Name: Dotse Ruby
Index number: 6430621
CEREALS
Cereals belong to the Gramineae family, with 600 genera and 10,000 species.
Different types of cereals are grown in various regions:
- Temperate: wheat, barley, oats, and rye.
- Subtropical and tropical: rice, maize, sorghum, and millet.
- Cereals are in high demand globally due to their nutritional value
(carbohydrates, protein, fat, minerals, vitamins, and fiber).
- They are stable-priced commodities, easy to store and transport, and can be
converted into various end products for different markets.
Uses
Cereals have multiple uses, including:
Human consumption (55% of human diet),Livestock feed (direct and indirect
contribution to meat, egg, milk, and dairy products),Industrial raw materials
(adhesives, starch, dextrin, and other chemicals) and Various processing methods
(whole grains, ground, crushed, rolled, treated with ammonia or caustic soda)
Distribution
cereals are versatile crops that can thrive in diverse conditions and play a
crucial role in global food systems, making their production and distribution a
significant factor in international politics.
Production
cereal production is a reliable, efficient, and productive process that requires
minimal labor and capital investment, making it a viable option for farmers.
Climate
Climate has a significant impact on cereal cultivation, affecting:
1. Species and cultivar selection
2. Crop establishment
3. Development and performance (yield and quality)
4. Incidence and severity of weeds, pests, and diseases
5. Micro-climate within the crop, which can foster disease development
6. Direct damage to crops (e.g., drought, lodging by wind and rain)
7. Crop responsiveness to applied treatments (e.g., fertilizers, growth regulators)
In summary, climate plays a crucial role in determining the success of cereal
cultivation, influencing various aspects of crop growth and development.
Strategies to combat weather related problems
To combat weather-related problems in cereal cultivation, the following strategies
can be employed:
1. Select suitable crop varieties
2. Establish crops and apply treatments in a timely manner
3. Ensure proper drainage and subsoil management to optimize root growth
4. Implement irrigation, especially on sandy soils
FACTORS AFFECTING CEREAL YIELD AND QUALITY
There are four main factors;Soil ,Plant ,Husbandry and Weather
Conduction of germination test for all seeds prior to planting
For the test about 100 seeds are planted in a shallow trench and watered. The
numbers
that germinate are recorded.
By standard procedure, if germination percentage is
Above 85% - plant 2 seeds per hill
70 – 84 % - plant 3 seeds per hill
50 – 69 % - plant 3 to 4 seeds per hill
Less than 50% - don’t waste resources (get new seedstock)
RICE page 2
Rice (Oryza sativa) is a staple crop widely cultivated in:
- South and Southeast Asia (China, India, etc.)
- West Africa (Nigeria, Cameroon, Ghana, Sierra Leone)
- Spain, Brazil, Italy, and Southern US
The rice plant originated in Southeast Asia and spread to other regions. There are
thousands of cultivars, classified into:
1. Japonica (short grain, pearl types)
2. Indica (long or medium grain)
3. Javanica (restricted to equatorial climates)
Rice cultivars are also grouped by physiological requirements and growth habits
into:
1. Swamp varieties (grown in standing water)
2. Upland varieties (grown under rain-fed conditions at high altitudes)
3. Dual-purpose varieties (grown under irrigation, requiring high moisture)
Description of rice (Oryza sativa)
1. Color
2. Grain size and shape:
- Size- Extra long (over 7mm), Long (6-7mm) , Medium (5-5.9mm), Short (less
than 5mm)
- Shape (length/breadth): Slender (over 3mm), Medium (2.4-3mm), Bold (2-2.4mm),
Round (under 2mm)
Some popular rice cultivars include:
NERICA 1 , NERICA 4 , SIKAMO , TOX3377-34-3-3-2 , IRI 2979-26 (SARI) , IDSA 85 ,
Agra Rice , Amankwatia, Jasmine 85
These cultivars vary in their characteristics, such as grain size and shape, color,
and growth habits.
Botany of rice
- Rice belongs to the grass family (Gramineae) and genus Oryza, with Oryza sativa
being the commercially cultivated species.
The plant is an annual with erect culms, varying in height from 60cm-2m, and has a
maturity period of 90-240 days.
It tillers freely, producing 4-8 culms, with a loose terminal panicle bearing
spikelets.
Each spikelet consists of a rachilla, empty glumes, lemma, palea, and florets.
The grain is enclosed by the lemma and palea (hull/husk), which can be straw
yellow, red, or black, with distinctive markings.
The rice grain is a fruit (caryopsis) with a fused pericarp and testa, containing
an endospermous seed with an embryo embedded in stored food materials.
The rice culm has hollow internodes, solid nodes, and vascular bundles arranged in
circles.
The epidermis contains long cells, silica cells, and cork cells, which help the
plant survive in flowing water.
The rice caryopsis contains an aleurone layer rich in protein, vitamins, and
minerals, which can be preserved through par-boiling or partial boiling.
Polished rice is less nutritious than unpolished rice, but par-boiling helps retain
some nutrients in the starchy endosperm.
Climate
Rice thrives in various climatic conditions between 45°N and 40°S latitude and up
to 3000m elevation, It grows well in:
- Upland areas with high rainfall
- Swampy lowlands with flooding
- Temperatures between 20-38°C (optimal: 30-35°C day, 20°C night)
- High solar radiation income, especially during grain filling and Short day
conditions, requiring cultivars insensitive to photoperiod changes to prevent
premature flowering.
Rice can adapt to different environments, making it a widely cultivated crop.
Soil
Rice can grow on a wide range of soil types, including:
- Sandy to heavy clay soils and Shallow to deep soils
The ideal soil pH for rice is between 5.5 and 7.0 (acidic to neutral), but it can
tolerate:
-Slightly alkaline soils (up to pH 6-9)
- Slightly acidic soils (down to pH 5-4)
- Some level of salinity
cultural practices for rice cultivation:
1. Site selection: Depends on rice type and management practices.
2. Land preparation: Thorough ploughing (up to 30cm depth) and incorporation of
organic matter.
3. Planting: Broadcasting, dibbling, drilling, or transplanting (with nursery-
raised seedlings).
4. Weed control: Flooding, hand weeding, mechanical or chemical control
(herbicides).
5. Disease control: Plant resistant cultivars, use copper fungicides, or apply
mercurial dressing.
6. Pest control: Manage stem borers, plant bugs, armyworms, grasshoppers, rats, and
birds.
7. Fertilization: Apply muriate of potash, triple super phosphate, urea, and
decomposed manure or cow dung.
8. Harvesting: Manual or mechanized, usually 4-6 weeks after full flowering.
9. Threshing and winnowing: Separate grains from stalks and husks.
10. Storage and milling: Store paddy in husks, dry to 12.5-14% moisture content,
and mill or parboil before milling.
MAIZE
Here's a summary of the botanical characteristics of maize (Zea mays):
- Member of the Gramineae family
- Originated in Central America
- Plant height varies from 60cm to 4m
- Solid stem with short internodes at base, becoming longer and thicker towards the
top
- Female inflorescence (cob or ear) consists of modified lateral branches with
compressed internodes and overlapping leaf sheaths (husk)
- Each spikelet has two flowers: a non-functional lower flower and an upper flower
with a knobbed-shaped ovary, lemma, and palea
- Ovary surrounded by a long style (silk) that emerges from the husk
- Caryopsis (grain) has a thin wall, nucellus, endosperm, and embryo
- Endosperm consists of two types: hard, flinty proteinaceous layer and soft,
whitish starchy type
- Color varies from white to yellow to purple
- Embryo rich in oil, protein, and minerals, with a scutellum, plumule, and radicle
- Varieties bred for different agricultural purposes, classified based on structure
and characteristics.
Classification
Maize (Zea mays) is classified into six main types based on their characteristics
and uses:
1. Indentata (Dent Maize): known for dented crowns, late maturing, high yielding,
and yellow or white grains.
2. Indurata (Flint Maize): known for small, hard, smooth grains with high protein
content, early maturing, and insect resistance.
3. Amylacea (Soft/Flower Maize): soft, easy to chew or grind, and used for food
preparation.
4. Everata (Pop Corn): pop" when heated, producing a white flinty mass.
5. Tunicata (Pod Corn): Most primitive form of maize, and genetically interesting.
6. Saccharata (Sweet Corn): grains have glossy sweetish endosperm ,commercially
valuable for canning and sale in supermarkets.
Maize (Zea mays) growth requirements:
Climate:
- Tropical crop, some varieties bred for cooler areas
- Minimum temperature: 10-25°C, optimum: 20-25°C
- Maximum temperature: 30-38°C, optimum: 30-35°C
- Rainfall: 500mm minimum, 750-1500mm optimal
- Moisture stress during early growth, tasseling, silking, and grain filling
reduces yields
- High solar radiation income required, shading should be minimized
Soil:
- Well-drained, deep loamy or silty loam with organic matter and available
nutrients
- Optimum pH: 6.0-7.0 (slightly acidic to neutral)
Cultural practices
1. Land preparation: Ploughing, harrowing, ridging, and incorporating organic
matter and crop residues.
2. Planting: Hand or mechanical planting, 2.5-10cm deep, with seed rate dependent
on method, variety, soil moisture, and purpose.
3. Weeding: Shallow weeding to remove weeds and stir up soil surface, with chemical
weed control option available.
4. Irrigation: Provided where rainfall is insufficient, focusing on sensitive
growth stages.
5. Disease and pest control: Seed treatment, crop rotation, and chemical control
measures for diseases like leaf blight and maize smut, and pests like stem borers
and grain weevils.
6. Fertilizer application: Use of local organic sources like compost, animal
manure, and crop residues, with chemical fertilizers applied at planting and side-
dressed later in the season.
7. Harvesting: Typically 7-8 weeks after flowering, with delayed harvesting
possible depending on grain use.
8.Maize storage: barns, silo, cribs, treated with actellic.
Yields: 1-4t/ha, average 3.5-4.5t/ha, up to 6-7t/ha with good management.
Maize harvesting stages:
1. Milk stage (7-8 weeks after flowering):
- Grains fully developed, still liquid-filled
- Plant still green, lower leaves yellowing
- Harvested for immediate consumption, processing, or canning
2. Soft-ripe (dough) stage:
- Liquid inside grain solidifies, grains still soft
- Plant looks greenish, more leaves yellowing
- Harvest and dry cobs if not used immediately to prevent deterioration
3. Full-ripe stage:
- Husk dries out, grains become hard
- Plant looks dry, upper part may still be greenish
- Cobs can be harvested and dried for storage
4. Dead-ripe stage:
- Plant fully dries out, husk becomes brittle, roots decay
- Optimum stage for harvesting, leaving cobs in field after this stage risks
pest damage from birds and weevils.
sorghum
Sorghum (Sorghum vulgare or S. bicolor):
- Family: Gramineae
- Origin: North-East Africa, possibly domesticated in Ethiopia
- Importance: Major food crop in dry areas and poor soils in Africa, India, and
China
- Global production: 50 million/ha, producing over 58 million tons
- Limited global trade, mostly from the US for industrial use.
Sorghum botany:
- Various types, with local cultivars adapted to their environment
- Grain sorghums: grown for grain, fodder, and silage, with diverse panicle and
grain characteristics
- Other types: sorgos, grass sorghum, broomcorn
- Plant characteristics:
- Height: 0.5-6.0m
- Stems: 1 or more, with tillers
- Roots: deep and extensive
- Leaves: variable number, can roll to reduce transpiration
- Panicle: sensitive to temperature and humidity
- Flowering: 6-9 days, mostly self-pollinated
- Grain: reaches maximum dry weight 25-55 days after flowering
- Propagation: by seeds, with 25,000-70,000 seeds per kilogram
- Improvement focuses on yield, early maturity, plant height, palatability, disease
resistance, and witch weed resistance.
Sorghum ecology:
- Adaptable, but prefers hot and warm conditions
- Sensitive to frost, but grows at various altitudes and latitudes
- Thrives in fertile soils, but tolerates poor conditions and drought
- Drought-tolerant due to deep roots, silica content, limited leaf area, and high
water use efficiency
- Can suspend growth during drought and resume when conditions improve
- More drought-tolerant than maize, but maize can be equally resistant at young
stages
- Grows on various soils, but bulrush millet is preferred for very light soils
- Flowering is influenced by genotype, photoperiod, temperature, and day length.
Growth requirements
Sorghum grows in tropical and subtropical areas (50°N-40°S) with:
- Min. 10°C temp for germination, optimal 30-38°C
- 500-750mm water needed during growth
- Can thrive up to 3000m altitude
- Grows on various soils with benefit from organic matter
- Tolerates water logging, drought, and competition with weeds
- Has adaptations for dry conditions and resistance to collapse
- Requires less water than maize for same dry matter production.
Sorghum cultivation and management:
- Often grown as a rain-fed crop, mixed with other crops or in rotation
- Rarely irrigated, except in USA, Sudan, and India
- Land preparation varies, with techniques to ensure good germination and
establishment
- Seed rates vary by area, soil moisture, and nutrient availability
- Can be grown as an intercrop with legumes, like pigeon pea
- Fertilizers are usually only applied under assured rainfall or irrigation
- Harvested between 90-200 days, with potential for ratoon crop
- Yields vary from 300-3000kg/ha with irrigation
- Weeds, like Striga spp, can significantly reduce yields and are difficult to
control.
Harvesting and storage
Sorghum has same storage as maize. Best moisture content for storage is 8-12%.
Species contain high Hydrogen Cyanide (HCN) and therefore not good for animal feed.
Sorghum is a vital crop with various uses:
It is the 4th most important cereal crop
- Staple food in dry tropical areas due to drought resistance
- Used in different food products:
- Bread (unleavened and leavened)
- Porridge
- Boiled grain
- Beer
- Flour can be blended with wheat or maize flour
- Sweet sorghums used for:
- Fresh consumption
- Syrup production
- Grain and residues used as:
- Stock feed
- Building material
- Basket material
- Fuel
Pearl millet
Pearl Millet (Pennisetum americanum):
- Family: Gramineae
- Other names: Spiked millet, cat-tail, bulrush millet, bajra (India)
- Importance:
- Fifth most important cereal after wheat, rice, maize, and sorghum
- Significant crop in tropical, subtropical, and warm temperate regions
- Belongs to family Gramineae, subfamily Panicoideae, and tribe Paniceae
- Origin:
- Probably originated in Central tropical Africa
- Widely cultivated in West Africa, East Africa, and India
- Also grown in the United States for forage purposes
Pearl Millet Botany:
- Annual grass, 0.5-5.0m tall
- Solid stem with variable tillering
- False spike inflorescence, varying in length and rigidity
- Non-photosensitive: 10 weeks to spike emergence, 6 weeks to grain ripening
- Photosensitive: 100+ days to flower, depending on sowing date
- Propagation: Seed
- Improvement focus:
- Varietal development
- Nutritional enhancement
- Seasonal adaptation
- Yield and vigor improvement
- Pest/disease resistance
- Nitrogen fixation potential
Ecology
Pearl millet is a rainfed crop in dry tropical Africa, particularly important in
the Sahel and Sudan zones. It's drought-avoiding, maturing quickly to escape
drought, and thrives in poor soils with low nutrients.
Growth requirements
Pearl millet:
- Can grow in poor soil and with less rainfall than sorghum
- Small seeds may require nursery transplantation
- Short maturity period
- Requires some rain during growth (Pennisetum millet)
- Thrives in hot and dry areas (Panicum millet)
- Cultivation and ripening similar to sorghum
- Grains are threshed and decorticated for flour/beer
- Stores well with less pest damage than sorghum.
Pearl millet cultivation and management
- Versatile planting options
- Early varieties for early harvest
- Minimal land prep needed
- Specific seed rates and spacing
- Regular weeding and thinning
- Limited fertilizer use in Africa, but organic manures in India
- Harvest when ripe, with yields up to 3000kg/ha
- Irrigation can boost yields.
weeds, pests, and diseases that affect pearl millet:
- Less susceptible to witch weed (Striga spp) than sorghum
- Highly susceptible to:- Bird-damage ,Leaf eating caterpillars ,- Stem borers
- Major disease problems:- Downy mildew (Sclerospora graminicola) ,-smut (affecting
grains) ,ergot and rust (affecting leaves, but rarely causing severe damage)
The harvesting and processing of pearl millet:
- Harvested by cutting off ripe heads, which may occur over several weeks due to
uneven ripening
- Threshing done using a stick or by animal treading
- Grain stores well if moisture content is low
- Uses:
- Staple food in tropical Africa and India
- Eaten as porridge, cake, or unleavened bread
- Used to produce beer in some African countries
- Grain and residue used as livestock feed
- Residue also used for house building, fencing, and fuel.
