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Electrical Circuits: Students will be assessed on their ability to:

understand that electric current is the rate of flow of charged particles and be able to use the equation (I = ΔQ/Δt)

understand how to use the equation V = W/Q.

understand that resistance is defined by R = V/I and that Ohm’s law is a special case when I ∝ V for constant
temperature
(a) understand how the distribution of current in a circuit is a consequence of charge conservation
(b) understand how the distribution of potential differences in a circuit is a consequence of energy conservation
be able to derive the equations for combining resistances in series and parallel using the principles of charge and
energy conservation, and be able to use these equations
be able to use the equations P = VI, W = VIt and be able to derive and use related equations, e.g. P = I2R and P =
V2/R
understand how to sketch, recognize and interpret current-potential difference graphs for components, including
ohmic conductors, filament bulbs, thermistors and diodes.

CORE PRACTICAL 7: Determine the electrical resistivity of a material. Be able to use the equation R = ρl/A

be able to use I = nqvA to explain the large range of resistivities of different materials

understand how the potential along a uniform current-carrying wire varies with the distance along it

understand the principles of a potential divider circuit and understand how to calculate potential differences and
resistances in such a circuit. be able to analyze potential divider circuits where one resistance is variable including
thermistors and light dependent resistors (LDRs)

know the definition of electromotive force (e.m.f.) and understand what is meant by internal resistance and know
how to distinguish between e.m.f. and terminal potential difference

CORE PRACTICAL 8: Determine the e.m.f. and internal resistance of an electrical cell

understand how changes of resistance with temperature may be modelled in terms of lattice vibrations and number
of conduction electrons and understand how to apply this model to metallic conductors and negative temperature
coefficient
thermistors
understand how changes of resistance with illumination may be modelled in terms of the number of conduction
electrons and understand how to apply this model to LDRs.

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• Electric current, potential difference and resistance:

Charge carriers:
 Charge is a property of some particles and is measured in
Coulombs (C).
 Matter is made up of tiny particles called atoms, and each atom
consists of a positively charge nucleus (positively charged
protons and neutrally particles called neutrons) with negatively
charged electrons moving around it.

T he Greek philosopher Thales (600BC) discovered that rubbing the gemstone amber with a cloth caused it to attract small
pieces of dry leaf. The Greek word for amber is elektron, which is the origin of our words 'electron’ and 'electricity'.

Ions, protons and electrons have the property of charge, which gives rise to electrical forces.
Historically, the charge on protons was called positive and that on electrons was designated negative.
if these charges are made to move, an electric current is created.

A solution which conducts is called an electrolyte and it contains both positive and negative ions. Any
charged particles which contribute to an electric current are known as charge carriers; these can be electrons,
protons or ions.

Inside a metal, there are negatively charged electrons which are not bound to any atom but are free to
move within the metal .
We call these electrons conduction or free electrons, because
they are the particles which allow a metal to conduct an
electric current. In a typical metal, such as copper or silver, one
electron from each atom breaks free to become a conduction
electron. The atom remains as a positively charged ion. Since
there are equal numbers of free electrons (negative) and ions
(positive), the metal has no overall charge – it is neutral.

In a metal, conduction electrons are free to move (random motion due to collisions with the ions and the other
electrons in the metal among the fixed positive ions

this free electron moves randomly from atom to atom.

The random motion of all of the free electrons in the
conductor averages out, so there is no net flow of
electrons in any direction.

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Basic electrical quantities:

1- electric current (or, just current)
Current (symbol, I): is the rate of flow of charges (conduction/free electrons) past a point and is
measured in amperes, (symbol, A).
The relationship between charge, current and time may be written as the following word equation:
𝐜𝐡𝐚𝐫𝐠𝐞 𝚫𝐐
Current = , in symbols I= ΔQ: is the charge which flows during a time Δt (s)
𝐭𝐢𝐦𝐞 𝚫𝐭 I: is the electric current.

The ampere is the base unit of electric current and is defined as the movement of one coulombs of
charge per second.
For example: a current of 1 A, the amount of charge passes a point in a circuit is 1 C in a time of 1 s. Similarly, a
current of 2 A gives a charge of 2 C in a time of 1 s. A current of 3 A gives a charge of 3 C in a time of 1 s, and so on.

Note that the ampere and the coulomb are both SI units; the ampere is a base unit while the coulomb
is a derived unit

Note: The ampere is quite a large current, so we often use the units mA (milliampere = 10-3 A) and μA
(microampere = 10-6 A). When doing calculations, you must always remember to put the current in amperes, the
charge in coulombs and the time in seconds.

1) Electron charge:
Smallest possible unit of charge on a free particle is called the elementary charge (e = 1.6 x 10-19 C). Electrons each
carry a tiny negative charge of approximately qe = e = −1.6 × 10−19 C.

Any charged object must have an integer number times the elementary charge (quantization of charge).
The total charge on any charged object is given by:

Q: is the total charge ( C )

Q = Ne e: is the elementary charge (charge on a single electron)
N: is an integer and represents the number of electrons

Ex:1 how many electrons are there in one coulombs?

6.25 x 1018

Ex:2
a) How much charge flows through the filament of an electric lamp in 1 hour when the current in it is 250 mA?
b) The electron charge is 1.6 x 10-19 C. How many electrons flow through the filament during this time?

900 C /5. 6 x 1021 electrons

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2- Potential difference (symbol, p.d.)

It is defined as the energy transferred (work done) per unit charge to move a charge across a
component in a circuit and is measured in Volts (symbol, V).
The term potential difference (p.d.) is sometimes referred as voltage and is used when charges lose
energy in a component (electrical energy is transferred to another form like light or heat)
energy transferred (joules) work done (joules)
Voltage = = , in symbols
charge (Coulombs) charge (Coulombs)

𝐄 𝐖
V= = A 6V battery transfers 6J of energy for each Coulombs of charge.
𝐐 𝐐

Ex:3 A lamp is connected to a 6V supply and has a current of 50 mA passing through it.
a) Calculate the electric charge passing through it in one minute.
b) How much energy is transferred into heat and light in the lamp if the lamp is on for one minute.

3 C / 18 J

Ohm’s law, electrical resistance, power, efficiency and resistivity

• Ohm’s law states that: (for metals) the current (I) is directly proportional to the potential difference
(p.d. or simply V) across it providing that the temperature remains constant.
In symbols: V  I V = constant x I
𝑉
So, = constant This constant is called Resistance (R)
𝐼 and is measured in Ohms (Ω)

Or, potential difference = resistance x current In symbols: V = IR

Compare V = IR with y = mx + c, a graph of

I(A) on the y-axis against V(V) on the x-axis
should be a straight line passing through
the origin (C = 0). The gradient of the graph
is 1/R so the resistance, R= 1/gradient

If you connect a lamp to a battery, a current in the lamp causes it to glow. But what determines the size of the
current? This depends on two factors:
• The potential difference or voltage V across the lamp – the greater the potential difference, the greater the
current for a given lamp
• The resistance R of the lamp – the greater the resistance, the smaller the current for a given potential difference.

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Power in electricity:
Power: is the rate of energy transfer or rate of doing work
𝐰𝐨𝐫𝐤 𝐝𝐨𝐧𝐞 𝐞𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲 𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐧𝐬𝐟𝐞𝐫𝐫𝐞𝐝
Power = == Use this equation with W = QV, to show that P = IV and W = IVt
𝐭𝐢𝐦𝐞 𝐭𝐢𝐦𝐞

𝐕𝟐
 using Ohm’s law (V = IR) show that the power also can be given as P = I2R and P = 𝐑

 Since no electric device is ideal, we have to calculate its efficiency (ability of an electric device to transfer energy usefully)

% x 100%
or
% x 100%

4 (i) Explain why the graph in Figure a shows that the component
obeys Ohm’s law and calculate the resistance of the component.

Figure a

50 Ω

(ii) Calculate the resistance of the component in Figure b when the

Figure b
current in it is 80 mA.
Clearly the component in Figure b does not obey Ohm’s law, and, as
its resistance is not constant, we cannot use the gradient of the graph.
We simply use the equation: R = V / I.

10 Ω

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5 (a) Show that the units of electrical power as defined by P = IV are consistent with those for mechanical power,
defined as the rate of doing work.
(b) Calculate the resistance needed to allow a current of 200A when the resistor is connected across a 5.0 V
supply

25000 Ω

6 An electric toaster is switched on for 3 minutes. It is marked 230 V, 1200 W . Calculate:

(a) the current, I , flowing in the toaster
(b) the resistance, R , of the toaster
(c) the total charge, Q , that flows through the toaster in the 3 minute period
(d) the energy, W , transferred to the toaster.

5.2 A /44 Ω/ 940 C/ 216 000 J

Resistivity and resistance:

Resistance : is the result of collisions between charge carriers (conduction/free
electrons) and the atoms/ions in the current’s path.
Experiments shows that at constant temperature, The resistance, R, of a
component such as a wire depends on the wire’s Length, L, and Cross-sectional
area, A (for wires A = πr2).
R  L (doubling the length doubles the resistance)
R  1/A (doubling the cross-sectional area halves the resistance)
𝐋
So, R  What would happens to R if radius/diameter is doubled ?
𝐀
But the resistance of a wire also depends on the temperature and on the material it is made of. Copper is a better
conductor than steel, steel is a better conductor than silicon, and so on. So if we are to determine the resistance R
of a particular wire, we need to take into account its length, its cross-sectional area and the material. The relevant
property of the material is its resistivity, for which the symbol is ρ (Greek letter rho). 𝑹𝑨
Resistivity: is a property of a material and is defined by the equation:  =
𝑳
As long as the temperature is kept constant, samples of the same material that have different shape and size have the same
resistivity and measured in .m. (ρ (AU) = 1.6 x 10-8 .m and ρ (Cu) = 1.7 x 10-8 .m), for glass ≈ 1015 .m

Resistivity: is the resistance between opposite faces of a cube of a material of unit length and unit cross-
sectional area

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Ex7: What would happen to the resistance of a wire if (assume all other quantities remain constant):
a) The cross-sectional area of the wire is doubled
b) If the diameter is doubled
c) The material is changed (using conductor with twice the resistivity)

Ex8: Calculate the resistance of a 3.5 m length copper wire of diameter 0.40 mm. the resistivity of
copper is 1.7 x 10-8 Ω.m

0.47 Ω
Ex9: A carbon chip of resistivity 3.0 x 10-5.m has the dimensions shown in the Figure. What
resistance does the chip have for a current in the direction shown?

0.060 Ω

Ex: 10 : The graph in the Figure shows data from an experiment to investigate how the current, I, varied with the
p.d., V, across a 2.00 m length of nichrome wire of diameter 0.25 mm.

a) Explain why the graph shows that the wire obeys Ohm's law. [2]
b) Use the data to calculate a value for the resistivity of nichrome. [6]

(Ans: = 1.1 × 10−6 Ω m)

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Transport equation and drift velocity:

I = nqvA = nevA 𝑵
n=𝑽
I: is the current (A)
Ignore the
n: is the charge carrier density or number of free electrons per cubic meter (m-3) negative sign
A: cross sectional area when doing
calculations
q or e: is the electron charge (e = -1.6 x 10-19C).
v: is called the drift velocity (m.s-1) Hint:
Don’t confuse between the potential difference, V
(large V). and the drift velocity, v (small v)
Drift velocity: the mean velocity of the free electrons in a current carrying conductor
Because free electrons have a range of velocities due to collisions with the ions the drift velocity is the
average velocity of these free electrons.

Speed of electrons approximately 105 m.s-1 to 106 m.s-1

but the overall movement (drift velocity) of the electrons
in a current is very slow ≈ few millimeters per second

How the drift velocity, v, of electrons varies in different situations:

• If the current increases, the drift velocity v must increase. That is: v  I
• If the wire is thinner, the electrons move more quickly for a given current. There are fewer electrons in
𝟏
a thinner piece of wire, so an individual electron must travel more quickly. That is: v  .
𝐀
• In a material with a lower density of electrons (smaller n), the mean drift velocity must be greater for
𝟏
a given current. That is: v  . (n is always the same for a given material, regardless of dimensions).
𝐧

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Resistance and temperature dependence: Conductors and semiconductors

conductors semiconductors
Materials that allow the electric current to pass through Materials that allow the electric current to pass
due to the large number of conduction/free electrons through, but less than that in the conductors because
the number of free electrons is less
Number of charge density carrier (number of free semiconductors such as germanium n ≈ 1019 - 1020m-3
electrons per unit volume), n ≈ 10 – 10 free electron.m and silicon n ≈ 1015 - 1017m-3 are able to conduct, but not
28 29 -
3 or simply ), n ≈ 1028 – 1029m-3 (for metals) as well as metals.
As temperature of the metal increases electrons As the temperature of a semiconductor increases,
gain energy, so the amplitude of vibration of the electrons gain energy and break free, so the
lattice ions/atoms increases and so the rate of number of free electrons increase so the current
collision between free electrons and the atoms increase (I = nqvA ) and the resistance decreases
increases and, as a result, the resistance increases. (R = V/I).
Positive temperature coefficient (PTC) (resistance negative temperature coefficient (NTC) (resistance
and resistivity increases when its temperature and resistivity decreases when its temperature
increases) increases)
Example: n = 8.42 x 1028m-3 for copper at 20oC n = 8.49 x 1015m-3 for Silicon at 20oC
n = 8.27 x 1028m-3 for copper at 50oC (slight n = 7.42 x 1017m-3 for Silicon at 50oC
decrease due to thermal expansion in the copper )
Insulators are materials that block the electric current because they don’t have a significant number of free electrons.
Superconductor: when the conductor is cooled to a very low temperature, their resistance drops to zero and the current has no heating effect.

Self reading As the temperature rises

In terms of the drift velocity equation, I= nAvq, where A
and q are constant for a given wire. For a metallic
conductor, n does not depend on the temperature and
so it is constant. As the temperature rises, the increased
vibrations of the lattice will reduce the drift velocity, v, of
the electrons and so I will also decrease – that is, the
resistance· increases with temperature.

A negative temperature coefficient can also be

explained using I= nAvq. In a semiconductor, an increase
in temperature can provide extra energy to release more
charge carriers. This means that n increases with
temperature. To a good approximation, n increases
exponentially with the absolute temperature, which
means that n shows a rapid increase as the temperature
rises. Applying I= nAvq, A and q are constant as before
but n increases by much more than the relatively small
decrease in v (due to collisions). The overall effect is that
I increases, so the resistivity decreases with temperature.

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11 The diameter of the tungsten filament is 0.025 mm and the diameter of the copper connecting leads is 0.72 mm.
When the circuit current is 160 mA. Calculate the drift velocity of the electrons in:
a) the filament
b) the connecting leads
(You may take the number of charge carriers per cubic metre to
be 4.0 × 1028 m–3 for tungsten and 8.0 × 1028 m–3 for copper.)

0.0 51 m s−1 / 3.1 x 10-5 m s−1

Current – voltage graphs (filament lamp, Diode, and thermistor):

• Tungsten Filament Lamps: (non-ohmic conductor) it does not obey Ohm’s law; it is a non-ohmic component.
For small potential difference, the temperature is constant and the current
is directly proportional to the potential difference. So the graph is straight
line (ohmic behavior).
As the potential difference increases, the current increase so the
temperature of the metal increase and it heats up.
As temperature of the metal increases the amplitude of vibration of the
lattice ions increases and so the rate of collision between free electrons and
the ions increases and, as a result, the resistance increases (current
increases with lower rate but decreases).

Diode (semiconductor):
An electric device that conducts the current only in one
direction and it needs a minimum voltage to operate (≈ 0.6 V).

If the potential difference is below 0.6V no current can flow

and the resistance is extremely large (R is infinite).
If the potential difference is greater than the 0.6V, the
resistance drops and the current flows.

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Thermistor and light-dependent resistor (LDR): Both are semiconductors resistors and negative
temperature coefficient (NTC). The thermistor depends on the thermal energy from the surrounding and
the LDR depends on the intensity of light.

• Thermistor: as the temperature increases, the number of free electrons

increases. As a result the resistance decreases and the current increase.

• LDR: the number of free electrons increases as the light is incident on

the LDR and so the resistance decreases and the current increases.
More intense light means more free electrons and lower the resistivity

More graphs
A thermistor at constant
the resistance increases temperature gives a straight
line. The higher the
temperature, the greater
the gradient of the line, as
the resistance falls with
increase of temperature
the resistance decreases

1) A child’s toy is operated by a small motor. The potential difference across the motor is 6.0 V and the current in it
is 0.20 A. The energy used by the motor in 120 s is:
. January 2009
A) 2.40 J B) 60.0 J C) 144 J D) 3600 J

5) The heating element for an electric fire is made from a wire of resistance R. It is replaced with a wire of the same
material which has the same length but is twice the diameter. The resistance of this second wire is:
.
A) ¼R B) ½R C) 2R D) 4R
8) Which one of the following graphs correctly shows the relationship between potential difference (V) and current
(I) for a filament lamp?

1) Identify which of the following pairs of units are both SI base units. January 2010
A) Ampere Hertz B) Ampere Second C) Coulomb Hertz D) Coulomb Second

2) The resistance of a length of copper wire is 6 Ω. A second piece of copper wire has twice the length and twice
the cross-sectional area. The resistance of the second piece of copper wire is
A) 3 Ω B) 6 Ω C) 12 Ω D) 24 Ω

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6) The diagram shows the energy transfer for an electric motor. The efficiency of the motor is

7) An electron is accelerated through a large potential difference and gains a kinetic energy of 47 keV. This energy
expressed as joules equals
.
A) 7.5 × 10–18 J B) 7.5 × 10–15 J C) 2.9 × 1020 J D) 2.9 × 1023 J

1) The amount of electrical energy transferred when a charge of 8 mC moves through a potential difference of 12 V is:
.
A) 1500 J B) 96 J C) 9.6 x 10–2 J D) 6.7 x 10–4 J January 2011

6) Which of the following can be used as a unit of electrical resistance?

.
A) WA–2 B) AV–1 C) WV–2 D) VC–1

8) The drift velocity v of electrons in a conductor is directly proportional to

.
A) Electron charge. B) Charge carrier density. C) Cross-sectional area. D) current.

10) The graph shows how the current I varies with potential difference V for an electrical component. Which row of
the table gives the resistance of the component at V2 and describes how the resistance changes from V1 to V2?

7) A steady potential difference is applied across a variable resistor that is kept at a constant temperature. The
graph which represents the relationship between the resistance R of the variable resistor and the current I through
it is
January 2012

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10) Which of the following quantities is shown with the correct unit?

A) current and Cs B) potential difference and eV C) power and Js D) resistivity and Ωm

4) Which of the following current-potential difference (I-V) graphs shows the correct behavior for a negative
temperature coefficient thermistor? January 2014

4) Which of the following is equivalent to a single SI base unit? January 2015

A) coulomb per second B) joule per coulomb C) joule per second D) meter per second

7) The current in a wire is I and the drift velocity of the electrons in the wire is v. The wire is replaced with another
of the same metal but half the diameter. If the current in the new wire is the same, the drift velocity is:

9) Which graph shows how the resistance R of a filament bulb varies with temperature θ in °C?
January 2018

5) The equation I = nqvA is quoted in the list of data, formulae and relationships. When the temperature of a
metallic conductor increases, which of the following quantities decreases?
. January 2019
A) n B) q C) v D) A

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7) Which graph shows how current varies with potential difference for an ohmic conductor at constant
temperature?

10) Four different types of lamp produce the same brightness. The power consumption and the current are marked
on the packaging for each lamp and shown in the table. Which type of lamp has the greatest efficiency?

A) filament

B) fluorescent

C) halogen

D) LED

Electrical components and their circuit symbols

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Conservation laws of electrical circuits:

- Conservation of charge
- Conservation of energy.
The rules of conservation of charge and energy show how current and potential difference behave in
series and parallel circuits.
 conservation of charge:
The total current entering any point in a circuit (junction) is equal to the total current leaving that
same point (Kirchhoff’s first law).
In other words, because current is the rate of flow of charge
the total charge entering the junction per second must equal the total charge leaving that junction
per second (charge is conserved).
For example: if a billion electrons enter a point in a circuit in a time interval of 1.0 s, then one billion electrons must
leave this point in 1.0 s.
Q1 Q2 Q3
I1 = I2 + I3 or = +
t1 t2 t3
Q6 Q4 Q5
I6 = I4 + I5 or = +
t6 t4 t5

Q: The diagrams show part of an electrical circuit. Determine the magnitudes of the currents for each
diagram

January 2009

June 2014/01R

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Conservation of energy: (energy cannot be created or destroyed but changed from one form to another)
Energy converted by the battery must equal to the energy dissipated through
all the components in the circuit

If a charge, say 1 C, moves around the circuit, it gains energy as it moves through the
source of e.m.f. (for example it gains 6J from the supply). As it moves around the circuit
it loses the 6J of energy as it passes through the components in the circuit

𝑊1 𝑊2
(in other words, EMF= ε = V1 + V2 = + ).
𝑄 𝑄

What is the difference between the electromotive force (e.m.f.) and the potential difference (p.d. or V) ?
electromotive force, e.m.f. potential difference
energy transferred (work done) per unit charge to energy transferred (work done) per unit charge to
move a charge around a circuit. and is measured in move a charge cross a component. measured in
Volts (symbol, V). Volts (symbol, V).

𝐄 𝐖 𝐄 𝐖
V= = V= =
𝐐 𝐐 𝐐 𝐐
Chemical energy transferred into electrical energy Electrical energy transferred into another form of
energy such as light and heat

Series and parallel circuits: positive terminal negative terminal

Conventional current: Early studies of the effect of the
electricity had led scientists to believe that an electric
current is the rate of flow of positive charges. That is, from Electrons flow
Conventional
the positive terminal towards the negative terminal.
We now know that, the current is the rate of flow of the
current flow
negatively charged electrons from the negative terminal to
the positive terminal

1- current in series circuits:

• Current: rate of flow of charges passing a point per unit time and is
measured by Ammeter
All components in a circuit that are connected in series have the same current passing
through them all (I1 = I2 = I3 = …).
𝐕𝟏 𝐕 𝐕𝟏 𝐑
= 𝐑𝟐 rearrange the equation = 𝐑𝟏
𝐑𝟏 𝟐 𝐕𝟐 𝟐
The ratio of the potential differences (V1/V2) across the resistors is the same (equals)
the ratio of their resistances (R1/R2)
Note:
If two or more components are connected in series and one of them breaks, the other components will break.

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2- Current in parallel circuits: Power supply (EMF)

Whenever a current encounters a junction in a circuit, it splits:
I1 = I2 + I3 + I4 I1
Notes: I2
- The current always prefer the path with least
resistance. In other words, the high resistance I3
path takes small current and the low resistance
path takes high current.
- If two or more components that are connected I4
on parallel breaks, the other component will be
still working, unlike series circuits.

Potential difference, p.d., in series and parallel:

e.m.f = 12 V

R1 = 2 Ω R2 = 4 Ω

V1 = 4 V V2 = 8 V
Series circuits:
For two or more components connected in series, the total
potential difference is the sum of the potential differences Parallel circuit:
across all the components in the circuit. The p.d. across components connected
(Vtotal = V1+ V2 + V3 +…) Remember that V = W/Q. The p.d. across in parallel is always the same (Vtotal =
each component is how much energy per coulomb is transferred V1= V2 = V3). The one with smaller
to that component. So the sum of the p.d. across all components resistance will have larger current
is the total energy transferred per coulomb of charge passing
through them which is the p.d. across the terminal of the
battery. (conservation of energy).
For Series circuits, the component with greater resistance has greater share of p.d from the power supply, for
example, if R1 is doulble R2, then R1 will have double the p.d. if they are identical, then the e.m.f splits equally.

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Resistor combinations in series and parallel circuits: (derivation is required)

Parallel circuits:
The p.d. across each resistor is the same but the current splits.
Show that the total resistance for resistors in parallel in given by
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 To make sure your answer is
= + + +… correct, Rtotal must be always
𝐑 𝐭𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐑𝟏 𝐑𝟐 𝐑𝟑
smaller than the smallest resistance

Series circuits:
- Current is the same across each resistor but the p.d. splits between them
Show that the total resistance for resistors in series in given by
Rtotal = R1+ R2 + R3 +… Rtotal is greater when reisitors are
connected in series

Series circuits Parallel circuits

Current Same Splits
I1 = I2 = I3 = … Itotal = I1+ I2 + I3 +…
Potential difference Splits Same
Vtotal = V1+ V2 + V3 +… Vtotal = V1= V2 = V3 =…
resistance Rtotal = R1+ R2 + R3 +… 𝟏
=
𝟏
+
𝟏
+
𝟏
+…
𝐑𝐭𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐑𝟏 𝐑𝟐 𝐑𝟑

Brightness of bulbs depends on the power and the power depends on both current and voltage (P = IV). (bulb gets
dimmer for two reasons: The current through it is reduced AND the p.d. across it is also reduced). Consider two
different bulbs have different resistances connected in:
• Series: since the current passing through them is the same, the bulb with greater resistance must have greater
p.d.
 Explanation: I1 = I2 or V1/R1 = V2/R2 so for ratios to be equal the greater R must have greater V, and so it is the
brightest bulb.
• Parallel: low resistance bulb are brighter because it has a bigger current through them for the same p.d.

Q: why the ammeter is always connected in series while the voltmeter always connected on parallel ?
(important)
• Ammeter has a negligible (very small resistance), so if connected on series it will not affect the current in the
circuit that it is measuring.
• Voltmeter has an extremely large resistance, when connected on parallel most of the current passes through the
component while a very small current (I ≈ 0) passes through the voltmeter so it doesn’t affect our
measurements (remember, the current always prefer the path with least resistance).

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3 The diagrams show connected wires that carry currents I1, I2, I3 and I4. The currents are related by the
equation I1 + I2 = I3 + I4 Identify the diagram that this equation applies to. June/2010

5 A negative temperature coefficient thermistor is connected as shown in the circuit diagram. The cell has a
negligible internal resistance. The effect of decreasing the temperature of the thermistor is that the
June/2011
A) ammeter reading will decrease.
B) ammeter reading will increase.
C) voltmeter reading will decrease
D) voltmeter reading will increase.

6 Which combination of resistors has the smallest total resistance?

June/2012

for two equal resistors in parallel, the combined resistance is half that of each single resistor

10 The graph shows the relationship between potential difference V and current I for a fixed 20 Ω resistor and a
filament lamp. The resistor and lamp are placed in series with a 9 V battery of negligible internal resistance. The
current in the circuit is
June/2010 / Good one
A) 0.1 A

B) 0.2 A

C) 0.3 A

D) 0.4 A

5 In the circuit shown, the battery has negligible internal resistance. L, M and N are identical lamps. The filament of
lamp M breaks. Identify the row of the table which shows the resulting changes in the brightness of lamps L and N.

January/2011

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8 A combination of resistors is connected to a 12 V supply of negligible internal resistance. The potential difference
between points A and B is
January/2013
A) 4 V B) 6 V

C) 8 V D) 12 V

10 Two wires of the same material are connected in series with each other. Wire A has twice the diameter of wire B.
In which of the following rows are both statements correct?
June/2009

Questions 4 and 5 refer to the information below

A-Levels 2021
Two resistors are connected in parallel and the current in one of them is 2.0 A, as shown.
4 Which of the following is the current I in ampere?

A) 3.0 B) 4.0 C) 5.0 D) 6.0

5 Which of the following is the total resistance of the resistors in parallel?

A) 20 Ω B) 40 Ω C) 90 Ω D) 180 Ω
Which of the following correctly defines electromotive force?
A) Force per unit charge to move a charge across a component.
B) Force per unit charge to move a charge around a circuit.
C) Work done per unit charge to move a charge across a component. A-Levels 2016
D) Work done per unit charge to move a charge around a circuit.

8 A battery is connected to identical, uniform,

nichrome wires, PQ and RS. A voltmeter is
connected to the wires as shown. The battery has
negligible internal resistance. Which of the
following is the reading on the voltmeter? June/2022

A) 1.0 V B) 2.0 V C) 3.0 V D) 4.0 V

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16 (a) Two lamps A and B are connected in series with a battery. Lamp B glows more brightly than lamp A.
Complete each of the sentences by choosing one of the phrases (equal to, greater than and less than). (3)
• The current in lamp A is . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . the current in lamp B.
• The p.d. across lamp A is . . . . . . . . . . . . . . the p.d. across lamp B. January/2009
• The resistance of lamp A is . . . . . . . . . . . . . the resistance of lamp B.

(b) The same bulbs are now connected in parallel with the battery. State which bulb will be brighter and explain
your answer. (3)

15 The circuit diagram shows a battery of negligible internal resistance connected to three resistors.
(a) Calculate the potential difference across the 5 Ω resistor. (2) June/2009
(b) Calculate the current I2. (2)
(c) Calculate the resistance R. (2)

3.0 V/ 0.20 A/ 15 Ω

Q: for the following circuit:

A) (i) calculate the total resistance in the circuit, hence calculate the current and the p.d. across each component.
(ii) calculate the power developed across each component and the power developed by the power supply

B) Repeat part A i and ii if one of the resistance in the parallel combination is removed. Comment on your
answer for the total current and the power developed by the power supply compared with part A

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11 (a) State Ohm’s law. (2)

January/2010 R R
(b) Using the axes below sketch graphs to show
how resistance varies with potential difference
for a fixed resistor and a 1.5 V filament lamp. (3)

(c) The filament of a lamp is made of metal. Explain why the lamp does not demonstrate Ohm’s law. (2)

14 The diagram shows a circuit set up by a student.

(a) Both voltmeters have a resistance of 10 M. The reading on V1 is 6V and the
reading on V2 is zero. Explain these readings. (2) January/2012

(b) The student replaces the 10  resistor with a resistor of unknown resistance. The reading on V1 is know 4 V
calculate the value of R. (3)

R = 10 MΩ

11 The photograph shows a convector heater designed for use in a home. It operates by air flowing through the
heater and passing over its heating elements. The heater contains three identical heating elements and two switches.
(a) A student models the heater using the circuit below. The power supply has a negligible internal resistance.

June/ 2012

The table gives the four possible combinations of the two switches. Complete the table to show the total circuit
resistance for each switch combination. (3)
(b) Explain which switch combination dissipates the most
energy in a given time. (2)

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Ohm’s law and power in electrical circuits examples:

1) In the circuit shown you may assume that the 6.0V battery has negligible
internal resistance.
a) calculate the current in each resistor
b) calculate the power dissipated in each resistor
c) calculate the power developed by the battery.
Comment on your answers to parts (b) and (c).

the power developed by the battery equals the power dissipated in the two resistors and this satisfies the law of
conservation of energy.

3A/2A/18W/12W

3) The lamps in the following circuit are each rated 3.0V, 150mW and the cell
has negligible internal resistance.
Calculate, when the lamps are operating at normal brightness:
Calculate the number of electrons passing point p each second.

p
●

4) 3.125 x 10 17

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Potential divider circuits (two components connected in series) and temperature sensor:
How can we get an output of 3.0 V from a battery of e.m.f. 6.0 V? Sometimes we want to use only part of the e.m.f.
of a supply. To do this, we use an arrangement of resistors called a potential divider circuit.
The two figures below show two potential divider circuits, each connected across a battery of e.m.f. 6.0 V and of
negligible internal resistance. The high-resistance voltmeter measures the voltage across the resistor of
resistance R2

V2 = 3.0V V2 = 4.0V

potential divider circuit uses fixed resistor potential divider circuit uses variable resistor
(more useful)
We refer the potential difference across the battery (e.m.f), Vin , and the potential difference we measure, Vout .
Because Vout is connected in parallel with R2 , so Vout = V2

Potential divider circuits with potentiometer:

A potentiometer (variable resistance) is a device consists of a piece of resistance wire, usually 1 m in length,
stretched horizontally between two points and a movable sliding contact. When the sliding contact position is
𝐋
changed, the length of the wire is changed and since the resistance depends on the length of the wire (R = ),
𝐀
changing the length changes the resistance.
Important: if  and A are constants then R  L. the greater the length the greater the resistance, the larger the
proportion of the voltage it takes from the power supply (Vin) so the Vout is larger. (do not say Vout  R)

Sliding contact The only difference between the

fixed resistor and the
A potentiometer is that the
R1 R2
resistance on the potentiometer
can be controlled between zero
and maximum value. So the
B potential difference can be
Sliding contact reduced to zero
More explanation:
Consider foe example the resistance on the potentiometer is R total = 100  = R1 + R2.
If the sliding contact is at point A, then Rtotal = 100  and Vout = Vin = 6.0 V
If the sliding contact is at point B, then and Vout = 0
If the sliding contact is exactly at the middle, R1 = R2 = 50  and Vout = 3.0 V

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Potential divider equation:

For series circuits:
• R1 and R2 have the same current (Itotal = I1 = I2)
• Rtotal = R1 + R2 and Vin = V1 + V2 = Vout + V2

I1 = I2
𝐕𝟏 𝐕
= 𝟐 rearrange the equation
𝐑𝟏 𝐑𝟐
𝐕𝟏 𝐑𝟏 𝐕 𝐑𝟏 remember that V1 = Vout because
= or 𝐨𝐮𝐭 = With, Vin = V1 + V2 they are connected in parallel
𝐕𝟐 𝐑𝟐 𝐕𝟐 𝐑𝟐

The ratio of the potential differences (V1/V2) across the resistors is the same (equals) the ratio of their
resistances (R1/R2)

How to determine Vout 𝐕𝐢𝐧 𝐑𝟏

Vout = (𝐑 )R1 =𝐑 Vin
The potential difference across R1 is V1 = Vout = IR1 𝟏 + 𝐑𝟐 𝟏+ 𝐑𝟐
The potential difference across R2 is V2 = IR2 Note that if we want the output voltage to be
The potential difference Vin = IRtotal = I (R1 + R2 ) across R2 the equation becomes:
𝐕𝐢𝐧 𝐕𝐢𝐧
I= =𝐑 V2 = Vout =
𝐑𝟐
V
𝐑 𝐭𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝟏+ 𝐑𝟐 𝐑 𝟏 + 𝐑 𝟐 in

1) Two resistors R1 = 100  and R2 = 500  are connected to a power supply Vin = 12V
as shown in the figure. Calculate the potential difference output across R 1 and R2.
three ways to solve it, either:
• Calculate Rtotal then using Vin = Vtotal = Itotal Rtotal, calculate the Itotal (Itotal = I1 = I2),
then you can calculate V1 and V2, or
• Incase the e.m.f is given the potential divider equation: (R1 / Rtot) = (V1 / Vout)
• Use the potential difference-resistance ratio

Answers: 2 V and 10 V

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3) Your textbook (page/183) a potentiometer is supplied by an e.m.f. and has a 40 cm length of resistance wire. If
the voltage across R1 is V1 = 3.75 V What voltage would be, Vout, if the wiper (sliding contact) was placed to 10 cm
from the top?

3 A student set up the circuit below and moved a sliding contact along a uniform conducting wire.
The student recorded the potential difference V across each length of wire l under test. Which graph correctly
shows how V varies with l?
A-levels/16

Applications on the potential divider circuits (temperature sensors):

• Using thermistor (NTC):when temperature increases its resistance decreases. Because the resistance ratio for a
𝐕 𝐑
potential divider circuit is the same as the potential difference ratio( 𝐨𝐮𝐭 = 𝟏 ), the smaller the resistance the less
𝐕𝟐 𝐑𝟐
the proportion of the potential difference across the thermistor

The fire alarm, heater or

Fire alarm the cooling circuit will
switch on when the
potential difference
across it is greater than a
certain value

• Using Light emitting resistor

The LDR is a NTC resistor that has a resistance that changes when light falls on it. As
the intensity of the light is increased so the resistance of the LDR falls.

If the LDR is connected as part of a potential divider as shown in the diagram then as
the light intensity is increased its resistance decreases. Because the resistance ratio for
𝐕 𝐑
a potential divider circuit is the same as the potential difference ratio( 𝐨𝐮𝐭 = 𝟏 ), the
𝐕𝟐 𝐑𝟐
less the resistance the smaller the potential difference across the LDR.
So in the light Vout is low and in the dark Vout is high.

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8 A light dependent resistor and a negative temperature coefficient thermistor are connected in series. Which of
the following combinations of illumination and temperature will result in the highest combined resistance?

A) dark and cold B) dark and hot C) light and cold D) light and hot A-levels/17
6 A light-dependent resistor (LDR) and resistor are connected in series with a 6V battery as shown. A voltmeter
measures the potential difference across the LDR. In daylight the voltmeter reads 3.0V.
Which reading is most likely if the circuit is now in total darkness?

A) a little above 0 V A-levels/17

B) a little below 3 V
C) a little above 3 V
D) a little below 6 V

7 A light dependent resistor (LDR) and a resistor are connected to a battery, as shown.
The intensity of light incident on
the LDR increases.
Which row of the table describes
the change in the resistance of
the LDR and the change in the
potential difference across the
resistor?
A-levels/21

10 The resistance of a thermistor decreases as temperature increases. It is used in a circuit to switch on a heater as
the temperature falls. The heater will switch on when the potential difference across it is greater than a certain
value. Which of the following circuits would do this?
Oct / 2017

10 A light dependent resistor (LDR) and a fixed resistor are connected in a circuit, as shown. The intensity of the
light incident on the LDR is increased. Which of the following does not take place as the light intensity is increased?

A) The current in the circuit increases. Jan / 2022

B) The potential difference across the fixed resistor increases.
C) The total power dissipated in the circuit decreases.
D) The resistance of the LDR decreases.

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Internal resistance (symbol, r)

not all of the chemical energy converted to electrical energy inside a cell emerges at the terminals of
the cell. When a charge flows and produces a current in the cell, some of the energy is used up in
'pushing’ the electrons through the cell. In other words, it is used to overcome the internal resistance of
the cell, which is usually given the symbol r.

e.m.f.

think of internal resistance, r, as connected in

series with the resistance R.
e.m.f or ε = Vr + VR = Ir + IR.
Ir, and is sometimes called the 'lost volts’ (energy dissipated as heat). As the current in the circuit
increases, the value of Vr = Ir increases, the more the lost volts

Consider a cell of e.m.f., e, and internal resistance, r, which is connected to a lamp of resistance, R,
If there is a current, I, in the circuit:
rate of energy rate rate of work done against
rate of work done
converted in cell = internal resistance (power
wasted) + lighting lamp

Divide both sides by I

or VR =  - Ir
Compare with y = mx +b and plot a graph of VR on the y-axis against I on the x-axis. The graph should be a straight
line with negative gradient. The y-intercept is the EMF () The gradient of the graph is –r (the internal resistance).
determine the internal resistance and the EMF from the following graph.

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Questions 4 and 5 refer to the following circuit. January/2018

A cell has electromotive force ε and internal resistance r. It supplies a current I to an external circuit with
resistance R.
4 Which of the following is an equation for the terminal potential difference V of the cell?

5 Which of the following expressions gives the efficiency of the cell in this circuit?

10 The diagram shows a resistor of resistance R connected to a cell of e.m.f. ε and internal resistance r. Which of the
following correctly shows the potential difference V across the terminals of the cell?
January/2014

Ex (2): In the circuit in Figure shown, the high resistance voltmeter reads 1.55V when the switch is open and 1.49V
when the switch is closed.
1) Explain why:
a) the e.m.f. of the cell can be considered to be 1.55 V
b) the voltmeter reading drops when the switch is closed .
2) Calculate the internal resistance of the cell. (Ans: 0.4 Ω)

1 a)As the voltmeter has a very high resistance, it takes nearly no current. Therefore, with the switch open, there is
negligible current in the cell, so the reading of 1.55V can be taken as its e.m.f.

b)When the switch is closed, the 10Ω resistor is brought into the circuit. This causes a current, I, in the circuit so that
the potential difference, V, across the cell drops to V = ε - Ir. (Ir is the waste volts)

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Ex (3): In the circuit shown in the Figure you may assume that the 6.0V battery has an internal resistance of 0.8 .
For this circuit, calculate:
1. the total current in the circuit
2. the potential difference across each resistor
3. the power dissipated in each resistor
4. the power developed by the battery.

I = 3 A / 3.6 V / 6.48 W and 4.32 W/ 18 W and 7.2 W (waste power; work done per second by the
charge overcoming the internal resistance as it passes through the battery )

A battery of e.m.f 9.0 V and internal resistance, r, is connected in the circuit shown in the figure below
(a) The current in the battery is 1.0 A.
(i) Calculate the p.d. between points A and B in the circuit

(ii) Calculate the internal resistance, r

1V/2Ω/2700J/22%
internal resistance limits current
hence can provide higher current or
less energy wasted (with lower internal
(iii) Calculate the total energy transformed by the battery in 5.0 minutes. resistance) charges quicker

(iv) Calculate the percentage of the energy calculated in part (iii) that is dissipated in the battery in 5.0
minutes.

(b) State and explain one reason why it is an advantage for a rechargeable battery to have a low internal
resistance.

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Q: A cell of e.m.f., ε, and internal resistance, r, is connected to a variable resistor R. The current through the cell and
the terminal p.d. of the cell are measured as R is decreased. The circuit is shown in the figure below.
The graph below shows the results from the experiment

ε r

(a) Explain why the terminal p.d. decreases as the current

increases.

(b) (i) Use the graph to find the e.m.f., ε, of the cell
(ii) Use the graph above to find the internal resistance, r, of the
cell.

y – intercept 1.52 V (± 0.01 V) /r = 0.45 ± 0.02 Ω

Wave-particle duality of light:

Wave theory:
Diffraction, interference, and polarization are phenomena that can only be
explained by using ideas of waves, so they are evidences that light is a wave
because particles can’t diffract, interfere or polarize.

The wave theory assumes that the energy of the EM-Radiation (ex: light) is
proportional to its intensity
Intensity of radiation (radiation flux density): is the power per unit area
P 𝐏𝐨𝐰𝐞𝐫 (𝐖𝐚𝐭𝐭𝐬) 𝐄𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲 (𝐉) 𝐄
I= = , measured in W.m-2 P= =
A 𝐀𝐫𝐞𝐚 (𝐦𝟐) 𝐭𝐢𝐦𝐞 (𝐬) 𝐭

W = J.s-1, so W.m-2 represents how much energy per second falls normally (at 90o) on a one
meter squared. So energy of the light depends on the intensity of light if the light is
considered to be a wave

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Intensity of radiation from sun: how much energy per second falls normally on one meter squared on
the outer surface of the Earth's atmosphere. The radiation from the sun spreads out in all directions
over a sphere of surface area 4πr2 by the time it reaches us.

The power from the sun is approximately 4.0 x 1026 W.

So the sun emits 4.0 x 1026 Joules per second. But by the time this amount of energy reaches us it
spreads out in all directions. If the distance between the Earth and the Sun is about 1.5 x 1011 m, then the
amount of energy per second falls normally on a 1m2 on the outer surface of the atmosphere is:
𝐏 𝐏
I= = 𝟐
𝐀 𝟒π𝒓
𝟒.𝟎 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟔 The further from the source the less intensity.
= ≈ 𝟏𝟒𝟏𝟓 W.m-2 = 1.4 kW.m-2
𝟒𝛑 𝟏.𝟓 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟏 𝟐
Double the distance means 4 times less intensity

Ex: A solar heating panel has an area of 2 .8 m2. How much energy falls on the panel per second if the solar
radiation flux density is 300 Wm-2 when:
a) the panel is normal to the Sun's radiation
b) the radiation makes an angle of 55 ° with the panel, as in the Figure below.

a) 840 Js-1 b) 690 Js-1

Ex: The maximum power from a solar cell is generated when the load (resistance) connected across the cell has a
resistance equal to the internal resistance of the cell. When a particular cell is receiving sunlight of intensity (I =
P/A) 500Wm-2 its maximum power is 60W at a terminal p.d. of 14 V.
a) Show that a load resistor of 3.30 with a 2% tolerance would be suitable to achieve this power.
b) If the cell is 15% efficient, calculate the area of the solar panel that would be needed.

R = 3.27 Ω/ A = 0.8 m2

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13 The orbits of planets around the Sun are elliptical. The intensity of radiation received at the top of the Earth’s
atmosphere is monitored during one orbit of the Earth around the Sun. The following data is recorded:
maximum intensity of radiation = 1.41 kW m-2 May 2019/ WPH12/01
minimum intensity of radiation = 1.32 kW m-2
(a) Calculate the minimum distance between the Earth and the Sun. power of the sun = 3.83 x 1026 W

(b) As Mars orbits the Sun, the intensity of radiation received at the top of its atmosphere varies from 491 W.m-2 to
711 W m-2. Explain two differences between the orbits of Mars and Earth that can be deduced from this data.

16 An irrigation system uses a pump to move water from a lower level to a higher level.
Jan23
The electricity for the pump is generated using a panel of solar cells.
(a) The panel of solar cells is 1.20 m long and 0.80 m wide. To pump water from the lower level to the
higher level the pump needs a minimum power of 140 W.
(i) Calculate the minimum efficiency of the panel of solar cells that will operate the pump.
intensity of sunlight on solar cells = 1040 W m–2 (4)

0.14 (14 %)
(ii) Suggest two reasons why the value calculated in (i) is the minimum efficiency that will operate the pump. (2)
Any two from:
Light from the sun may not be incident on the solar panel at 90°
Intensity might be lower due to clouds/rain/fog
Light may be reflected at the solar panel
Pump may not be 100% efficient
Friction between the water and the pipe
Or Energy transferred to thermal energy

33