RESEARCH ETHICS  Participants were led to believe they were

Module 2 shocking another person… this were likely

Lesson 1: What is ETHICS? disturbing to them.
What is Research Ethics?  Participants experienced considerable stress as
RESEARCH ETHICS the experiment continued
•The application of moral rules and  Participants’ attempts to withdraw from the
professional codes of conduct to the collection, study were discouraged by the experimenter’s
analysis, reporting, and publication of insistence that they continue.
information about research subjects, in  1974- US Congress passed the National
particular active acceptance of subjects' right to Research Act
privacy, confidentiality, and informed consent  3.The Belmont Report - This report defined
(encyclopedia.com, 2019). the principles and applications that have guided
more detailed regulations developed by the
HISTORICAL CONTEXT OF American Psychological Association and other
CURRENT ETHICAL STANDARDS professional societies and U.S. federal
1. The Nuremberg Code regulations that apply to both medical and
2. Declaration of Helsinki behavioral research investigations.
3. Belmont Report Three (3) Basic Ethical Principles of the
1947- Nuremberg Trials were held to hear Belmont Report:
evidence against the Nazi doctors and scientists 1. Beneficence —research should confer
who had committed atrocities while forcing benefits and risks must be minimal.
concentration camp inmates to be research 2. Respect for persons (autonomy)—
subjects. participants are treated as autonomous; they
1. Nuremberg Code- a set of 10 rules of are capable of making deliberate decisions
research conduct that would help prevent about whether to participate in research.
future research atrocities. 3. Justice—there must be fairness in receiving
2. Declaration of Helsinki - Developed by the the benefits of research as well as bearing the
World Medical Association in 1964. burdens of accepting risks.
 This document is a broader application of the
Nuremberg that was produced by the medical Institutional Review Board (IRB)
community and included a requirement that • Institutional Review Board (IRB) is a group of
journal editors ensure that published research experts specialized in a particular field that
conform to the principles of the Declaration. reviews and studies research proposals to
Milgram Experiment safeguard the rights and security of the human
THE TASK and animal subjects. They have also the
 Memory Test authority to decide whether proposed research
 If a mistake was made, the teacher was told to will be approved or not base on ethical
give electric shock to learner standards.
 Rising by 15 volts each mistake from 15 volts to  Institutional Animal Care and Use
450 volts (fatal) Committee (IACUC)
FINDINGS  Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee
 Ordinary people are likely to follow orders (IACUC) is responsible for evaluating animal
given by authority figure, even to the extent of research before it can be conducted. In
killing an innocent human being. studying research proposals, this group of
experts always consider alternatives before
ETHICAL ISSUES OF THE MILGRAM STUDY approving any animal experimentation.
 Participants were mislead as to the purpose
of the study.  PAP ETHICS CODE
 A confederate posed as another participant. Four (4) Principles
Psychological Association of the Philippines
(PAP)
 PRINCIPLE I- Respect for the Dignity of 4. We respect the rights of research participants
Persons and Peoples should they wish to discontinue their
 Respect for dignity recognizes the inherent participation at any time.
worth of all human beings, regardless of 5. We do not contribute nor engage in research
perceived or real differences in social status, which contravenes international humanitarian
ethnic origin, gender, capacities, or other such law, such as development of methods intended
characteristics. This inherent worth means that to torture persons, development of prohibited
all human beings are worthy of equal moral weapons, or destruction of the environment.
consideration. 6. It is our duty to ask participants about any
 PRINCIPLE II- Competent Caring for the factors that could bring forth potential harm,
Well-Being of Persons and Peoples such as pre-existing medical conditions, and to
 Competent caring for the well-being of persons detect, remove, or correct any foreseeable
and peoples involves working for their benefit undesirable consequences prior to research
and, above all, doing no harm. It includes proper.
maximizing benefits, minimizing potential 7. To ensure that participants’ rights are
harm, and offsetting or correcting harm. protected, we seek independent and sufficient
 PRINCIPLE III- Integrity ethical review of the possible risks our research
 Integrity is based on honesty, and on truthful, may pose to them.
open and accurate communications. It includes
B. INFORMED CONSENT TO RESEARCH
recognizing, monitoring, and managing
1. We do not just ask participants to sign in the
potential biases, multiple relationships, and
consent form; we recognize that informed
other conflicts of interest that could result in
consent happens due to the willingness of the
harm and exploitation of persons or peoples.
participants to work collaboratively with us.
 PRINCIPLE IV- Professional and Scientific
2. We make sure that the consent form is
Responsibilities to Society
translated in language or dialect that the
 As a science and a profession, Psychology has participants understand.
responsibilities to society. These 3. When we conduct research with persons
responsibilities include contributing to the below 18 years of age, we obtain informed
knowledge about human behavior and to assent from them and informed consent from
persons’ understanding of themselves and their parents or legal guardian.
others, and using such knowledge to improve 4. When we conduct research with adult
the condition of individuals, families, groups, participants who have difficulties in
communities, and society. comprehension or communication, we obtain
informed consent from adult family members of
X. RESEARCH the participants and approval from
A. Rights and Dignity of Participants independent advisors.
1. In all aspects, we respect the rights, safeguard 5. When we conduct research with detained
the dignity, and protect and promote the persons, we pay attention to special
welfare of research participants. circumstances which could affect the latter’s
2. Before beginning any research work in a ability to give informed consent.
community not our own or not familiar to us, 6. When obtaining informed consent, it is our
we obtain essential information about their duty to inform research participants about:
mores, culture, social structure, customs, and a. the purpose of research, expected duration
traditions. and procedures
b. mutual responsibilities
c. their right to decline to participate and to
3. We respect and abide by their cultural withdraw from the research once participation
expectations, provided that this does noT has begun
contravene any of the ethical principles of this d. the foreseeable factors
Code of Ethics. e. reasonably foreseeable factors that may be
expected to influence their willingness to
participate such as potential risks, discomfort 2. When research participation is a course
or adverse effects; requirement or an opportunity for extra credit,
f. how to rescind consent if desired; we inform our clients, students or subordinates
g. any prospective research benefits; about equitable alternative activities thatcould
h. protections and limits of confidentiality fulfill their educational or employment goals.
and/or anonymity; D. RESEARCH PARTICIPANTS OF CLIENT,
i. incentives for participation; and, STUDENTS AND SUBORDINATES
j. whom to contact for questions about the 1. When we conduct research with our clients,
research and research participants’ rights. students or subordinates, we do not coerce
We shall provide an opportunity for prospective them to participate, rather, we inform them
participants to ask questions and receive about their right not to participate and we do
answers. not reprimand or penalize them for doing so.
7. When conducting intervention research using 2. When research participation is a course
experimental treatments, it is our duty to clarify requirement or an opportunity for extra credit,
to participants at the beginning of research the we inform our clients, students or subordinates
following: about equitable alternative activities that could
a. experimental nature of the treatment fulfill their educational or employment goals
b. services that will or will not be available to E. DISPENSING WITH INFORMED CONSENT
the control group(s) if appropriate; RESEARCH
c. means by which assignment to treatment and 1. we may dispense informed consent only on
control groups will be made; the following conditions:
d. available treatment alternatives if an a. When we believe that the research would not
individual does not wish to participate in the distress or create harm to participants or
research or wishes to withdraw once a study general welfare or when our study involves:
has begun; and, i. the study or normal educational practices,
e. compensation for or monetary costs of curricular, or classroom management methods
participating, and if appropriate, including conducted in educational settings;
whether reimbursement from the participant or ii. only anonymous questionnaires, naturalistic
a third-party pay or will be sought. observations, or archival research for which
8. In longitudinal research, we may need to disclosure of responses would not place
obtain informed consent on more than one participants at risk of criminal or civil liability
occasion. or damage their financial standing,
C. INFORMED CONSENT FOR RECORDING employability, or reputation, and confidentiality
VOICES AN IMAGES IN RESEARCH is protected;
1.It is our duty to obtain informed consent from iii. the study of factors related to job or
research participants before recording their organization effectiveness conducted in
voices or images for data collection, except organizational settings which would not affect
when: the participants’ employability, and
a.the research consists only of naturalistic confidentiality is protected; or,
observations in public places, and it is not b. when it is mandated by law or is an
anticipated that the recording will be used in a institutional regulation.
manner that could cause personal identification F. OFFERNG INDUCEMENTS FOR RESEARCH
or harm; and, PARTICIPATION
b. the research design includes deception, and 1. We may fairly compensate participants for
consent for the use of the recording is obtained the use of their time, energy, and knowledge,
during debriefing. unless such compensation is refused in
1. When we conduct research with our clients, advance.
students or subordinates, we do not coerce 2. We make reasonable efforts not to offer
them to participate, rather, we inform them undue, excessive or, inappropriate reward,
about their right not to participate and we do financial or other inducements for research
not reprimand or penalize them for doing so. participation, which could likely pressure or
coerce participation.
3. When we offer psychological and their request. The participants have the right to
professional services as an incentive for appeal that their own data, including
research participation, it is our duty to clarify recordings, be destroyed.
the nature of the services, including the risks, I. OBSERVATIONAL RESEARCH
obligations and limitations. We respect the privacy and psychological well-
G. DECEPTION IN RESEARCH being of persons studied based on
1. We refrain from conducting research observational research. This method is
involving deception, except: acceptable only when those being observed
a. when we have determined that the use of would expect to be observed by strangers.
deceptive techniques is justified by the study’s J. HUMANE CARE AND USE OF ANIMALS IN
significant prospective scientific, educational, RESEARCH
medical, or applied value; and, 1. We do not use animals in research, except
b. when effective non-deceptive alternative when there is a sufficient reason to say that it is
procedures are not possible. the only way to:
2. We do not deceive prospective research a. further increase understanding of the
participants about our study that is reasonably structures and processes underlying human or
expected to interfere their decision to give animal behavior;
informed consent. b. increase understanding of the specific specie
3. It is our duty to explain any deception as an used in the study; or
integral feature of design and conduct of an c. eventually augment benefits to the health and
experiment to those who participated in welfare of humans or other animals.
research as soon as possible, preferably at the 2. We comply with current laws, regulations
end of their participation but not later than the and professional standards when we acquire,
end of data gathering. care for, use, and dispose animals used in
H. DEBRIEFING research.
1. We debrief by informing the participants that 3. We take reasonable steps to ensure that
they have contributed to the body of knowledge animals used in research are treated humanely
and we make sure that they have also learned and are not exposed to unnecessary discomfort,
from their participation. pain, or disruption. If possible, a psychologist
2. We give participants an opportunity to obtain trained in research methods and experience in
the nature, results, and conclusions of the care of laboratory animals shall supervise all
research. We also take reasonable steps to procedures in researches of this kind.
correct any misconceptions participants have 4. We make sure that all individuals under our
about our research, especially when the supervision have received clear instructions
participants were led to believe that the and guidelines in research methods and in care,
research has a different purpose. maintenance, and handling of animals or
3. When participants’ trust may have been lost specific species being used, to the extent that is
due to incomplete disclosure or temporarily appropriate to their role.
leading participants to believe that the research 5. We use a procedure causing pain, stress, and
had a different purpose, we seek to reestablish privation to animals only when:
trust and assure them that the research a. an alternative procedure is unavailable;
procedures were carefully structured and b. the goal is justified by its prospective
necessary for scientifically valid findings. scientific, educational, or applied value; and,
c. we make reasonable efforts to minimize the
4. If scientific or humane values justify delaying discomfort, infection, illness, and pain of animal
or withholding this information, we take subjects.
reasonable measures to reduce the risk of harm. 6. We perform surgical procedures with
5. When we become aware that our research appropriate anesthesia and we follow
procedures have harmed a participant, we act techniques to avoid infection and minimize the
to correct and minimize the harm. pain during and after surgery.
6. If after debriefing, the participants decided to 7. Only when it is appropriate that an animal’s
withdraw their data, we shall respect and grant life be terminated, then we proceed rapidly,
with an effort to minimize pain and in student’s thesis or dissertation, we credit the
accordance with accepted procedures. student with primary authorship.
K. REPORTING RESEARCH RESULTS N. Duplicate Publication of Data
1. Whenever feasible and appropriate, we We do not publish data that have been
consult with groups, organizations, or previously published and claim them as original
communities being studied the findings of our data. However, this does not prohibit
research so as to increase the accuracy of republishing of data as long as proper
interpretation and to minimize the risk of acknowledgement is clearly stated.
misunderstanding, misinterpretation or misuse. O. SHARING RESEARCH DATA FOR
2. We are cautious when reporting results of VERIFICATION
our research regarding vulnerable groups or It is our duty to share and not to withhold our
communities and we ensure that the results will data to other competent professionals, who
not be misinterpreted or misused in the seek to verify and reanalyze the research
development of social policy, attitude, and results and substantive claims of our
practices. publication, provided that:
3. In research involving children, we are 1. the latter obtain prior written agreement for
cautious when discussing the results with the use of data;
parents, legal guardians, or teachers and we 2. the latter intend to use the data solely for the
make sure that there is no misinterpretation or purpose declared;
misunderstanding. 3. the latter will hold responsibility for costs
4. We do not fabricate data. associated with the release of data; and,
5. If we discover significant errors in our 4. confidentiality of participants can be
published data, we act quickly to correct such protected.
errors in a correction, retraction, erratum, or Unless legal rights concerning proprietary data
other appropriate publication means. preclude such release, then the latter should
L. PLAGIARISM seek permission from the concerned institution,
We do not present any portions of other’s work organization or agency.
or data as our own, even if the source is cited
occasionally. P. REVIEWERS
M. PUBLICATION CREDIT When we review material submitted for
1. We take responsibility and credit only for presentation, publication, grant, or research
work we have actually done and credit others proposal review, we respect the confidentiality
(including students and research assistants) for and the proprietary rights of those who
work they have actually performed or to which submitted it.
they have substantially contributed. Q. LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY
2. We ensure that principal authorship and co- 1. We acknowledge the limitations of our
authorship accurately reflect the relative knowledge, methods, findings, interventions,
scientific or professional contributions of the interpretations, and conclusions.
individuals involved, regardless of their relative 2. In cases wherein our research touches on
status. social policies and structures of communities
3. We do not claim credit or authorship in a which we do not belong, we thoroughly discuss
publication that is substantially based on our the limits of our data with respect to their social
student’s thesis or dissertation if we do not policy.
have substantial contributions to the research 3. We do not conceal disconfirming evidence
beyond our regular duties as about our findings and views and we
thesis/dissertation mentor or advisor. acknowledge alternative hypotheses and
4. In a multiple-authored article that is partly explanations.
and/or substantially based on the student’s
thesis or dissertation, we shall give appropriate
publication credit to the student based on the APA GUIDELINES IN RESEARCH
student’s contribution relative to the other MODULE 3 LESSON 1
authors. When the article is mainly based on the Writing a Research Proposal
 Question: The basic purpose of a good research proposal
is to provide three kinds of information about
•What is the difference between Research the research study:
Proposal and Research Report? 1. “What will be done.” The proposal should
describe in some detail the step-by-step process
Research Proposal Vs. Research Report you will follow to complete the research
RESEARCH PROPOSAL RESEARCH REPORT project.
Describes what the Describes what the 2. “What may be found.” The proposal should
researcher intends to do researcher has done, why contain an objective description of the possible
and why he intends to he has done it, and the outcomes. Typically, this involves a description
do it results he has achieved
of the measurements that will be taken and the
Written at the beginning Completed after the
before the research completion of the whole statistical methods that will be used to
project actually begins research project summarize and interpret those measurements.
Contain sections such as Contains section such as 3. “How your planned research study is related to
introduction/backgroun introduction/background, other knowledge in the area.” The research
d, literature review, literature review, research proposal should show the connections between
research questions, questions, methodology, the planned study and past knowledge.
methodology, aims and aims and objectives,
How to Write a Research Proposal
objectives findings, analysis, results,
conclusion, In a research proposal, always use the future
recommendations and tense when you describe your study. You will
citations. need to do this (1) at the end of the
Shorter in length Longer than research introduction when you introduce your study
proposals (e.g., “The purpose of this study will be”), (2) in
“Research Proposal” the method section (e.g., “The participants will
A research proposal is a written report be” or “Participants will complete”), and (3) in
presenting the plan and underlying rationale of the results/discussion (e.g., “It is expected that
a future research study. A proposal includes a the scores will increase”).
review of the relevant background literature, an Content of Research Proposal
explanation of how the proposed study is The content of each part of the manuscript body
related to other knowledge in the area, a is identical, with these exceptions.
description of how the planned research will be 1. An abstract is optional in a research proposal.
conducted, and a description of the possible 2. The literature review in the introduction is
results typically more extensive than the review in a
Why Write a Research Proposal? research report.
Research proposals are commonly used in the 3. The results and discussion sections are
following situations. typically replaced either by a combined
 Researchers submit research proposals to Results/Discussion section, or a section entitled
government and local funding agencies to Expected Results and Statistical Analysis or
obtain financial support for their research. Data Analysis and Expected Results.
 Researchers develop proposals for their own Regardless of its heading, this final section of
use to help develop and refine their thinking, the body of the research proposal should
and to remind themselves to attend to details describe (1) how the data will be collected and
they might otherwise overlook. analyzed, (2) the expected or anticipated
 Undergraduate honors thesis students and results, (3) other plausible outcomes, and (4)
graduate students submit proposals to their implications of the expected results.
thesis and dissertation committees for
approval. Writing a Research Report
 Undergraduate students are asked to write “Research Report”
research proposals for the purposes of research A “research report” is a written description of a
methods classes (even when they are not research study that includes a clear statement
required to conduct the actual study). of the purpose of the research, a review of the
Purpose of Research Proposal relevant background literature that led to the
research study, a description of the methods event did not occur at a specific time or is
used to conduct the research, a summary of the continuing into the present, use the present
research results, and a discussion and perfect tense (“Several studies have
interpretation of the results. demonstrated”). When you present your
Question: results, always use the past tense (“the scores
•What is the purpose of Research Report? increased”). After you have described the study
Communication and presented the results, switch to the present
The basic purpose of a good research report tense to discuss the results and your
is to provide three kinds of information conclusions (“the data suggest”).
about the research study. 3. “Reducing Biased Language” - when
1. “What was done.” The report should describe describing or discussing characteristics of
in some detail the step-by-step process you participants, avoid implying bias against people
followed to complete the research project. on the basis of gender, sexual orientation, racial
2. “What was found.” The report should contain or ethnic group, disability, or age. The
an objective description of the outcome. Publication Manual gives three guidelines for
Typically, this involves the measurements that avoiding biased language:
were taken, and the statistical summary and • describe people with a level of specificity that
interpretation of those measurements. is accurate (e.g., Korean American instead of
3. “How your research study is related to other Asian American).
knowledge in the area.” A good research study • be sensitive to labels (e.g., the elderly instead
does not stand alone, but rather grows out of an of older adults)
existing body of knowledge and adds to that • acknowledge people’s participation in your
body of knowledge. The research report should study (e.g., the students completed the survey
show the connections between the present instead of the participants were run in the
study and past knowledge. study)
The Goal of a Research Report 4. “Citations” - identifies the author(s) and the
Question: year of publication of the source of a specific
•What is the goal of Research Report? fact or idea mentioned in a research report. The
“SCIENCE IS PUBLIC”- your research is not citation provides enough information for a
finished until you have made it available to the reader to locate the full reference in the list of
rest of the scientific community. references at the end of the report. Whenever
Publication Manual of the American you assert a fact that may not be common
Psychological Association knowledge or refer to a previous research
APA style is used by many publications finding, you must provide a citation that
throughout the behavioral sciences; identifies your source. Citation of a source
however, it is not universal. means that you read the cited work.
General APA Guidelines for Writing Style e.g., Previous research has shown that response
and Format to an auditory stimulus is much faster than
The goal of the Publication Manual is to response to a visual stimulus (Smith & Jones,
establish a standardized style and format for 2016). or Smith and Jones (2016) found that…
scientific reports so that readers will know
exactly where to find specific information With multiple authors, note that an ampersand
within a report and will not be distracted by (the symbol “&”) is used before the last author’s
tangential topics or personalized writing styles name when you cite your source in parentheses.
Some Elements of Writing Style Also note that the word “and” is used before the
1. “Impersonal Style” - should be written in an last author’s name when your source is the
objective style. Your goal is to provide a clear subject of your sentence. A few additional
and concise report of the research study and its commonly used citation rules include the
results. following:
2. “Verb Tense” - When describing or discussing 1.When a publication has one or two authors,
past events that occurred at a specific time, use you cite all the author’s last names and the date
the past tense (e.g., “They demonstrated”). If the every time you refer to this item in your text.
2. When a publication has three to five authors, In addition, uniform spacing makes it possible
you cite all of the author’s last names and the for editors to estimate the length of a printed
date the first time you refer to this item in your article from the number of pages in a
text. In subsequent citations, you only include manuscript.
the first author’s last name followed by “et al.” Manuscript Pages
and the date.  “Title Page:” Title, author’s name and affiliation,
First time cited in text: and the author note. Page 1.
It has been found that word recall decreases as  “Abstract:” A brief summary of the research
a function of age (Jones, Smith, & Brown, 2014). report. Page 2.
or  “Text:” This is the body of the research report
In a related study, Jones, Smith, and Brown (containing four sections: introduction, method,
(2014) found that… results, and discussion) beginning on page 3.
Subsequent times cited in text:  “References:” Listed together, starting on a new
It has also been found that word recognition page.
decreases as a function of age (Jones et al.,  “Tables:” Each table starts on a new page.
2014). Or  “Figures:” Each figure starts on a new page and
Jones et al. (2014) found that… includes a caption on the same page.
3. When a publication has six or more authors,  “Appendices (if any):” Each appendix starts on a
you only include the first author’s last name new page.
followed by “et al.” and the date for the first and The Elements of an APA-Style Research
subsequent citations. Report
4. When you are citing more than one Title Page Result
publication within the same parentheses, you Abstract Discussion
list them in alphabetical order by the first Introduction References
authors’ last names and separate the items with Method
a semicolon. For example,
e.g., Several studies (Jones, Smith, & Brown,
2014; Smith & Jones, 2016) found that…
It is also customary to distinguish between MODULE 3 LESSON 2
citations of empirical results and citations of Title and Introduction
theory or interpretation. Identifying a Topic Area
5. To report an empirical result, for example, First Step of the Research Process
you could use: Jones (2017) demonstrated… 1. You need to identify a general topic area that
6. To cite a theory or speculation, for example, is interesting to you.
you might use: Jones (2017) argued… 2. You must explore previous research in that
Guidelines for Typing or Word Processing topic area to find a specific research idea or
The general APA guidelines require that a question.
manuscript be double-spaced (with the Common Sources of Research Topics
exception that tables and figures may be single- 1. Personal Interests and Curiosities
spaced) with at least a 1" margin on all sides Feel free to look for research topics based on
(8½ x 11" page). In addition, the text should your own interests and concerns. What
have a straight left-hand margin but an uneven interests you? What makes you curious? One
or ragged right-hand margin without way to find out is to think about the courses you
hyphenation, (breaking words at the ends of have taken. Which courses were your favorites?
lines). Indent the first line of each paragraph, Within courses, what were your favorite units
five to seven spaces; indentation should be or classes? Think about the people and
consistent throughout the manuscript. For APA behaviors that interest you. Think about the
publications, the preferred typeface is 12-point issues that concern you.
Times New Roman. This uniform format serves There are several different ways to define an
several purposes. First, it ensures a lot of blank interest area. Here are a few possibilities:
space on every page to allow editors, reviewers,
or professors to make comments or corrections.
 A particular population or group of individuals; 1. You need to identify a general topic area that
for example, elementary school children, dogs, is interesting to you.
single-parent families, caretakers, or police 2. You must explore previous research in that
officers topic area to find a specific research idea or
 A particular behavior; for example, bullying, question
adolescent drug use, math anxiety, honesty, Writing the Introduction
overeating, or meditation  The Introduction section describes for the
 A general topic; for example, autism, reader the problem under investigation and
depression, workplace stress, child abuse, presents a background context in which the
aging, personality, learning, or motivation problem can be understood.
2. Casual Observation  The author discusses aspects of the existing
Watching the behavior of people or animals you research literature that pertain to the study—
encounter daily can be an excellent source of not an exhaustive review of all research that
topics. If you simply watch, you will see people has been conducted on the topic but rather a
getting angry, laughing at jokes, lying, insulting selective review of previous work that deals
each other, forming friendships and specifically with the topic under investigation.
relationships, eating, sleeping, learning, and  When reviewing previous research, write in the
forgetting. In addition, you can monitor your past tense.
own behavior, attitudes, and emotions. Any  After addressing the problem and presenting
behavior that attracts your attention and previous research, discuss the purpose and
arouses your curiosity can become a good rationale of your research. Typically, this is
research topic. done by explicitly stating the goals of the study
3. Reports of Others’ Observations or describing the hypotheses that were tested.
These can include informal sources, such as  The introduction should proceed in an
news reports of current events, reports of organized and orderly fashion. You are
recent research results, or even topics presenting, systematically and logically, the
introduced in novels and television programs. conceptual background that provides a
Research topics do not come exclusively from rationale for your particular study. In essence,
serious reports. Gossip columns, personal ads, you are building a case for why your study was
comics, political cartoons, and advertising can conducted and what you expected to find.
stimulate research questions.  After writing the introduction, ask yourself:
You are even more likely to find a good research  Did I adequately orient the reader to the
topic from your academic courses and the purpose of the study and explain why it is
associated textbooks and readings. important?
4. Practical Problems or Questions  Did I review the literature adequately, using
Occasionally, topics for research will arise from appropriate,accurate, and complete citations?
practical problems or questions you encounter  Did I deal with both theoretical and empirical
in your daily life, such as issues from your job, issues relevant to the topic?
your family relationships, your schoolwork,  Did I clearly state the research question or
orelsewhere in the world around you. hypothesis?
Research that is directed toward solving Writing Literature Review
practical problems is often classified as applied Searching the Existing Research Literature in
research; in contrast, studies that are intended a Topic Area
to solve theoretical issues are classified as basic  The next part of Step 1 in the research process
research. is to review the published research reports in
5. Behavioral Theories the area to gather background information on
Watch for theories that offer explanations for the topic you have identified. In particular, your
behavior or try to explain why different goal is to find a specific research idea or
environmental factors lead to different question.
behaviors.  A great analogy for the process of finding a
Review Review Review!!! research idea from a review of the existing
 literature is to consider what happens when huge number of books and journal articles
you enter a conversation that has already containing relevant background information.
started (Burke, 1974). Imagine for a moment Two points in conducting literature search
that you are late coming into a party. Many are  You do not need to know everything about a
already paired or in small groups chatting. topic, and you certainly do not need to read
Upon entering one of these groups, it is in your everything about a topic before you begin
best interest to listen for a bit and determine research. You should read enough to gain a
what is the topic of conversation, what is solid, basic understanding of the current
currently being discussed, what do you surmise knowledge in an area, and this is fairly easy to
others have already said on these issues, what attain.
questions do you have, and what can you  You will quickly narrow your research topic
contribute to this conversation. from a general area to a very specific idea.
 Research ideas do not develop in isolation or 2. Keep an Open Mind
simply pop up out of the blue. First we need to Begin with a general topic area and then let
get up to speed—We first have to go on a your background reading lead you to a more
“listening tour.” What is the “conversation in specific idea. As you read or skim through
the discipline”? What questions have already material, look for items that capture your
been asked and answered? Where are the gaps attention; then follow those leads. You need not
in the “conversation”? What is still unknown? In start with a specific research idea in mind. In
order to eventually find a research idea, we fact, beginning with a specific, preconceived
must start by “getting in on the conversation.” research idea can be a mistake; you may find
 There are two purposes to reviewing the that your specific question has already been
literature, to gain general knowledge, that is, answered, or you might have difficulty finding
get up-to-date (listen), and to find gaps in the information that is relevant to your
literature (identify where you can contribute to preconceived notion.
the conversation of research!). 3. Focus, Focus, Focus
 Often, the authors of a research report literally Developing a single, specific research idea is
give you ideas for new research. It is very largely a weeding-out process. You probably
common for researchers to include suggestions will find that 1 hour of reading leads you to a
for future research in the discussion of their dozen legitimate research ideas. It is unlikely
results. You are welcome to turn one of these that you can answer a dozen questions with one
suggestions into a research question. research study, so you will have to throw out
There are hundreds of research journals and most of your ideas (at least temporarily). Your
thousands of books devoted just to the field the goal is to develop one research question and to
field of psychology and thousands more for the find the background information that is directly
thousands more for the rest of the behavioral relevant to that question.
sciences. This mass of mass of published 4. Take One Step at a Time
information is published information is referred Like any major project, planning and
to as the referred to as the literature. conducting research can be a long and difficult
process. At the beginning, contemplating the
Tips for Starting a Review of the Literature very end of a research project may lead you to
1. Do Your Homework feel that the task is impossibly large.
Once you have identified a research topic, Remember, you don’t need to do the whole
collecting background information is the next thing at once; just take it one step at a time.
essential step. Typically, this involves reading Primary and Secondary Sources
books and journal articles to familiarizeyourself 1. A primary source is a firsthand report in
with the topic: what is already known, what which the authors describe their own
research has been done, and what questions observations. Some examples of primary
remain unanswered. No matter what topic you sources include (1) empirical journal articles,
select, it will soon become clear that there are a (2) theses and dissertations, and (3) conference
presentations of research results.
 2. A secondary source is a secondhand report in 4. If it still looks relevant, then read the article
which the authors discuss someone else’s carefully and/or make a copy for your personal
observations. Some examples of secondary use.
sources are (1) books and textbooks in which 5. Use the references from the articles that you
the author describes and summarizes past have already found to expand your literature
research, (2) review articles or meta-analyses, search.
(3) the introductory section of research reports, Ending a Literature Search
in which previous research is presented as a Theoretically, you should continue a literature
foundation for the current study, and (4) search until you reach a point at which you no
newspaper and magazine articles that report on longer find any new items. Realistically,
previous research. however, you must decide when to call off the
Conducting a Literature Search search. At some point, you will realize you are
 Make notes of the following items, each of not uncovering new leads and that you should
which can serve as an excellent starting point proceed with the items you have found.
when you begin to search for primary sources Finding an Idea for a Research Study from a
(empirical journal articles) relevant to your Published Research Article
topic:  Find Suggestions for Future Research
Subject words: Make a list of the correct terms, The easiest way to find new research ideas is to
or subject words, used to identify and describe look for them as explicit statements in the
the variables in the study and the journal articles you already have. Near the end
characteristics of the participants. of the discussion section of most research
Author names: Commonly, a small group of reports is a set of suggestions for future
individual researchers is responsible for much research.
of the work being done in a specific area.  Combine or Contrast Existing Results
 Using Online Databases Occasionally, it is possible to find a new
 A typical database contains about 1 million research idea by combining two (or more)
publications, or records, that are all cross- existing results. Another possibility is that two
referenced by subject words and author names. research results seem to contradict each other.
 PsycARTICLES In this case, you could look for factors that
 PsycINFO - APA PsycNET, ProQuest, OvidSP, differentiate the two studies and might be
and EBSCOhost responsible for the different results.
Screening Articles during a Literature The Components of a Research Article—
Search Critical Reading
1. Use the title of the article as your first basis  The introduction discusses previous research
for screening. Based only on the titles, you that forms the foundation for the current
probably can discard about 90% of the articles research study and presents a clear statement
as not directly relevant or interesting. of the problem being investigated. This can help
2. Use the abstract of the article as your second you decide whether the article will be useful in
screening device. If the title sounds interesting, the development of your research idea and may
read the abstract to determine whether the identify previous studies that may also be
article itself is really relevant. Many of the useful.
articles that seemed interesting (from the title)  The method section presents details
get thrown out at this stage. You can find an concerning the participants and the procedures
abstract either in PsycINFO or at the beginning used in the study.
of the article itself.  The results section, which presents the details
3. If you are still interested after looking at the of the statistical analysis and usually is not
title and the abstract, look for a full-text important for generating a new research idea.
library’s system. Once you find the article, first  The discussion begins by summarizing the
skim it, looking specifically at the introductory results of the study, stating the conclusions, and
paragraphs and the discussion section. noting any potential applications
 The reference section lists complete Research Process
references for all items cited in the report. 1. You need to identify a general topic area that
 If you question each element as you are reading is interesting to you.
an article, you should finish with a good 2. You must explore previous research in that
understanding of the study and you probably topic area to find a specific research idea or
will generate some ideas for a new research question
study. 3. Review the published research reports in the
Using a Research Idea to Form a Hypothesis area to gather background information on the
and Create a Research Study topic you have identified.
 The next step in the research process is to 4. Specify how the variables will be defined and
transform your research idea into a hypothesis. measured
In most cases, the research idea says that there 5. Identify the individuals who will participate
is a relationship between two variables and the in the study, describes how they will be
hypothesis specifies the nature of the selected, and provides for their ethical
relationship. If the idea is expressed as a treatment. . . . . . .
research question, then the hypothesis is a
tentative answer to the question.
Example: Visual imagery is related to human
memory. Is there a relationship between using Module 3 Lesson 3
visual images and human memory? (research Methodology
se of visual images is related to Writing the Methodology
better memory performance. (hypothesis)  The Method section describes precisely how the
 Characteristics of a Good Hypothesis study was conducted.
1. Logical - the logical conclusion of a logical  A well-written method allows readers to judge
argument. the adequacy of the procedures that were used
Example: and provides a context for them to interpret the
Premise 1: Academic success is highly valued findings.
and respected in society (at least by parents  A complete description of the method is
and teachers). essential so that readers may assess what a
Premise 2: Being valued and respected by study does and does not demonstrate.
others contributes to high self-esteem.  The method section also allows other
Conclusion (hypothesis): For a specific group of researchers to replicate the study if they wish.
students, higher levels of academic success will PARTICIPANTS
be related to higher levels of self-esteem.  Begin the methods section by reporting sample
2. Testable - is one for which all of the variables, characteristics, sampling procedures, and the
events, and individuals can be defined and sample size.
observed.  The Participants section describes the
3. Refutable - is one that can be demonstrated to participants and how they were selected.
be false. That is, it is possible for the outcome to  Specify all relevant demographic characteristics
be different from the prediction. of your participants. This may include their age,
4. Positive - it must make a positive statement sex, ethnic or racial group, gender identity,
about the existence of something, usually the education level, and socioeconomic status.
existence of a relationship, the existence of a  In many cases, the manner in which the
difference, or the existence of a treatment participants were obtained is also described.
effect. INTRUMENTS
 Using a Hypothesis to Create a Research Study  Write up the tools and techniques that you used
 Step 3 specifies how the variables will be to measure relevant variables. Be as thorough
defined and measured and Step 4 identifies as possible for a complete picture of your
the individuals who will participate in the techniques.
study, describes how they will be selected, and
provides for their ethical treatment.
 Specify all instruments used in gathering these  how participants were assigned to different
measurements and the construct that they conditions (e.g., randomization),
measure.  instructions given to the participants in each
 To cite tests, scales or inventories, reference its group, interventions for each group,
manual or the article it was published in. It’s also  the setting and length of each session(s).
helpful to state the number of items and provide  Describe whether any masking was used to hide
one or two example items. the condition assignment (e.g., placebo or
 For each instrument used, report measures of medication condition) from participants or
the following: research administrators. Using masking in a
 Reliability: how consistently the method multi-group study ensures internal validity by
measures something, in terms of internal reducing bias. Explain how this masking was
consistency or test-retest reliability. applied and whether its effectiveness was
 Validity: how precisely the method measures assessed.
something, in terms of construct or criterion Data diagnostics
validity.  Outline all steps taken to scrutinize or process
PROCEDURE the data after collection.
 The procedure section describes in a step-by-  This includes the following:
step fashion precisely how the study was  procedures for identifying and removing
conducted. outliers,
 Included here is information regarding  data transformations to normalize
instructions to the participants, experimental distributions,
manipulations, all research procedures, and  compensation strategies for overcoming
even the debriefing. missing values.
 The procedure must be presented in sufficient  To ensure high validity, you should provide
detail that another researcher could replicate enough detail for your reader to understand
the study in its essential details. how and why you processed or transformed
Data collection methods and research your raw data in these specific ways.
design Analytic strategies
 Data collection methods refers to the general  The methods section is also where you describe
mode of the instruments: surveys, interviews, your statistical analysis procedures, but not
observations, focus groups, neuroimaging, their outcomes. Their outcomes are reported in
cognitive tests, and so on. Summarize exactly the results section.
how you collected the necessary data.  These procedures should be stated for all
 Describe all procedures you applied in primary, secondary, and exploratory
administering surveys, tests, physical hypotheses. While primary and secondary
recordings, or imaging devices, with enough hypotheses are based on a theoretical
detail so that someone else can replicate your framework or past studies, exploratory
techniques. If your procedures are very hypotheses are guided by the data you’ve just
complicated and require long descriptions (e.g., collected.
in neuroimaging studies), place these details in Evaluating Methodology
supplementary materials. After writing the method section, ask yourself:
 To report research design, note your overall  Did I describe the method adequately and
framework for data collection and analysis. clearly, including all information that would be
State whether you used an experimental, quasi- needed for another investigator to replicate the
experimental, descriptive (observational), study?
correlational, and/or longitudinal design. Also  Did I fully identify the people or animals who
note whether a between-subjects or a within- participated?
subjects design was used.  Did I describe the apparatus and materials
 For multi-group studies, report the following fully?
design and procedural details as well:  Did I report the research procedure fully in a
step-by-step fashion?