBL3 0.7 0.81
BAT BAT1 0.79 0.88 0.71 0.8 0.87 0.7
BAT2 0.9 0.84
BAT3 0.85 0.86
PI PI1 0.8 0.88 0.7 0.85 0.89 0.74
PI2 0.87 0.86
PI3 0.85 0.86
PP PP1 0.91 0.89 0.74 0.89 0.89 0.74
PP2 0.86 0.85
PP3 0.82 0.84
WOM WOM1 0.81 0.87 0.7 0.84 0.88 0.71
WOM2 0.88 0.84
WOM3 0.82 0.86
CET CET1 0.64 0.85 0.66 0.88 0.82 0.61
CET2 0.71 0.79
CET3 0.9 0.85
CET4 0.81 0.69

TABLE 3 | Heterotrait-monotrait ratio (China/Pakistan).

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

1. BAT
2. BF 0.76/0.71
3. CET 0.13/0.54 0.24/0.51
4. CPBG 0.62/0.72 0.73/0.74 0.45/0.41
5. CPBL 0.39/0.71 0.23/0.62 0.53/0.65 0.11/0.57
6. PI 0.78/0.83 0.74/0.69 0.17/0.55 0.61/0.70 0.24/0.68
7. PP 0.63/0.76 0.62/0.72 0.10/0.52 0.54/0.72 0.27/0.66 0.72/0.80
8. WOM 0.71/0.78 0.68/0.71 0.09/0.53 0.60/0.71 0.29/0.72 0.77/0.80 0.81/0.82

assessed the identical brand attribute indicators in a similar way. (Geisser, 1974) and found that model had medium to strong
However, the magnitudes of the effects varied according to the predictive accuracy in China and Pakistan (see Table 7). As a
consumers’ preferences and lifestyles. result, the proposed model has good predictive relevance in both
Chin (1998) proposed that the R2 values of 0.19, 0.33, and 0.67 emerging markets.
correspond to weak, moderate, and strong explained variance
effects on endogenous constructs. Table 7 explains the strong
variance effects in Pakistan but moderate to strong effects in DISCUSSION
China. To test the model fit, the SRMR is commonly used in
PLS-SEM (Hair Joseph et al., 2019). The results fulfilled the This research revealed intriguing findings such as Hypothesis
SRMR (<0.08) criterion (Hu and Bentler, 1998) in both emerging H1–H2 demonstrated that CPBL and CPBG positively impacted
markets. The predictive relevance (Q2 ) values 0.50, 0.25, and brand attitude in both emerging markets. However, CPBL
0 represent the theoretical model’s high, medium, and small had a greater influence in China than in Pakistan, whereas
predictive accuracy (Hair et al., 2018). This study used the multi- CPBG had a greater influence in Pakistan than in China.
group blindfolding procedure to determine predictive accuracy The findings corroborated Halkias et al. (2016), who found

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Safeer et al. Consumer Perceptions of Brand Localness and Globalness

TABLE 4 | Compositional invariance results (China and Pakistan). According to H3a–H3c, brand attitude positively influenced
consumer behavioral intentions (PI, PP, WOM) in both emerging
Construct Original Correlation 5.0% Permutation
correlation permutation P-values markets, with PI and PP having greater effects in Pakistan
mean than in China and WOM having a greater effect in China
than in Pakistan. Prior research validated our findings that
BAT 1.000 1.000 1.000 0.309
consumer attitudes toward brands can influence consumer
BF 1.000 1.000 1.000 0.186
behavioral intentions, such as PI in developed markets (Austria)
CET 0.999 0.999 0.998 0.248
and emerging markets (Mexico) (Halkias et al., 2016; Lopez-
CPBG 1.000 1.000 1.000 0.260
Lomelí et al., 2019b) and PP in developed markets (Austria)
CPBL 1.000 1.000 1.000 0.251
(Davvetas et al., 2015). Thus, our findings showed that brand
PI 1.000 1.000 1.000 0.072
attitude strongly influenced PI and PP in Pakistan than in China.
PP 1.000 1.000 1.000 0.296
The literature on the positive influence of brand attitude on
WOM 1.000 1.000 1.000 0.192
consumers’ WOM is lacking in the CPBL and CPBG contexts.
As a result, this study provides a better understanding of the
favorable impact of brand attitude on developing consumers’
that brand localness and globalness perceptions positively positive WOM more efficiently in China than in Pakistan.
influenced consumers’ brand attitudes in developed markets H4 revealed that the interaction effects of CET and
(Austria). Thus, our findings contribute to new perspectives by CPBL positively influenced brand attitude in China, but no
demonstrating that consumer perceptions of brand localness effects were observed in Pakistan. Although CET directly
favorably impacted brand attitude in emerging markets but influenced brand attitude in Pakistan, but it dampened the
with a greater influence in China compared to Pakistan. influences of CPBL on brand attitude in Pakistan. Thus,
The impacts of CPBL on brand attitude may be greater in it demonstrates that Chinese ethnocentric consumers prefer
China (than in Pakistan) because Chinese consumers have local brands to strengthen their economy and employment
a strong affinity with local brands due to their perceived opportunities. The following Figure 2 revealed that high
prestige and expressiveness of brand identity (Xie et al., 2015). ethnocentric consumers strengthened the relationships of CPBL
On the other side, consumer perceptions of brand globalness and its impact on brand attitude and lessened the impact for low
favorably impacted brand attitude in emerging markets but ethnocentric consumers.
with a higher influence in Pakistan than China. The effects of The findings were consistent with the earlier research by
CPBG on brand attitude may be more pronounced in Pakistan Shimp and Sharma (1987), who initially discussed the concept
(compared to China) because Pakistani consumers value global of consumer ethnocentrism in the American context that
brands due to their higher perceived quality and great prestige ethnocentric consumers prefer to buy local products and
(Akram et al., 2011). discourage from buying imported products because they think

TABLE 5 | Equivalence of mean value and variances results (China and Pakistan).

Construct Mean – original difference Mean – permutation mean 2.5% 97.5% Permutation Equivalence of
China – Pakistan difference China – Pakistan P-values mean value

BAT −0.564 −0.003 −0.104 0.099 0.028 No

BF −0.291 −0.003 −0.103 0.088 0.015 No
CET −1.132 −0.002 −0.101 0.104 0.039 No
CPBG −0.369 −0.002 −0.102 0.093 0.026 No
CPBL −0.642 −0.003 −0.103 0.096 0.031 No
PI −0.492 −0.001 −0.099 0.091 0.027 No
PP −0.966 −0.002 −0.096 0.096 0.037 No
WOM −0.716 −0.003 −0.109 0.091 0.034 No

Construct Variance – original Variance – permutation 2.5% 97.5% Permutation Equivalence of

difference China – Pakistan mean difference China – P-values variance value
Pakistan

BAT −0.335 −0.002 −0.155 0.142 0.018 No

BF −0.312 −0.003 −0.158 0.156 0.015 No
CET 0.321 0.001 −0.090 0.093 0.015 No
CPBG −0.411 −0.005 −0.144 0.134 0.019 No
CPBL 0.162 0.000 −0.102 0.102 0.002 No
PI −0.043 −0.004 −0.143 0.142 0.586 Yes
PP −0.244 −0.001 −0.127 0.134 0.003 No
WOM −0.228 −0.001 −0.148 0.142 0.005 No

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Safeer et al. Consumer Perceptions of Brand Localness and Globalness

TABLE 6 | Hypotheses results.

China Pakistan

Hypotheses β t-value β t-value Results support

Direct relationships
H1 CPBL - > BAT 0.36*** 6.10 0.34*** 5.70 Yes
H2 CPBG - > BAT 0.26*** 3.84 0.32*** 4.73 Yes
H3a BAT - > PI 0.53*** 8.25 0.58*** 9.24 Yes
H3b BAT - > PP 0.33*** 4.78 0.36*** 5.60 Yes
H3c BAT - > WOM 0.41*** 6.02 0.36*** 5.20 Yes
Moderating relationships
H4 CPBL × CET - > BAT 0.12* 2.13 0.10 1.49 Partial
H5 CPBG × CET - > BAT −0.06 1.10 −0.14* 2.21 Partial
Control variable (brand familiarity)
BF - > BAT 0.46*** 6.34 0.16* 2.13 Yes
BF - > PI 0.33*** 4.39 0.10 1.82 Partial
BF - > PP 0.26** 3.19 0.20** 3.10 Yes
BF - > WOM 0.24*** 3.34 0.15* 2.11 Yes
Mediating relationships Indirect Direct (β) Med. Indirect Direct (β) Med.
H6a CPBL - > BAT - > PI 0.19*** N. S (−0.06) Full 0.20*** S (0.13**) Partial
H6b CPBL - > BAT - > PP 0.12*** N. S (0.03) Full 0.12*** S (0.14**) Partial
H6c CPBL - > BAT - > WOM 0.15*** N. S (0.04) Full 0.12*** S (0.25***) Partial
H7a CPBG - > BAT - > PI 0.14*** N. S (0.04) Full 0.19*** S (0.14**) Partial
H7b CPBG - > BAT - > PP 0.09** S (0.15*) Partial 0.12*** S (0.23***) Partial
H7c CPBG - > BAT - > WOM 0.11** S (0.18**) Partial 0.11*** S (0.20**) Partial

t > 1.96 at *p < 0.05; t > 2.58 at **p < 0.01; t > 3.29 at ***p < 0.001; (two-tailed); S represent significant, and N. S as Non-significant.

that using local products is a patriotic act. It is helpful to H6a–H6c demonstrated that brand attitude was a critical
support the domestic economy. Similarly, Steenkamp et al. (2003) mediator, particularly in China’s (vs. Pakistan) environment,
discussed that high ethnocentric American consumers were as full mediation was observed between CPBL and consumer
inextricably linked to local brands due to their affinity with local behavioral intentions (PI, PP, WOM). However, there was partial
culture and concerns about the domestic economy. Thus, our mediation between CPBL and consumer behavioral intentions
findings contribute to ethnocentric consumers’ positive attitudes (PI, PP, WOM) in Pakistan. Thus, these findings demonstrated
toward perceived local brands in China’s perspective. that consumer attitudes toward perceived local brands are
H5 revealed that the interaction moderating effects of important in emerging markets. H7a–H7c discovered that brand
CET and CPBG on brand attitude were negatively significant attitude had a significant mediating function between CPBG and
in the Pakistani environment. These findings were followed consumer behavioral intentions (PI, PP, and WOM) in both
by Alden et al. (2006), who discovered that CET was emerging markets. The findings indicated that brand attitude
negatively significant in Korean consumer attitudes toward functioned as a partial mediator in both emerging markets,
global brands. In contrast, the same moderating effects were except for purchase intention in China. Thus, these findings
negatively non-significant on brand attitude in China. These revealed that consumer attitudes toward perceived global brands
findings followed the past research of Batra et al. (2000), who are essential in emerging markets.
found that CET had a negative non-significant moderating
impact on the effects of perceived non-local origin brands
on consumer brand attitude in (the Indian) emerging market, CONCLUSION
and Davvetas et al. (2015) also found the similar findings in
(Austria) developed market. The following Figure 3 indicates This research concluded that CPBL and CPBG significantly
that CET’s negative mean value between the relationship of improved brand attitude, which in turn positively influenced
CPBG and brand attitude strengthened the significant negative consumer behavioral intentions (PI, PP, WOM) in China and
effects of high ethnocentric and lessened the effects for low Pakistan. Specifically, CPBL had substantial effects on brand
ethnocentric Pakistani consumers. According to Naseem et al. attitude in China, while CPBG had substantial effects on brand
(2015), ethnocentric consumers feel proud to use their own attitude in Pakistan. Further, the brand attitude was revealed as
country’s products because they think foreign products are a a more critical mediator in China than in Pakistan. Moreover,
big threat to their domestic economy. Thus, these contrary significant interaction moderating impacts of CET and CPBL
findings of CET may require more research in emerging on brand attitude was reported in China, while CET and
markets context. CPBG had negative interaction moderating effects on brand

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Safeer et al. Consumer Perceptions of Brand Localness and Globalness

TABLE 7 | Q2 , R2 , and SRMR values (results). three outcomes are important: brand assessment (consumer
beliefs/evaluation), its impact on attitude, and subsequent
Construct China Pakistan
effects to predict consumer behavioral intentions. This research
Q2 R2 Q2 R2 discovered that brand attributes (CPBL, CPBG) directly
influenced consumer brand attitudes, which positively predicted
BAT 0.40 0.68 0.43 0.68 favorable consumer behavioral intentions (PI, PP, WOM) in
PI 0.40 0.67 0.46 0.74 China and Pakistan. Finally, the positive mediating effect of
PP 0.29 0.46 0.42 0.68 brand attitude demonstrated that consumer beliefs/evaluations
WOM 0.34 0.57 0.41 0.71 regarding local and global brands positively influence consumer
SRMR value 0.03 0.02 attitudes, which in turn positively affect consumer behavioral
intentions (Ajzen and Fishbein, 2005).
Similarly, this research also contributes to social identity
attitude in Pakistan. Thus, understanding consumer attitudes
theory. It was discovered that CET had a significant positive
and behavioral intentions can help local and multinational
moderating effect on the link between CPBL and brand attitudes
companies to increase their market share in emerging markets.
in the Chinese environment, whereas CET had a significant
Similarly, firms can segment consumers by following their
negative moderating effect on the relationship between CPBG
ethnocentrism levels as emerging markets are a highly attractive
and brand attitudes in the Pakistani context. Social identity
segment in the world.
theory describes why individuals have more positive attitudes
toward their in-group and negative attitudes toward their
Theoretical Implications out-group (Tajfel, 1979). International marketing experts have
This research contributed several ways to the attitude theory
extended the social identity theory by researching German
(Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975). First, this study established that
consumers’ perceptions of local brands representing the in-
CPBL and CPBG had a beneficial effect on brand attitude in
group and global brands representing the out-group (Loebnitz
emerging markets (China-Pakistan). The attitude proposed that
and Grunert, 2019). Thus, this study contributes to emerging
an individual’s attitude depends on the attributes or outcomes
markets by revealing that ethnocentric consumers have positive
of performing a behavior, and assessing the outcomes is caused
perceptions of local brands (in-group) in China, whereas
by brand evaluation. Therefore, a person who believes positively
ethnocentric consumers have negative perceptions of global
performing the behavior will likely generate valued outcomes that
brands (out-group) in Pakistan.
will positively impact their attitude (Ajzen and Fishbein, 2005).
Consequently, brand factors like consumers’ perceptions of brand
localness and globalness improve consumers’ brand attitudes in Managerial Implications
the Chinese and Pakistani contexts. This research revealed several managerial guidelines to local
Second, this research found that brand attitude positively and global managers for effective brand positioning, market
predicts consumer behavioral intentions (PI, PP, WOM) in both segmentation, and targeting strategies in China and Pakistan.
emerging markets. According to Lopez-Lomelí et al. (2019b), First, this study demonstrated a highly significant influence of

FIGURE 2 | Hypothesis H4 consumer ethnocentrism moderation graph (China).

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Safeer et al. Consumer Perceptions of Brand Localness and Globalness

FIGURE 3 | Hypothesis H5 consumer ethnocentrism moderation graph (Pakistan).

CPBL on brand attitude in China and a strong significant impact as local icons and ascribed to national identifications and
of CPBG on brand attitude in Pakistan. Therefore, considering community support. These brands are highly valued because
the dominant effects of CPBL on brand attitude in Chinese of their expressive identity and trust. Local managers may
consumers, the global managers should improve the brands’ use all these tools to strengthen their brands to influence
localness through close associations with the local culture and consumers’ attitudes and their subsequent impacts on consumers’
communities to increase the local consumer base. Such local behavior to stimulate their PI, PP, and WOM in local markets.
culture positioning strategies assist in developing brand localness Similarly, global managers may position their brands to increase
in local markets, and association with local cultural norms the impact of brand globalness through the brand’s superior
and values encourage consumers to develop positive attitudes quality and prestige.
toward brands. On the other hand, increasing the impact of Third, the interaction moderating effects of CET and CPBL
brand localness is a competitive edge for local managers. Local favorably influenced brand attitude in China. Thus, global
managers should improve this competitive edge by involving managers can concentrate their efforts on target markets by using
more local community welfare works. These practices may high and low ethnocentric consumer segmentation. Likewise,
strengthen the brands’ localness and positively affect consumer local managers may benefit from authenticity, nationalism, and
attitudes toward local brands. local cultural associations to retain high ethnocentric consumers.
Similarly, the strong impact of CPBG on brand attitude Similarly, by improving the brand’s quality and social value and
has provided opportunities for global managers to increase by leveraging celebrities, local managers can foster consumers’
their business share in the Pakistani markets. Global managers perceptions of the brand’s globalness and attract low ethnocentric
can also increase global brands’ functional and psychological consumers in local markets. In contrast, global managers can
benefits to strengthen their brands’ globalness and positively target and segment the low ethnocentric consumers by adding
influence consumer attitudes toward perceived global brands. the factors of global consumer culture positioning to cultivate
Multinational corporations can further associate their brands positive perceptions and favorable attitudes toward global brands
with global consumer cultures by adding different global in emerging markets (China).
campaigns or slogans, such as Panasonic displayed “A Better Life, Finally, this research discovered that the interaction
A Better World” to improve their CPBG. On the other hand, local moderating effects of CET and CPBG significantly negatively
managers can enhance their brand’s globalness by using local influenced brand attitude in Pakistan. The findings indicate that
brands’ authenticity, quality, and multi-market reach. Pakistani ethnocentric consumers were biased toward global
Second, the local and global managers should focus on brands due to their strong ties to local culture and the domestic
brand attitude for shaping consumer behavioral intentions economy. Thus, local managers can segment markets into low
(PI, PP, WOM) in emerging markets. Thus, a friendly and and high ethnocentric customers by creating distinct positioning
positive attitude toward a product may lead to consumer buying strategies to promote the adoption of local brands. In contrast,
behavior in emerging markets since local brands are categorized global managers can benefit by targeting and segmenting low

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Safeer et al. Consumer Perceptions of Brand Localness and Globalness

ethnocentric consumers based on their brand’s prestige and social ethnocentrism on brand attitude in emerging markets were
status in emerging markets (Pakistan). inconsistent with CPBL and CPBG. Such contradictory findings
may require additional research to extrapolate the findings to
emerging markets.
Limitations and Future Research Scope
There are certain limitations to this research. First, this research
was restricted to two emerging markets (China-Pakistan). Recent
trends revealed that consumers in developed markets prefer
DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT
local brands. Therefore, future researchers may extend this The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be
topic by incorporating new relevant concepts in emerging and made available by the authors, without undue reservation.
developed markets. Second, this research collected primary data
using a non-probability convenient technique and attempted to
generalize the findings using a larger sample size in emerging AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS
markets. However, we believe it is insufficient to generalize the
findings because emerging markets vary in political, economic, AS identified the research gap, developed the theoretical model,
social, legal, and cultural aspects, and there is a huge variation and finished the article’s write-up. YZ interpreted the results and
in ethnicities. Future research should add more countries with reviewed and improved the article. MA worked on methodology
a larger sample size based on the probability technique, which and collected data. FL conducted the data analysis. All authors
may help generalize the findings to all emerging markets. read and approved the final manuscript.
Third, the study mainly collected data from students, and
sample composition, particularly in Pakistan, was unequal.
Thus, future research should collect data from various working FUNDING
professionals with equal sample composition (male vs. female),
which may reveal new insights for contribution to the literature. This research was funded by the Business School, Huanggang
Finally, we discovered that the moderating effects of consumer Normal University, Huanggang, China.

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