UNIT 1

PERSPECTIVES ON ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION

Measurement

Measurement is the process by which we ascertain the quantity of something, it is merely the
assignment of a numerical index to the thing or phenomenon we assure.

Measurement is a process of assigning numbers to individuals or their characteristics according to

specific rules. (Eble and Frisbie, 1991).

Measurement is a process of quantifying the degree to which someone or something possessed a given
trait, i.e., quality, characteristics, or features. (Gay, 1991)

 Measurement assigns a numeral to quantify certain aspects of human and non-human beings.

 It is numerical description of objects, traits, attributes, characteristics or behaviors.

 Not an end in itself but definitely a means to evaluate the abilities of a person in education and
other fields as well.

Assessment

The word assess means “to sit beside” or “to assist the judge”, it reflects that assessment is a process
of gathering data and fashioning them into an interpretable form. Assessment is thus referred as “a process
of collecting evidence and making judgments relating to outcomes”.For example, in a classroom
assessment, a teacher engages in the assessment process when she observes the learners in the process of
learning, collect feedback on their learning, improve his/her teaching-learning strategy to facilitate them
for maximum learning [Link] is conducted in different phases of the teaching learning process. It
is carried out before the beginning of the teaching-learning process during the teaching-learning process
and at the end of the instructional process.

Assessment is a systematic procedure for collecting information that can be used to make inferences
about the characteristics of people or objects (AERA, et. al., 1999)

Assessment has a narrower meaning than evaluation but a broader meaning than measurement. In
connection to measurement, it can be said that measurement is a process of quantifying attributes, and
assessment is the process of collecting the quantified information about the attributes and interpreting it.
Components of Assessment

Assessment as system has certain components or variables which help to decide as to what kind of
assessment strategy has to be used. Harlen (2007) has suggested following components or variables of
assessment as a system:

Formative
Purpose
Summative
Helping Learning
Use Informing to teachers, parents and students
Tracking students’ progress
Regular work
Tests/task developed by teacher
Type of Task
Tests/tasks prescribed externally
Tasks embedded in teaching -learning
Teacher
Agents of Judgment Teacher and students together
External agent
Norms
Task specific criteria
Basis of Judgment
General criteria
Students referenced
Marks or Score
Form of Report or
Profile
Feedback
Overall level or grade or rank
Within class/school (internal)
Inter-school moderation process
Moderation
External Inspection
Informal or teacher centered

Evaluation

Evaluation is the process by which we judge the quality of something, it is the process of
determining the extent to which an objective is achieved or the thing evaluated possesses the qualities
[Link] leads to decision making.

Evaluation is a systematic process of collecting and analyzing data in order to determine whether,
and to what degree, objectives have been, or are being, achieved (Gay, 1991)
 Evaluation is the systematic collection and interpretation of evidence leading as a part of process to a
judgment of value with a view of action (Bebby, 1977).

Based on the above definition the four key elements of evaluation identified are as follows:

• Systematic collection of evidence

• Its interpretation
• Judgment of value
• A view of action

Systematic collection implies that whatever information is gathered, should be acquired in a systematic
and planned way with some degree of precision. Information gathered systematically should be carefully
analyzed and interpreted; superficial observations may lead to wrong interpretation. Judgment of value
takes evaluation far behind the level of mere description of what is happening, but requires judgments about
the worth of an endeavor. A view of action means every decision has a specific reference to action. It may
be conclusion oriented or decision oriented.

Purpose of Evaluation

According to Oguniyi (1984), educational evaluation is carried out from time to time for the following
purposes:
• Determine the relative effectiveness of the programme in terms of students’ behavioral output.
• Make reliable decisions about educational planning.
• Ascertain the worth of time, energy and resources invested in a programme.
• Identify students’ growth or lack of growth in acquiring desirable knowledge, skills, attitudes and
societal values.
• Help teachers to determine the effectiveness of their teaching techniques and learning materials.
• Help motivate students to learn more as they discover their progress or lack of progress in given
tasks.
• Encourage students to develop a sense of discipline and systematic study habits.
• Provide educational administrators with adequate information about teachers’ effectiveness and
school need.
• Acquaint parents or guardians with their children’s performance
• Identify problems that might hinder or prevent the achievement of set goals.
• Predict the general trend in the development of the teaching-learning process
• Provide an objective basis for determining the promotion of students from one class to another as
well as the award of certificates.
Types of Evaluation

Approaches of Evaluation on the basis of its types and functions can be classified as follows:

 Placement evaluation

 Formative evaluation

 Diagnostic evaluation

 Summative evaluation

Each of four types of evaluation serves different purposes. In the teaching learning process,
evaluation starts with placement evaluation and ends with summative evaluation. All four types of
evaluation are important, and are unique in their functions.

Areas of Function Types and its function

Placement evaluation
Before instructional process
(to know entry behaviour)
Formative evaluation
(to know mastery in content)
During instructional process
Diagnostic evaluation
(to solve learning difficulties)
Summative evaluation
After instructional process
(to certify the learner)

Placement Evaluation

 Placement evaluation provides information to the teachers about the learners to whom he/she deals with
relating to their existing knowledge and experiences based on that the teacher designs to teach new
knowledge.
 It is conducted before undertaking the teaching-learning activities and used to measure the entry
behaviour or existing knowledge of the learners
 It helps to know whether the learner is able to acquire the new learning experiences based on his/her
previous knowledge.
• Examples :
 In the teaching- learning process: Introducing a lesson by asking certain questions from the
previous knowledge of the students related to the topic taught
  Demonstrating something
 Telling a story and linking the content
 Doing a role play, etc.
 Entrance examination for selecting learners to a particular course

Formative Evaluation

 It is conducted during the development or improvement of a programme. It is conducted often more

than once, with the extent to improve.
 It is considered as the second stage of evaluation which is conducted during the teaching-learning
process and starts from the very beginning of designing instruction and it continues till the end of the
course/instruction.
 It also provides feedback to the teachers to know effectiveness of their teaching and modification
required and the learners to know the progress of their learning.
 Purpose –
• To monitor the learning progress of the learner
• To know whether the learning objectives are being achieved or not.
 Example:
 Conducting unit end examination, monthly examination, quarterly examination, half-yearly
examination, etc. are the examples of formative evaluation.

Salient Features

 It builds on the prior knowledge, and experiences of the learners, and ensures learner friendly
assessment.
 It helps in enhancing the learning abilities of the learner.
 It provides scope for the use of variety of activities, and various tools and techniques for promoting
holistic development of the learners.
 It ensures learning in a non-threatening and supportive environment.
 It provides descriptive feedback to children for realising their strengths andweaknesses.
 It provides a chance to the learners to reflect on their performance, as it realises the role of motivation
and self-esteem of students learning.
• Observation during classroom activities
• Non- verbal facial expressions of children
• Classroom discussion and homework review
• Informal question – answer sessions
 • Classroom activities where children make presentations, such as, presentationof project reports, etc
• Student feedback periodically collected by the teacher on teaching- learning process
• Self –evaluation of children on different activities
• Maintenance of reflective journals by teachers which are reviewed by them periodically.

Diagnostic Evaluation

 It is conducted along with formative evaluation during the instructional process and is carried out based
on the data obtained from formative evaluation.
 Conducted to identify and remove the learning difficulties of learner if it is observed and found during
the formative evaluation.
 To know the causes of the difficulties and accordingly to provide them remedial treatment to overcome
the difficulties.
 Identification of ‘learning difficulties’.
 It not only solves learning difficulties of learners but also identifies and provides remedies for personal,
physical and psychological problems.

Summative Evaluation

 To find out the extent to which the instructional objectives have been achieved at the end of a terminal
period.
 It is used primarily for assigning course grades or for certifying student’s mastery of the intended
learning outcomes at the end of a particular programme.
 The techniques used for summative evaluation are determined by the instructional objectives.
 Both external and teacher-made tests are used.
 It also provides information for judging the appropriateness of the course objectives and the
effectiveness of instruction.
Summaries as….
 It is conducted after the completion of the instruction in a term, a course or a school session
 It ‘Sums-up’ how much a student has learnt over a period of time
 It focuses mostly on assessing the scholastic abilities of the children
 It contributes to the overall grading and certification of the children
 It is mostly structured and formal approach to assessment of learning
 It provides terminal feedback, both, to the teacher and the children to re-design their teaching and
learning accordingly
External Evaluation

 Examinations that are organized and conducted by an agency other than the institution giving
instruction to the students, and all the students of the group of institutions come together under the
preview of the agency
• Eg: the public examinations conducted by the appropriate school boards. In such public
examinations, the teachers concerned do not get directly involved in the process of evaluation.
• the examinations are conducted by the same institution in which teaches but tests are prepared
and marked by persons other than the ones who teach the group
 Teacher who teaches is not involved in the evaluation process.

Internal Evaluation

 Most of the continuous and comprehensive evaluation is conducted by internal evaluation system.
 Internal evaluation supports formative and diagnostic evaluation.
 Conducted to know the learning progress of the students and the difficulties that they face during the
process of teaching and learning.
 Provides a base for remedial teaching to the identified students.

Criteria for Internal Evaluation

 Evaluating the involvement of the students in the teaching-learning activities of the class
 Setting of the question paper by the class teacher teaching that class and conduct of the examination
vis-à-vis evaluation of the scripts by the teacher himself or herself.
 Present days internal evaluation is conducted by
 Observation
 Peer evaluation
 Portfolios
 Projects
 Discussions
 Demonstrations

Process Evaluation

 Conducted periodically throughout program implementation and are useful in helping to make
adjustments during implementation.
 It documents the process of a program's implementation and help to see how a program outcomes or
impacts are (or will be) achieved
 Formative in nature.
 Examine program activities that are considered necessary but not sufficient conditions for intended
outcomes to occur

Outcome Evaluation

 Assesses the effectiveness of a program in producing change.

 Focus on the questions
• What happened to program participants
• How much of a difference the program made for them?
 To assess whether and how well the objectives of a program were met
 Focuses on the changes in comprehension, attitudes, behaviors and practices that result from
modifications in programs activities.
 Summative in nature

Self and Peer Evaluation

Group work can be more successful when students are involved in developing the assessment
process. It includes establishing their own assessment criteria through consultation with teaching staff and
also alternatively they can provide students with sample of self and/or peer assessment criteria. It aims to

• Increase student responsibility and autonomy

• Strive for a more advanced and deeper understanding of the subject matter, skills and processes
• Lift the role and status of the student from passive learner to active leaner and assessor
• Involve students in critical reflection
• Develop in students a better understanding of their own subjectivity and judgment.

Self Evaluation

 Assess their own contribution as well as their peers using an established set of criteria
 Assessing what they know, do not know, and what they would like to know.
 Begins to recognize their own strengths and weaknesses.
 Become more familiar with their own beliefs, and possibly their misconceptions.
 Able to set goals that they feel they can attain with the new knowledge they have about themselves.
Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages: Disadvantages:
• Encourages involvement and responsibility. • Potentially increases lecturer workload by
• Encourages to reflect on their role and needing to brief students on the process as well
contribution to the process of the group work. as on-going guidance on performing self-
• Allows students to see and reflect on their evaluation.
peers’ assessment of their contribution. • Risk of being perceived as a process of
• Focuses on the development of student’s presenting inflated grades and being
judgment skills. unreliable.
• Students feel ill equipped to undertake the
assessment.
Peer evaluation

 A process of collegial feedback on quality of teaching.

 Purposeful process of gathering information and evidence about the effectiveness of teaching processes
 Focus on constructive critical scrutiny.
 Begins with identifying what areas they would like feedback on, and works best where the process is
reciprocal between peers.
 Key component is - peer observation of teaching interactions.
 It should always be viewed as an opportunity not a threat for both parties.
 Students individually assess each other's contribution using a predetermined list of criteria.
 Grading is based on a predetermined process, but most commonly it is an average of the marks awarded
by members of the group.

Advantages and Disadvantages

• Encourages involvement and responsibility. • Additional briefing time can increase a

• Encourages to reflect on their role and lecturer’s workload.
contribution to the process of the group work. • Risk with respect to reliability of grades
• Focuses on the development of judgment • Tendency to award everyone the same mark.
skills. • Feel ill equipped to undertake the assessment.
• Take part ownership of this process. • May be reluctant to make judgments regarding
• Provides more relevant feedback as it is their peers.
generated by their peers. • Students may be discriminated against if
• Each student is judged on their own students ‘gang up’ against one group member.
contribution.
• Reduce a lecturer's marking load.
• Aware that their contribution will be graded by
their peers.
Product Evaluation

 Evaluator views and scores the final product made and not on the actual performance of making that
product.
 It is concerned on the product alone and not on the process.
 It is more concerned to the outcome of the performance of the learner.
 It also focuses on achievement of the learner.
 It focuses on evaluating the result or outcome of a process.

Objective Based Evaluation

 Evaluation based on pre- determined objectives is called objective based evaluation.

 There is relationship between objectives, learning experiences and evaluation.
 Any experience provided in the class room which results in learning is called learning experiences.
 Instruction aimed at the attainment of pre-determined objective is called objective based instruction.

The main purpose of classroom teaching is to influence learners’ behavior in the desired direction. The
desired direction is guided by the educational objectives formulated by the school and the teacher.
Therefore, a teacher should be conscious of the goals and aims of education. More specifically, a teacher
should formulate learning objectives for various lessons and units in the systematized and rearranged
syllabus in the subject of study. Secondly, should be in a position to construct effective learning experiences
on the basis of student learning and the modes of effective communication channels. Finally, should be able
to determine the extent to which these objectives are to be achieved. Hence, three major elements in the
education process are objectives, learning experiences and learner appraisal. The close relationship between
the three is symbolically represented in the diagram

Objectives

Evaluation Learning Experience

 The above representation is a dynamic one and shows interaction among three major elements as
shown by directional arrows. Objectives refer to one’s intention of desired behavior that learners should
acquire. The term learning experiences, refers to those activities and experiences that the learners undergo
in order to acquire the desired behaviors.

BLOOM’S TAXONOMY OF INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES

Education is the process of bringing about desirable changes in the individual. It is the process of
helping the child to develop his potentialities. To bring about such changes we teach them various subjects.

An instruction of any type is based on certain goals and objectives. All aspects of instruction should
attain certain desired objectives. All instruction will result in learning, which in turn will bring about
changes in the behavior of the learners. Thus instructional objectives are the anticipated behavior changes
that teachers expect as a result of instruction.

Therefore, an instructional objective represents level of mental growth, which the teacher expects
his/her students to reach by getting actively engaged in learning activities.

These instructional objectives will result or must result in the desirable changes in the life and
behavior of the child in the due course or in total life. Instructional objectives are certain modifications of
the child’s mind in tune with the information that he receives from time to time in the class or outside the
class. The mind is always ready to acquire any knowledge and is being transformed into various levels of
comprehension.

The word taxonomy literally means the arrangement of ideas and facts in proper order or in
sequence. It is in a way a kind of classification of ideas that develops in the mind in its natural settings.
Taxonomy of educational objectives is intended to provide for the classification of the goals of our
educational values. It is expected to help in the discussion of the curricular matters with a greater accuracy
and precision.

Bloom and his associates developed a taxonomic model of instructional objectives. They
formulated a division corresponding to the domains of development viz; cognitive, affective and
psychomotor. Within each domain they arranged the sequence of development of mental abilities in a
logical and psychological order.
 Instructional Objectives

Cognitive Domain Affective Domain Psychomotor Domain

(Knowing) (Feeling) (Willing or doing)
Intellectual abilities emotions, appreciation, manipulative and
Thinking, problem solving interest, attitudes, values motor skills

The Cognitive domain includes

• Knowledge: the recall of specific items
• Comprehension: can recall, but can do a little more (e.g. paraphrase, define, discuss to some
extent)
• Application: all of the above, but can take information of an abstract nature and use it in concrete
situations
• Analysis: can break down a communication into its constituent parts, revealing the relationships
among them
• Synthesis: can pull together many disorganized elements or parts so as to form a whole
• Evaluation: makes judgments about the value of materials or methods.
Noun Verb
Thinking is an active process and verbs describe actions. Knowledge does not describe a category of thinking and
was replaced with Remembering. Comprehension and synthesis were retitled to Understanding and Creating,
respectively, to better reflect the nature of thinking for each [Link] can be critical without being creative (i.e.,
judge and idea and justify choices) but creative production often requires critical thinking (i.e., accepting and
rejecting ideas on the path to creating a new idea, product or way of looking at things).

REVISED BLOOM TAXONOMY

A relatively recent revision of the taxonomy by Anderson and Krathwohl (2001) is as follow

Affective Domain
Psychomotor Domain

Factors Inhibiting Assessment

• A tendency for teachers to assess quantity and presentation of work rather than quality of learning.
• Greater attention given to marking and grading, much of it tending to lower self esteem of students,
rather than providing advice for improvement.
• A strong emphasis on comparing students with each other, which demoralizes the less successful
learners.

Physical, mental, Home and School factors play a greater role in the successful assessment.
Current Practices in Assessment and Evaluation

Continuous Assessment

 Continuous refers to regular. It means, to make assessment a regular activity in the teaching-learning
process
 The main objective of continuous assessment is to engage the learners regularly in their studies and
help them to understand their progress in learning.
 Continuous assessment is necessary if teacher intends to change teaching strategies in order to improve
the learning behavior of students and provide them meaningful learning experiences
 Components of CA
• Objectives
• Content
• Learning Experiences
• Assessment Procedures

Traditional system of assessment Continuous Assessment

• One or two examinations to assess the content • Assessed formally or informally
knowledge • It continues along with teaching.
• Awarded marks or grades, which hardly help • Techniques like observation, interview, self and
the students to enhance their knowledge. peer-assessment, group-work, projects, etc. To
assess the performance of students.
• Assessment is integrated in the teaching-learning
process and conducted through unit, quarterly, half-
yearly and annual tests.

Comprehensive evaluation

 Assessment of all-round development of student’s personality.

 Its purpose is not only assessing knowledge of students in a core subject that he/she studies but also
assessing his/her participation in other areas of knowledge such as art and craft education, health and
physical education, peace education, life skills, etc.
 The term ‘scholastic’ refers to those aspects which are related to intellectual exercise of the students in
curricular subjects.
 They include assignment, practical, projects, and different types of tests conducted in schools.
 The components of assessment covered under co-scholastic areas are life skill development of students,
their attitudes, self-concept, personality, socio-cultural development, emotional intelligence, and
developments in the areas of art, crafts, health, physical education, yoga and peace education, etc.
 Developments in curricular areas and co-curricular areas constitute holistic development of the
students.

Domain Areas Techniques

Scholastic Curricular Areas • Written

- Knowledge • Oral
- Understanding • Practical
- Application
- Skills
Co-Scholastic Physical health and yoga education • Exercises
- Basic understanding about health • Medical check up
- Yoga • Observation by teachers
– Physical fitness

Habits Observation
- Health habits
- Study habits
- Work habits
Interests Observation
- Literary interest
- Artistic interest
- Scientific interest
- Musical interest
- Social interest
 Attitudes Observation
- Attitude towards studies
- Attitude towards teachers
- Attitude towards self
- Attitude towards peers and friends
- Attitude towards schools
- Attitude towards society
Life skills and values Observation
- Self awareness
- Effective communication
- Critical thinking
Co-Scholastic - Decision making
- Coping with emotions
- Coping with stress
- Empathy
- Inter-personal relationships
- Creative thinking
- Problem solving
Participation in other activities Observation
- Games and sports
- Literary and scientific activities
- Cultural, social and community
service activities

Objectives of CCE

• To make evaluation an integral part of teaching-learning process.

• To use evaluation for improvement of student’s achievement through diagnosis and remediation.
• To make sound judgment and take timely decisions for learner’s growth, learning process, learning
pace and learning environment.
• To maintain desired standard of attainment.
• To provide scope for self-evaluation.
Functions of CCE

 To organize effective teaching strategies.

 Helps in regular assessment of learners’ progress (ability and achievement) with reference to specific
scholastic and co scholastic areas.
 To diagnose weaknesses and helps the teacher ascertain individual learner’s strengths and weaknesses.
 Provides immediate feedback and need of remedial instruction.
 Helps children know their strengths and weaknesses and motivates them for self-learning.
 A realistic self-assessment to enhance his/her learning abilities.
 Develop good study habits and directs their activities towards the achievement of desired learning
goals.
 Determine the areas of instruction in which more emphasis is required
 Identify areas such as aptitude, interest and self-concept.
 Identifying changes in attitude and value systems of students.
 Making decisions for the future, regarding choice of subjects, courses and careers.
 Information /reports on the progress of students in scholastic and co-scholastic areas

Need and Relevance of CCE

 It helps to make the education process a student-centric activity.

 To develop cognitive, psychomotor and interpersonal skills.
 It helps the teacher to organize effective teaching strategies.
 To develop students’ achievement through continuous assessment, diagnosis and remediation,
assessment in co- scholastic area.
 By continuous evaluation, children can know their strength and weakness. It provides the child a
realistic self assessment of how he/she studies. It helps a learner to determine the areas of instruction
in where more emphasis is required.
 It helps in making decisions for the future, regarding choice of subjects, courses and careers.

GRADING

 Process by which educators evaluate the performance of the students on the basis of standard particular
grades
 Letters and numbers are used to describe the grades
Purpose

 To give clearance to the learners and educators about the performance of the students in the respective
subjects
 To work upon the weakness
 Determine the effort of students in studies
 Motivate the student s to perform better

Four Major Roles

 Evaluation
 Communication
 Motivation
 Organisation

Advantages

• Determination of weakness and strengths

• Low score pressure
• Simplifies learning
• Pattern of grading
• Classification of students
• Parent attention

Disadvantages

• Decreased performance
• Accuracy in results
• Decreased competition
• Demotivating
• Increased lethargy

Types of Grading

Direct Grading: It is the process by which any given phenomenon (e.g. achievements, personality traits,
physical abilities etc.) with respects to each individual of the group concerned, is adjudged by evaluator in
terms of the most appropriate letter grade only (A, B, C.....). without assigning scores.
Indirect Grading:

 It is the process of awarding grades through marks.

 In this procedure marks are first awarded as usual.
 The marks are awarded to the individual question on the basis or the prescribed marking scheme and
the total score for the paper being evaluated.
 Then conversion of marks into grades, is to be done in two ways (i)absolute and (ii) relative.

 Absolute grading:

 Some fixed range of scores is determined in advance for each grade.

 The score obtained by a candidate in a subject is converted to the grade concerned.
 It is a type of criterion referenced grading.

 Relative grading:

 The grade range is not fixed.

 It can vary in tune with the relative position of the candidates in the group.

Grade Point Average

 GPA stands for the Grade Point Average.

 It is a method to find out the student's average grade in a specific time period i.e, in one semester/six
months.
 It is calculated by dividing the total points earned by the total credit attempted where total points find
out by multiplying the grade value to the credit attended and total credit attempted is the sum of all the
credits attempted.

Cumulative Grade Point Average

 CGPA stands for the Cumulative Grade Point Average.

 It is a method to find out the overall performance of the candidate throughout the year.
 It is calculated by adding up the grades of all subjects and divided it by the total credit of the course