The Struggle for Swaraj: 1919-27

 The third and the last phase of the national movement began in 1919 when the era of
popular mass movements was initiated.

 After the War, rising political expectations met with economic hardships across all
sections of Indian society. Inflation, depression, unemployment, and the collapse of
wartime industrial growth led to widespread dissatisfaction. Foreign capital threatened
Indian industries, prompting industrialists to support the nationalist movement. Workers,
artisans, peasants, unemployed educated youth, and returning soldiers also turned
towards nationalism, seeking relief from poverty, high taxes, and worsening living
conditions.

 The international situation after World War I boosted the rise of nationalism across Asia
and Africa. The Allied powers—Britain, the US, France, Italy, and Japan—had promised
democracy and self-determination to gain support during the war. However, after their
victory, they broke these promises, continuing colonial domination and dividing the
colonies of defeated nations among themselves at the Paris Peace Conference. This
betrayal led to a wave of militant nationalism born out of widespread disillusionment. In
India, the British made only symbolic constitutional reforms, clearly showing their
unwillingness to share or give up real political power, further fueling nationalist
sentiment.

 Another key outcome of World War I was the decline of the White man's prestige. The
European powers, who had upheld their rule through claims of racial and cultural
superiority, exposed each other's brutal colonial practices through wartime propaganda.
This led colonised people to lose their fear and respect for European dominance,
weakening the myth of white superiority.

 The Russian Revolution of 1917 greatly inspired colonial national movements. Led by
Lenin, the Bolsheviks overthrew the Czarist regime and established the first socialist
state, promoting equality and self-determination. By renouncing imperialist claims and
uplifting oppressed nationalities, the Soviet Union set a powerful example. It showed
colonised peoples that, like Russian peasants and workers, they too could overthrow
oppression through unity, organisation, and determination.

 After World War I, nationalist movements surged across the Afro-Asian world, including
India, Ireland, Turkey, Egypt, and several Asian countries. In response to growing unrest,
the British government adopted a dual policy of concessions and repression—offering
the Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms as the 'carrot.'

THE MONTAGU-CHELMSFORD REFORMS

 In 1919, the Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms led to the Government of India Act,

introducing limited constitutional changes. Provincial councils were enlarged with more
elected members, and Dyarchy was introduced—dividing subjects into 'reserved' (under
the Governor) and 'transferred' (under Indian ministers). However, the Governor retained
financial control and could overrule ministers. At the centre, a bicameral legislature was
created with many nominated members, but it had no real authority over the Governor-
 General. Voting rights remained extremely limited, with fewer than a million eligible
voters in 1920.

 Indian nationalists rejected the 1919 reforms as inadequate. At a special Congress session
in Bombay in 1918, presided over by Hasan Imam, the proposals were condemned as
"disappointing and unsatisfactory," with a demand for real self-government. Some
leaders like Surendranath Banerjea supported the reforms, left Congress, and formed the
Indian Liberal Federation, later known as the Liberals, who played only a minor role in
politics thereafter.

THE ROWLATT ACT

While trying to appease Indians, the Government of India was ready with repression.
Throughout the war, repression of nationalists had continued. The aggressive revolutionaries
had been hunted down, hanged and imprisoned. Many other nationalists, such as Abul Kalam
Azad, had also been kept behind bars. The government now decided to arm itself with more
far-reaching powers, which went against the accepted principles of rule of law, to be able to
suppress those nationalists who would refuse to be satisfied with the official reforms. In
March 1919 it passed the Rowlatt Act, even though every single Indian member of the
Central Legislative Council opposed it. This Act authorised the government to imprison any
person without trial and conviction in a court of law. The Act would thus also enable the
government to suspend the right of Habeas Corpus, which had been the foundation of civil
liberties in Britain.

Mahatma Gandhi Assumes Leadership

The Rowlatt Act of 1919, which restricted civil liberties instead of granting democratic
progress, sparked widespread unrest in India. In response, Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi
emerged as a new leader, bringing with him his experience of non-cooperation and
satyagraha from his anti-racism struggle in South Africa. Gandhi’s deep understanding of the
Indian peasantry's issues allowed him to unite all sections of Indian society into a powerful
mass national movement against British rule.

GANDHIJI AND HIS IDEAS FORMS

MK. Gandhi, born on 2 October 1869 in Porbandar, Gujarat, studied law in Britain before
moving to South Africa, where he became a leader in the fight against racial injustice and
discrimination faced by Indians. During his struggle (1893-1914), he developed the concept
of satyagraha, which emphasized truth, non-violence, and resistance to wrongdoers without
hatred. A true satyagrahi, in Gandhi's view, would accept suffering, love the wrongdoer, and
never fear standing against evil. Gandhi believed non-violence was a strength, not weakness,
and stated that violence was preferable to cowardice in defending one’s honor. He summed
up his philosophy as a commitment to truth and non-violence.

Gandhi believed in integrating thought and practice, with truth and non-violence guiding
daily life rather than just speeches or writings. He had immense faith in the common people's
ability to fight for justice. In 1915, he credited the simple, faith-driven people who worked
alongside him in South Africa for inspiring him. In 1942, he expressed confidence in resisting
British rule through the power of the "dumb millions." Upon returning to India in 1915,
Gandhi spent a year traveling to understand the people's conditions, and in 1916, he founded
the Sabarmati Ashram to promote his ideals and experiment with his methods of non-violent
struggle.

CHAMPARAN SATYAGRAHA (1917)

Gandhi’s first significant experiment in satyagraha occurred in 1917 in Champaran, Bihar,

where indigo farmers were exploited by European planters. The peasants were forced to
dedicate a portion of their land (3/20th) to grow indigo and sell it at prices set by the planters.
These oppressive conditions had led to an earlier uprising in Bengal in 1859-61, which freed
the peasants there. Hearing of Gandhi’s successes in South Africa, Champaran peasants
invited him to help. Gandhi, accompanied by key supporters like Babu Rajendra Prasad and
J.B. Kripalani, arrived in Champaran and began a detailed investigation into the situation.
The district authorities ordered him to leave, but Gandhi refused and was prepared to face
arrest. His defiance forced the government to reverse its decision, and a committee of inquiry
was formed, with Gandhi as a member. The peasants’ conditions were improved, marking
Gandhi’s first successful use of civil disobedience in India. The struggle also provided him
with a firsthand look at the severe poverty faced by rural Indians, shaping his future approach
to social and political issues.

AHMEDABAD MILL STRIKE

In 1918, Gandhi intervened in two significant struggles. In Ahmedabad, he supported mill

workers in their strike for a 35% wage increase, advising non-violence. His fast unto death
led to a victory for the workers when the mill owners agreed to their demands. That same
year, during a crop failure in Kheda, Gandhi backed peasants in withholding land revenue
payments until their demand for remission was met. The struggle ended when the government
agreed to collect revenue only from those who could afford to pay. These movements brought
Gandhi closer to the masses, and he became the leader of poor, nationalist, and rebellious
India. He championed causes like Hindu-Muslim unity, the fight against untouchability, and
improving women's status. Gandhi envisioned an India where the poorest had a voice,
untouchability was abolished, and women had equal rights. Though a devout Hindu, his
outlook was universalist, blending various cultures and promoting a deep connection to
Indian culture while respecting others.

SATYAGRAHA AGAINST THE ROWLATT ACT

In February 1919, Gandhi launched the Satyagraha Sabha in response to the repressive
Rowlatt Act, calling for nonviolent disobedience. This marked a shift in the nationalist
movement, moving from traditional protests and boycotts to a more direct form of action. The
Satyagraha method focused on peaceful resistance and civil disobedience, urging nationalists
to act rather than simply express dissent. Gandhi also focused on involving the common
people in the struggle, particularly peasants, artisans, and the urban poor. He urged nationalist
workers to go to the villages, as he believed that true India lived there. The symbol of this
new approach was khadi, which represented self-reliance and the dignity of labor. Gandhi’s
call for mass political participation led to a wave of nationwide protests in March and April
1919, with strikes, hartals, and demonstrations taking place across India. The movement
united the country and gave rise to a strong resistance against British rule, with the slogans of
Hindu-Muslim unity resonating widely.
JALLIANWALA BAGH MASSACRE

In 1919, after Gandhi's call for a nationwide protest against the repressive Rowlatt Act, the
British government responded with brutal force, particularly in Punjab. On April 13, General
Dyer ordered troops to fire on an unarmed crowd in Jallianwala Bagh, Amritsar, killing and
injuring thousands. This massacre was followed by severe repression, including martial law,
public flogging, arbitrary arrests, and cruel punishments like the "crawling order." The
atrocities shocked the Indian populace and prompted widespread outrage, with figures like
Rabindranath Tagore renouncing their honors in protest. The Jallianwala Bagh massacre and
the subsequent brutal crackdown exposed the true nature of British colonial rule, galvanizing
the Indian nationalist movement and uniting people in their fight for independence.

The Khilafat and Non-Cooperation Movement (1919-22)

The Khilafat movement emerged as a new force in India's nationalist struggle, driven by
growing nationalist sentiments among Muslims, particularly the younger, educated
generation. It gained momentum after the Rowlatt Act protests united Hindus and Muslims in
political action, as seen in the Lucknow Pact and the joint efforts of Swami Shradhanand and
Dr. Kitchlew. The movement was sparked by the mistreatment of the Ottoman Empire by
Britain and its allies, especially the violation of promises made to Turkey regarding its
territories. The Muslims were also concerned about the undermining of the Sultan of
Turkey’s authority as the Caliph, a spiritual leader for many Muslims. The Khilafat
Committee, led by the Ali Brothers, Maulana Azad, and others, launched a nationwide
agitation to protest British actions and protect the religious status of the Caliph.

The All-India Khilafat Conference in November 1919 decided to withdraw cooperation from
the British government if their demands were not met. The Muslim League, under nationalist
leadership, fully supported the Congress in its political agitation. Congress leaders, including
Gandhi and Lokamanya Tilak, saw this as an opportunity to unite Hindus and Muslims and
bring diverse sections of society, such as peasants, workers, women, and youth, into the
national movement. Gandhi believed the Khilafat agitation was a rare opportunity to unite
Hindus and Muslims. In early 1920, he prioritized the Khilafat issue over constitutional
reforms and the Punjab wrongs, announcing he would lead a non-cooperation movement if
the peace terms with Turkey were unsatisfactory. Gandhi soon became a key leader of the
Khilafat movement.

In June 1920, an all-party conference at Allahabad approved a program to boycott schools,

colleges, and law courts in response to the government's refusal to annul the Rowlatt Act,
address the atrocities in Punjab, or meet the nationalist demand for self-government. On 31
August 1920, the Khilafat Committee officially launched the Non-Cooperation Movement.

In September 1920, a special Congress session was held in Calcutta, following the death of
Lokamanya Tilak in August. Gandhiji, C.R. Das, and Motilal Nehru emerged as key leaders.
The Congress supported Gandhi's non-cooperation plan, calling for a boycott of government
institutions, law courts, and elections, and promoting khadi and self-reliance. At the Nagpur
session in December 1920, Congress endorsed mass civil disobedience, including tax refusal,
and restructured its organization, making it more accessible to the masses. Membership fees
were lowered, and the Congress was reorganized into linguistic zones to reach rural areas
effectively.
The Congress transformed into a mass movement for independence, with people, both Hindus
and Muslims, uniting in their struggle for freedom. This shift in focus to mass organization
and civil disobedience, led by Gandhi, led to the departure of some older leaders like
Muhammad Ali Jinnah, G.S. Khaparde, Bipin Chandra Pal, and Annie Besant, who opposed
the move towards direct action and law-breaking methods.

In 1921 and 1922, the Indian independence movement gained unprecedented momentum.
Thousands of students left government institutions to join national schools like Jamia Millia
Islamia, Kashi Vidyapith, and Gujarat Vidyapith. Prominent leaders such as Chittaranjan
Das, Motilal Nehru, and Sardar Patel gave up their legal practices in support of the non-
cooperation movement. The Tilak Swarajya Fund raised over a crore of rupees in six months,
and women actively participated by offering their jewelry. Boycotts of foreign cloth became
widespread, and khadi symbolized freedom. The Khilafat Committee and Congress issued
statements urging Indians to refuse military service under the British government, further
intensifying the movement.

In late 1921, the Congress escalated the independence movement, allowing provincial
committees to initiate civil disobedience, including non-payment of taxes, if the people were
ready. The government responded with repression, imprisoning key nationalist leaders,
leaving only Gandhiji free. In November 1921, protests greeted the Prince of Wales' visit,
leading to violent suppression by the government, resulting in many deaths and injuries. The
Congress reaffirmed its commitment to non-violent non-cooperation at its December session,
urging Indians to continue their struggle through peaceful civil disobedience, promote unity
across communities, and support swadeshi and khadi. Volunteers were also encouraged to
fight untouchability.

By early 1922, the Non-Cooperation Movement had spread widely, gaining support from
peasants and workers across India. In Uttar Pradesh and Bengal, peasants refused to pay
illegal dues, while in the Punjab, Sikhs led the Akali movement to remove corrupt religious
leaders. Labourers in Assam and peasants in Midnapore and Guntur participated in strikes
and protests. In Malabar, Muslim peasants led an anti-zamindar movement. The Viceroy
acknowledged the widespread impact on the lower classes. On 1 February 1922, Gandhiji
announced plans for mass civil disobedience, including non-payment of taxes, unless the
government released political prisoners and lifted press restrictions within a week.

The Non-Cooperation Movement was temporarily halted after the violent incident at Chauri
Chaura on 5 February 1922, where a mob killed 22 policemen. Gandhiji, fearing the
movement might spiral into violence, decided to suspend it. He believed that non-violence
was not yet fully understood by the masses and that a violent movement would be easily
crushed by the British. On 12 February, the Congress Working Committee passed a
resolution to stop activities that could break laws and urged Congress members to focus on
constructive programs like promoting khadi, national schools, temperance, removing
untouchability, and fostering Hindu-Muslim unity.

The Bardoli resolution, which suspended the Non-Cooperation Movement, caused a mixed
reaction among nationalists. While some trusted Gandhiji's strategy, others, especially
younger leaders like Subhas Chandra Bose, felt betrayed by the retreat at a time when public
enthusiasm was at its peak. Bose, in his autobiography The Indian Struggle, described it as a
national calamity and noted that leaders like Deshbandhu Das, Motilal Nehru, and Lala
Lajpat Rai, who were in prison, shared the anger and disappointment over Gandhiji's
decision.
Many other young leaders such as Jawaharlal Nehru had a similar reaction. But both the
people and the leaders had faith in Gandhiji and did not want to publicly disobey him. They
accepted his decision without open opposition. The first Non-Cooperation and Civil
Disobedience Movement virtually came to an end.

In March 1922, the British government arrested Mahatma Gandhi for spreading disaffection
against the government, sentencing him to six years in prison. During his trial, Gandhi
admitted his guilt and expressed his belief that resisting British rule was a patriotic duty. He
criticized British rule for impoverishing India, exploiting its people, and leaving them
defenseless. He argued that the British administration was not for India's welfare but for the
benefit of the foreign exploiters, and he highlighted the government's use of terrorism and
force to suppress the Indian population. Gandhi's statement painted a stark picture of the
exploitation faced by the masses.

In conclusion, Gandhiji expressed his belief that "non-cooperation with evil is as much a duty
as is cooperation with good." The judge noted that he was passing on Gandhiji the same
sentence as was passed on Lokamanya Tilak in 1908.

The Khilafat movement lost its relevance when Mustafa Kamal Pasha, leading a modern
nationalist revolution in Turkey, abolished the Sultan’s political power in 1922 and later the
Caliphate itself in 1924. He transformed Turkey into a secular state by separating religion
from politics, introducing European-style legal codes, nationalising education, expanding
women’s rights, and promoting agriculture and industry. These reforms dismantled the very
foundation of the Khilafat cause. However, in India, the Khilafat movement had already
made a deep impact by bringing urban Muslims into the mainstream of the nationalist
movement and energising the Non-Cooperation Movement. While some historians later
criticised it for mixing religion with politics and potentially fuelling communalism, the
movement was, in reality, a strong expression of anti-imperialist sentiment among Indian
Muslims. Though the nationalist leadership fell somewhat short in transforming this
religious-political awakening into a broader secular consciousness, the Khilafat agitation still
contributed significantly to the unity and intensity of the national struggle. The lack of protest
in India when the Caliphate was officially abolished indicates that Indian Muslims had begun
to move beyond religious symbolism towards a more mature, political engagement with anti-
colonialism.

Though the Non-Cooperation and Civil Disobedience movements ended without achieving
immediate success, they significantly strengthened the national movement. Nationalist ideas
had spread to the remotest areas, engaging millions of peasants, artisans, the urban poor, and
women. This widespread political awakening and mass participation gave the Indian freedom
struggle a truly revolutionary character.

British rule in India was sustained by two main ideas—that it benefited Indians and that it
was unbeatable. While early nationalists had already challenged the idea of benevolent
British rule through economic critiques, the mass phase of the freedom struggle spread this
awareness widely among common people using speeches, songs, pamphlets, and newspapers.
The belief in British invincibility was shattered by Gandhiji’s satyagraha and mass
movements, which instilled fearlessness in people. As Nehru noted, Gandhiji’s greatest
message was to rise above the deep-rooted fear imposed by colonial rule and reclaim self-
confidence and courage.

A major outcome of the Non-Cooperation Movement was that Indians overcame their fear of
British authority. The movement instilled a strong sense of self-confidence and self-respect
among the people, making them unshaken by setbacks. As Gandhiji affirmed, the struggle
that began in 1920 was irreversible and would continue until its ultimate goal was achieved.

The Swarajists

Between 1922 and 1928, Indian politics saw important developments following the
withdrawal of the Non-Cooperation Movement, which caused demoralisation and internal
divisions among nationalists. C.R. Das and Motilal Nehru proposed entering the Legislative
Councils to disrupt colonial governance from within and use them as platforms for political
struggle. Opposed to this, leaders like Sardar Patel, Dr Ansari, and Rajendra Prasad—known
as 'no-changers'—feared this would shift focus away from mass mobilisation and weaken
nationalist unity. They advocated continuing grassroots work through Gandhian constructive
programmes. In December 1922, Das and Nehru formed the Congress-Khilafat Swarajya
Party, which agreed with Congress on all points except for contesting council elections.

The Swarajists and the 'no-changers' now engaged in fierce political controversy. Even
Gandhiji, who had been released on 5 February 1924 on grounds of health, failed in his
efforts to unite them. But both were determined to avoid the disastrous experience of the
1907 split at Surat. On the advice of Gandhiji, the two groups agreed to remain in the
Congress, though they would work in their separate ways.

Despite limited preparation time, the Swarajists performed impressively in the November
1923 elections, winning 42 out of 101 elected seats in the Central Legislative Assembly.
Along with support from other Indian groups, they effectively challenged the government,
pushing issues like self-government, civil liberties, and industrial development. Their success
included getting Vithalbhai J. Patel elected as the Assembly's president in 1925. The
Swarajists helped sustain nationalist momentum and exposed the flaws of the 1919 reforms.
However, they were ultimately unable to influence government policy and withdrew from the
Assembly in 1926 and again in 1930.

While the Swarajists challenged colonial authority through legislative action, the 'no-
changers' focused on constructive grassroots work. They established ashrams, promoted
charkha and khadi, supported the upliftment of lower castes and tribals, and set up national
schools and colleges to foster non-colonial values. These efforts quietly strengthened the
nationalist base and laid the foundation for future civil disobedience. Despite their differing
strategies, both groups shared the same anti-imperialist spirit and maintained cordial
relations, enabling eventual unity for future struggles. However, the movement suffered a
major setback with the death of C.R. Das in June 1925.

As the Non-Cooperation Movement lost momentum, communal tensions escalated, with

communal groups like the Muslim League and the Hindu Mahasabha exploiting the situation.
This led to a series of communal riots and a setback to the idea of Indian unity. The Swarajist
Party was also affected, as some leaders, including Madan Mohan Malaviya and Lala Lajpat
Rai, sought cooperation with the government to protect Hindu interests, accusing Motilal
Nehru of neglecting them. Meanwhile, Gandhiji, committed to Hindu-Muslim unity, fasted in
1924 to atone for communal violence, but his efforts to address the growing divisions were
largely ineffective.

The situation in the country appeared to be dark indeed. There was general political apathy;
Gandhi was living in retirement, the Swarajists were split, communalism was flourishing.
Gandhiji wrote in May 1927: "My only hope lies in prayer and answer to prayer." But, behind
the scenes, forces of national upsurge had been growing. When in November 1927 the
announcement of the formation of the Simon Commission came, India again emerged from
darkness and entered a new era of political struggle.