Name: Navya Goel Roll Number: 22/HIS/36
Paper: Media, Culture and Society (GEC- Sociology) Submission: Internal Assessment-
Assignment
Date of Submission: 27th February 2025
Women, Feminism and Media- Introduction: thinking women/media/feminism
-Sue Thornham
Main themes, concepts and arguments
The 21st century has seen a huge increase in feminist scholarship especially in cultural
and critical studies, while not all this scholarship is accurate or unproblematic, its
existence indicates progress, nonetheless. This influx had begun in the last few decades
of the previous century and works titled “Women and….” were popular, for instance, Ann
Kaplan’s book ‘Women and Film’ (1983), Helen Baehr’s book ‘Women and Media’ (1980)
etc. The aim of this wording was to show the important and pervasive role women played
in already existing fields. This line of thought had its roots in the politics of feminism and
not entirely in academic contexts as one might assume. The manifesto of the journal
‘Women and Film’ (1972) made its position clear as being part of the women's movement
as it enumerated the threefold oppression women underwent within film, that is, as
underappreciated workers, as objectified images and as gender minorities in the field.
These roots in the Women’s Liberation Movement makes politicized intellectual women
the spokesperson for all women.
However, the issue with this phrasing is that it assumes a monolithic identity of all
women, all of whom are equally misrepresented and oppressed under a singular system
of patriarchy. This ignores intersectional identities of race, ethnicity, economic
background, age, caste etc. Feminist writers found comfort in the ‘Women and…’
framework, as it allowed them to include female experiences by ‘carving out’ spaces in
existing disciplines and ‘extending methodologies’ rather than starting completely from
scratch. However, the absence of theoretical frameworks pertaining to women,
feminism, and patriarchy meant twice the work for these scholars, all within an
atmosphere where feminist and women’s studies were considered inherently
unimportant.
Through a comparison between Kaplan’s preface (1983) and the editor’s introduction in
to ‘Feminist Media Studies’ (2001), Thornham points to the shift in terminology from
‘woman’ to ‘feminist’. The term woman had become increasingly problematic not only
due to uncommon experiences withing this seemingly homogenous group, but also at
risk of cultural imperialism because of the dominance of white women in the field.
Additionally, while a ‘woman’ is almost always referred to in relation to a ‘man’, the term
‘feminist’ gives the image of a certain agency and camaraderie, and not necessarily
uniformity.
One of the roles feminists have played is to bust the stereotypical conceptions of the
‘feminine’ (nurturing, maternal, submissive) as ‘uninhabitable’ as put by Beverly Skeggs.
The revelation of traditional femininity as alien and unrealistic broadened the role of
women while parallelly broadening the field of scholarship on women. The evolution of
the ‘feminist identity’ was in opposition to those who considered the feminist movement
‘dead’ after women gained voting rights. Thornham says that Cellestine Ware’s
statement of a feminist ‘renaissance’ was “performative” in the sense that it made
feminism a political position with a traceable history. These ‘new feminists’ of the late
20th century had legitimized and re-affirmed this identity for themselves.
Writing in 2007, with access to copious amounts of feminist works, Thornham’s first point
of discussion is the relationship between women and media. Early work focused much on
the images of women in advertising cinema television magazines novels etc.
Stereotypical images of women and how they should look positioned them as a
commodity. However, there was a certain depth in this scholarship as it also tried to
explore how ‘ideologies of femininity’ are produced in media through these images.
There was an attempt to explore the complex contradictions of these images as on the
one hand women enjoyed seeing themselves represented as central characters on
daytime television, in romantic comedies etc. but were simultaneously restricted by
these very representations.
When talking about the process of production and consumption of these images, it is
clear that men are in charge of what ideas must be conveyed and how, leading to an
undeniably patriarchal structure. With jobs for women in film being restricted to low
status profiles, their negligible presence in decision making forums and straight up
exclusion from certain jobs- they are valued primarily as consumers and not producers.
Terry Lovell’s paper on soap operas (1977) put forth how male producers created female-
oriented soap operas with contempt and hence produced conceptions of women purely
from a male lens. Similarly, Hobson’s analysis of a soap opera in the 1970s and her
subsequent study on the subject (1983) shows how soap opera viewing enabled women
to introspect on their gendered but unique position in society, with every woman
interpreting the soap opera in their own way. Notably, producers of these soap operas
see their own creations as an insult to their artistic integrity. While there have been
studies on the employment of women in media, an overwhelming amount of work
focuses on women as audiences. However, this audience is not a group that uncritically
absorbs these ‘uninhabitable’ feminine stereotypes but rather sees such media as
forums to negotiate their position and image in society.
The way a woman interprets a particular piece of media, is just as important as the
media itself and even differentiates between a ‘woman’ and a ‘feminist’. Janice Radway’s
study of romantic fiction (1984, 1987) presents a contradiction where the fantasies in
these narratives reinforce patriarchal structures, but the act of reading itself gives the
woman a sense of agency. In this context, a distinction is made between the feminist
who understands the liberation in reading romantic fiction, and the woman who does not.
Other scholars like Ien Ang (1985) have focused on the common feelings that viewers of
a particular soap opera experience rather than their shared understanding of the world.
The ‘shared pleasure’ and ‘collective fantasy’ derived from such viewing is seen as
“potentially liberatory”.
The gendering of culture is a very visible form of patriarchy and is expressed either
through erasure or exclusion of women or attributing any female dominant medium or
genre as inferior. The distinction between high culture and low culture as seen in the
masculine characteristic of the Enlightenment, the sidelining of female artists in the 19th
century to portraiture and still life etc. This distinction does not merely reinforce existing
social divisions but instead constructs ideas of femininity aligning it with frivolity and
incompetence.
Mass culture is largely seen as feminine with characteristics like a seductive, engulfing
and uncontrollable nature being used to describe both. Andreas Huyssen argues that
mass culture is seen as both a seductive lure and a dangerous force that leads to passive
consumption rather than active production. In response to this, male critics have tried to
make a space in media defined by individuality, authorship and critical distance. These
‘male’ characteristics bringing detachment and irony to female subjects are seen as
having imbued their depictions with seriousness and artistic integrity. In this way male
produced media becomes high culture, while mass culture (consumed by women) is
looked down upon.
Angela McRobbie (2004) suggests that the year 1990 marked a shift in the perception of
feminism with theoretical feminism and popular feminism diverging from each other.
Many changes occurred in the relationship between women and media, the primary
concern of Thornham. For instance, women's genres became less feminine by giving
space to men through hybrid dramas and the emergence of docu-soaps which blurred
the boundary of the domestic and the public.
1990s onwards, the emergence of a post-feminism heroine led to the appearance of a
new “female individualism” as McRobbie calls it. This individualism is asserted in contrast
to the ‘old feminism’ and focuses on characteristics like individualism, sophistication, and
choice. Increasingly, feminism itself began to be seen as belonging to the past and
though newer media like advertising and popular dramas dealt with feminist issues, their
take was more ambivalent. The post-feminist, post-traditionalist ‘ordinary woman’ was
identified by freedom and choice, choosing to align of diverge from feminism in a way
she sees fit.
Within feminist discourse post feminism was seen as a way to bridge the gap that had
come about between the feminist subject and the ordinary woman and hence post
feminism was explored by many critics and theorists. Many like Ann Brooks defined it as
an intersection of feminism with postmodernism post structuralism and post colonialism
however this may not be an accurate reflection of post feminism. While branches like
postcolonial feminism retain a feminist identity, post feminism basically relegates it to
the position of the ‘other’ as put by Susan Bordo who borrows from the idea of Simone
de Beauvoir. While media representations do show evolution in portraying gender
identities and relations, these don't necessarily reflect real changes in power dynamics
or a greater choice for women, especially marginalized women. This relegation of
feminism due to the emergence of post feminism may even serve as a mechanism of
regulation rather than liberation because this farce of choice and self-improvement in
newer media representations masks the constraints and pressures that are still felt by
women.
Thornham sees the emergence of post feminism as potentially dangerous and so she
introduces alternatives to how feminism can be adapted to contemporary issues facing
women. Instead of assuming that feminism is outdated, it is necessary to recognize the
existence of gender inequality and to actively challenge them. One key alternative is
embodied feminism, which emphasizes that gender is not just a social construct but
something that is lived and experienced through the body. Thinkers like Rosi Braidotti
and Christine Battersby argue that being a woman means navigating real inequalities
that shape identity. This challenges post-feminist ideas that suggest women are now
"free" and that feminism is no longer needed. Another approach is feminism as an
ongoing process of identity formation. Teresa de Lauretis describes identity as something
we continuously learn and reshape throughout life. Instead of seeing gender as fixed or
irrelevant (as post-feminism often does), this view suggests that we develop our
identities in response to culture, history, and personal experience. A third alternative is
feminism that emphasizes agency within power structures. While social and cultural
forces influence how women are treated, theorists like Judith Butler argue that
individuals are not completely powerless. Women can resist and challenge dominant
ideas, even while existing within systems of power. This contrasts with post-feminist
narratives that focus on "choice" but ignore how choices are shaped by deep-rooted
inequalities. Narrative feminism as explained by Adriana Cavarero and Stuart Hall give
importance to the stories women tell about themselves and the broader cultural
narratives around them. Media and popular culture play a crucial role in defining what it
means to be a woman, and so feminist critique must examine how these narratives
either reinforce or challenge traditional gender roles which will give us more insight into
how a sense of self is formed.
Critical Analysis and Understanding
While Thornham provides a thorough exploration of the relationship between women,
media, and feminism, one significant limitation in her discussion is the absence of
political developments when tracing the evolution of feminist representation in media.
The kind of media being produced is deeply influenced by the socio-political climate, and
ignoring this aspect makes the analysis somewhat incomplete. Society and politics
cannot be looked at in isolation from each other, as shifts in governance, policy, and
public discourse directly impact the themes, funding, and accessibility of feminist
narratives in media. For instance, moments of conservative political resurgence often
coincide with a backlash against feminist progress in media, whereas more progressive
eras tend to foster greater inclusivity and representation.
However, Thornham’s critique of post-feminism as potentially harmful is particularly eye-
opening. The relegation of feminism to the past can create an illusion of equality while
masking the real inequalities that persist. This is an especially valid concern in an era
where feminism is often dismissed as unnecessary, despite the continued struggles
faced by women, particularly those from marginalized backgrounds. Post-feminism’s
emphasis on individual choice risks overlooking the systemic barriers that continue to
shape these choices, making it a tool of regulation rather than liberation.
Another striking observation in Thornham’s work is the historical contempt towards soap
operas and other female-oriented media, which still resonates today. The marginalization
of women in the film and media industry is evident in the underrepresentation of female
directors in award shows and the way films created by women are often categorized as
emotional or romantic rather than serious cinema. Even today, productions by women
struggle for recognition, while films like Interstellar, Inception, and Dune are upheld as
the pinnacle of cinematic achievement. This devaluation of women’s creative work
reinforces the patriarchal distinction between "high culture" and "low culture," where
male-dominated genres are seen as artistic and intellectual, while female-dominated
ones are dismissed as trivial or commercial.
Also, while Thornham effectively critiques patriarchal media structures, she does not
deeply talk about the role of female creators and their agency within these systems. The
text speaks more of women as audience and fails to address their role as producers.
Women in media are not merely passive consumers or victims of patriarchy; many are
actively challenging these norms through independent cinema, digital content creation,
and alternative media platforms. The emergence of feminist media collectives, self-
published works, and grassroots filmmaking movements demonstrates that while
mainstream media remains exclusionary, women have found ways to navigate and
subvert these structures.
