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Rutherford’s Model

The Rutherford model, proposed by physicist Ernest Rutherford in 1911,

revolutionized our understanding of atomic structure. Rutherford's
groundbreaking experiment, known as the gold foil experiment, provided
compelling evidence that atoms have a nucleus, a dense central core
containing most of the atom's mass and positive charge, with electrons
orbiting around it. Rutherford's model depicted the atom as a miniature
solar system, with electrons orbiting the nucleus much like planets orbit the
sun.

Rutherford’s Alpha Scattering Experiment

In an experiment, Rutherford bombarded a thin gold sheet with α-particles

and tracked the particles' path after they collided with the gold foil. In his
experiment, Rutherford aimed high energy streams of α-particles from a
radioactive source toward a gold sheet that was only 100 nm thick. He
surrounded the thin gold foil with a fluorescent zinc sulphide screen to
examine the deflection the α-particles experienced.

Observations of Rutherford’s Alpha Scattering Experiment

The observations made by Rutherford led him to conclude that:

• Since most of the α-particles that were blasted towards the gold sheet
passed through it undeflected, the majority of an atom's space is
unoccupied.
• The positive charge in an atom is not spread uniformly because some
of the α-particles were deflected by the gold sheet at extremely tiny
angles. Within an atom, the positive charge is concentrated in a
relatively small volume.
• Only a small percentage of the α-particles had an almost 180° angle
of deflection, meaning that very few of them were deflected back.
Therefore, as relation to the overall volume of an atom, the volume
occupied by the positively charged particles in an atom is quite small.
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Atomic model
Gold Foil Experiment

Principles of the Rutherford’s Atomic Model

The atomic structure of elements was hypothesized by Rutherford on the

basis of the facts and conclusions mentioned above. The Rutherford atomic
model states that:

• An atom's positive charge and majority of mass are concentrated in

a minuscule volume. He referred to this area of the atom as the
nucleus.
• Rutherford's model postulated that an atom's nucleus is surrounded
by negatively charged electrons. He also asserted that the electrons
that surround the nucleus travel in a circular motion at a very high
speed. He gave these round routes the term orbits.
• There is a tremendous electrostatic force of attraction holding the
nucleus, which is a highly concentrated mass of positively charged
particles, together because electrons are negatively charged.

Limitations of Rutherford’s Atomic Model

Despite being grounded on experimental facts, the Rutherford atomic model

proved unable to account for some phenomena.

• His theory and model were not able to explain the stability of the
atoms. According to Rutherford’s observation, the electrons in an
atom move at higher speeds around its nucleus in circular orbits. This
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contradicted Maxwell’s observations. Maxwell explained that the

charged particles in the atoms are accelerated, and they release
electromagnetic radiation. Thus, the electrons moving around the
nucleus in an atom must emit electromagnetic radiation. These facts
are not explained in the Rutherford atomic model.
• The orbits made by the electrons will shrink due to the
electromagnetic radiation. These electromagnetic radiations have
energy due to electronic motion. As a result of this, the orbits will
collapse in the nucleus. And if we compare this with Maxwell’s theory
then the nucleus will collapse within 10-8 seconds. And therefore, we
can say that Rutherford’s model does not comply with Maxwell’s
theory, and it fails to explain the stability of the atoms.
• Rutherford’s atomic model does not explain any arrangement of
electrons in the orbit, and hence, it remains incomplete. And this can
be one of the major limitations of Rutherford’s atomic model .

Conclusion:

This model was successful in explaining the nature of neutrality of atoms,

but its propositions were not correct when matched with later experimental
results. However, Rutherford was successful in explaining the true nature of
atoms, while there are many limitations of the Rutherford atomic model,
Rutherford was successful in explaining the true nature of atoms, and his
theory was accepted by all.
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Bohr’s Model

Bohr model, description of the structure of atoms, especially that of

hydrogen, proposed (1913) by the Danish physicist Niels Bohr. The Bohr
model and all of its successors describe the properties of atomic electrons
in terms of a set of allowed (possible) values. Atoms absorb or emit radiation
only when the electrons abruptly jump between allowed, or
stationary, states.

Introduction to the Bohr’s Model

By demonstrating that electrons move in fixed orbitals, or shells, and not

anyplace else in between, as well as the fact that each orbit, or shell, has a
defined energy, Bohr's hypothesis altered the atomic structure model. In
Bohr's model, a tiny, positively charged nucleus is surrounded by negative
electrons that orbit the nucleus. Bohr discovered that an electron has more
energy when it is farther from the nucleus and less energy when it is closer
to the nucleus.

Bohr atomic model

Principles of the Bohr’s Atomic Model

Bohr's atomic model, often known as Bohr's model of hydrogen atoms,

describes the structure of atoms, primarily the hydrogen atom. According to
Bohr's atomic model, electrons orbit the nucleus like planets do around the
sun. Bohr's model of the hydrogen atom is based on the following
fundamental postulates:
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• The electrons in an atom follow a defined circular orbit, also referred

to as a shell, around the positively charged nucleus. One can denote
the orbits as 1, 2, 3,... and the shells as K, L, M, N,...
• The stability of an atom can be explained by the electrons' constant
energy in a given energy level.
• Just those orbits whose mvr = nh/2π, or whose angular momentum is
the integral multiple of h/2π, are allowed. These hypotheses imply that
the angular momentum of an electron is quantized.
• When an electron absorbs energy, it leaps from one energy level to
another, but when it transitions from one energy level to another, it
loses energy. E2-E1 = hv, which is the energy difference between two
energy states.

Merits of Bohr’s model of atom

• Bohr’s atomic model explains the stability of an atom on the basis that
electrons energy remains constant in an orbit or shell.
• It gives basis to find energy of electron in a particular orbit, and the
radius of an orbit from which electron revolves around positively
charged nucleus.
• Bohr’s atomic model successfully explain the atomic spectra of
Hydrogen atom.

Limitations of Bohr’s model of atom

• Bohr’s atomic model fails to explain Stark effect (splitting of spectral

lines under the influence of magnetic field) and Zeeman effect
(splitting of spectral lines under the influence of electric field).
• This theory violates Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle.
• Fails to explain spectra for multielectron systems/larger atoms.
• Fails to explain the shape of the molecule, and so on.
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Quantum Number

Quantum numbers are a collection of numbers that represent the energy

and location of an electron within an atom. Principal, azimuthal, magnetic,
and spin quantum numbers are the four types of quantum numbers.

• Principal quantum numbers

• Azimuthal quantum numbers
• Magnetic quantum numbers
• Spin quantum numbers

Four quantum numbers can be used to completely describe all the

attributes of a given electron belonging to an atom, these are:

• Principal quantum number, denoted by n.

• Orbital angular momentum quantum number (or azimuthal quantum
number), denoted by l.
• Magnetic quantum number, denoted by ml.
• The electron spin quantum number, denoted by ms.

The quantum numbers are parameters that describe the distribution of

electrons in the atom, and therefore its fundamental nature.

• Principal quantum number (n) -Represents the main energy level, or

shell, occupied by an electron. It is always a positive integer, that is n
= 1, 2, 3 ...

• Azimuthal quantum number (l)-Represents the energy sublevel, or

type of orbital, occupied by the electron. The value of l depends on the
value of n such that l=0,1...n-1.This number is sometimes also called
azimuthal, or subsidiary.

• Magnetic quantum number (ml)-Represents the number of possible

orientations in 3-D space for each type of orbital. Since the type of
orbital is determined by l, the value of m l ranges between -l and +l
such that ml=-l, ...0, ...+l.
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• Spin quantum number (mS)-Represents the two possible orientations

that an electron can have in the presence of a magnetic field, or in
relation to another electron occupying the same orbital. Only two
electrons can occupy the same orbital, and they must have opposite
spins. When this happens, the electrons are said to be paired. The
allowed values for the spin quantum number ms are +1/2 and -1/2.

Summary

Principle Quantum Number (n)

Spin Quantum Number (ms)

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Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle

According to Heisenberg's uncertainty principle, it is impossible to precisely

measure or compute an object's momentum and position. The wave-
particle duality of matter serves as the foundation for this idea. Accurately
determining the position and velocity at the same time will not be
achievable. The uncertainty principle was proposed in 1927 by German
physicist Werner Heisenberg, after whom the principle is called. Because of
the fundamental characteristics of quantum physics, measuring one
property of a particle always disrupts the other, making simultaneous
measurements of location and momentum impossible.

Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle Formula

If ∆x is the error in position measurement and ∆p is the error in the

measurement of momentum, then

The principle demonstrates that there is a fundamental uncertainty in the

simultaneous measurement of certain pairs of complementary variables in
quantum mechanics.
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Aufbau Principle

The way that electrons are filled in the atomic orbitals of an atom in its
ground state is determined by the Aufbau principle.
According to this, atomic orbitals fill with electrons in ascending sequence
of orbital energy level. The Aufbau principle states that atomic orbitals with
lower energy levels become occupied first, followed by those with higher
energy levels.
With German origins, the word "Aufbau" means "construct" or "build up" in
general. Following is a diagram that shows the filling order of atomic orbitals.
The primary quantum number is denoted by "n" in this instance, and the
azimuthal quantum number is denoted by "l."

The placement of electrons in an atom and the associated energy levels

can be understood using the Aufbau concept. For instance, the electrical
configuration of carbon, which has six electrons, is 1s2 2s2 2p2.

Characteristics of Aufbau Principle

• Electrons first occupy orbitals with the lowest energy.

• The order in which orbital energy increases can be determined using
the rule (n+l), where n is the main quantum number and l is the
azimuthal numbers.
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• The lower values (n+l) correspond to lower orbital energies. If two

orbitals share equal values (n+l), the lower n value orbital is said to
have less energy associated with it.
• The order in which the orbitals are filled with electrons is 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s,
3p, 4d, 4p, 5s, 4d, 5p, 6s, 4f, 5d, 6p, 7s, 5f, 6d, 7p, and so on.

Exceptions of the Aufbau Principle

• The electronic configuration of (Cr) is [Ar]4s13d5 and not [Ar]4s23d4 (as

the Aufbau principle suggests). This exception is attributed due to
several factors such as the increased stability provided by half-filled
subshells and the relatively small energy gap between the 3d and 4s
subshells.
• Half-filled subshells have lower electron-electron repulsions in the
orbitals, increasing stability. Similarly, subshells also increase the
stability of the atom. Therefore, the electron configurations of certain
atoms disobey the Aufbau rule.
• Copper is another exception to this principle with an electronic
configuration corresponding to [Ar]4s 13d10. This can be stability
provided by a fully filled 3D subshell.

Writing must be arranged in accordance with the value of the primary

quantum number n, even though the electron enters in accordance with the
Aufbau principle. Example:

Zn(30)-1s2 2s2 2s6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 [according to Aufbau principal]
Zn(30)-1s2 2s2 2s6 3s2 3p6 3d104s2 [according to the order of n]
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Hund’s Rule

According to the Aufbau principle, electrons occupy the lowest energy

orbitals first. The electrons proceed to higher energy orbitals once the lower
energy orbitals are occupied. This rule's shortcoming is that it fails to
mention the three 2p orbitals or the sequence in which they will be filled in.

According to Hund’s rule:

• Every orbital in the sub level is singly occupied prior to the double
occupation of any orbital.
• To maximize total spin, every electron in an orbital with a single
occupation has the same spin.

Since an electron can fill all of its orbitals with energy that is similar, it will not
pair with another electron in an orbital that is only partially filled. Ground
state atoms have a large number of unpaired electrons. The behavior of two
electrons in contact would be similar to that of two magnets. Before they
must pair up, the electrons initially attempt to separate as much as possible
from one another.

State and Explanation

It states that:

• All orbitals in a sublevel are singly occupied before they are doubly
occupied.
• The electrons in singly occupied orbitals have the same spin.
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A vacant orbital is entered by the electrons before they couple. Since

electrons have a negative charge, they are repulsed by one another. No
orbital is shared by the electrons to lessen repulsion.

In singly occupied orbitals, unpaired electrons have the same spins when
the second rule is applied. The spin of the first electron in the sublevel
determines the spin of the subsequent electrons. For example, the electron
configuration of a carbon atom would be 1s22s22p2. According to Hund's
rule, the two 2s electrons will occupy the same orbital, whereas the two 2p
electrons will occupy distinct orbitals.

Hund’s Rule of Maximum Multiplicity

According to Hund's Rule of Maximum Multiplicity, the term with the highest
multiplicity has the lowest energy for a particular electron configuration. This
rule states that electron pairing cannot take place in the p, d, or f orbitals
unless every orbital in a particular subshell is either singly occupied or
includes one electron.

Example

• Consider the electron configuration of nitrogen (7) atom: 1s 2 2s2 2p3

The p orbitals are half-filled; there are three electrons and three p orbitals. This is
because the three electrons in the 2p subshell will fill all the empty orbitals first
before pairing with electrons in them. Keep in mind that elemental nitrogen is found
in nature typically as molecular nitrogen, N2, which requires molecular orbitals
instead of atomic orbitals as demonstrated above.

• Next, consider oxygen (8) atom, the element after nitrogen in the
same period; its electron configuration is: 1s2 2s2 2p4
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Pauli Exclusion Principle

One of the cornerstones of quantum physics is the Pauli Exclusion Principle,

which bears the name of the physicist Wolfgang Pauli, who developed it in
1925.
It asserts that a set of quantum numbers cannot be shared by any two
electrons within an atom. This implies that no two electrons in an atom can
have the same quantum state, including the same spin (n, l, ml, and ms). To
put it simply, each electron should be in or have its own distinct state, known
as the singlet state. In essence, the Pauli exclusion principle clarifies why
elements are arranged in the periodic table and aids in our comprehension
of the electron configurations in atoms and molecules.

The simplest example of Pauli exclusion principle is the helium atom, with
two electrons in its 1s orbital. The first three quantum numbers are: n = 1, l =
0, and ml = 0. Therefore, the two electrons have spin quantum numbers: ms =
+1/2 and ms = -1/2 [1-4].
Similarly, the electron spins of oxygen, fluorine, and neon are illustrated below

The exclusion principle makes it simple to determine the maximum number

of electrons in various energy levels. For example, if n = 1, 2, 3, 5, or 6, the 's'
orbital has the capacity to hold two electrons; if l = 1, the p orbital can hold
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six electrons; if l = 2, the d orbital can hold ten electrons; and if l = 3, the f
orbital may hold fourteen electrons. The number of electrons and orbitals in
each subshell are displayed in the following table.

Subshell Number of orbitals Maximum number of electrons Electron configuration

S 1 1*2=2 s2
P 3 3*2=6 p6
d 5 5*2=10 d10
f 7 7*2=14 f14

Scope and Application of Inorganic Compounds

The scope and application of inorganic compounds are vast,

encompassing a wide range of industries and fields due to the diverse
properties and functionalities they offer. Here's an overview:

1. Chemical Industry:
(a) Catalysts: Many inorganic compounds serve as catalysts in various
chemical processes. For instance, transition metal complexes are crucial
catalysts in organic synthesis.
(b) Reagents: Compounds like acids, bases, and salts are fundamental
reagents in chemical reactions.
(c) Raw Materials: Inorganic compounds serve as raw materials for
manufacturing other chemicals, such as ammonia for fertilizers and sulfuric
acid for industrial processes.

2. Materials Science:
(a) Ceramics: Inorganic compounds are fundamental in the production of
ceramics, which find applications in electronics, construction, and even
biomedical fields.
(b) Glass: Glass manufacturing relies heavily on inorganic compounds like
silica, sodium carbonate, and calcium carbonate.
(c)Semiconductors: Many inorganic compounds are used in
semiconductor fabrication, crucial for electronics and computing industries.
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3. Medicine:
(a) Pharmaceuticals: Inorganic compounds are used in medicine, both as
active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) and as diagnostic agents.
Examples include platinum-based chemotherapy drugs and contrast
agents for imaging techniques.
(b) Biomaterials: Some inorganic compounds are utilized as biomaterials
in implants and medical devices.

4. Environmental Applications:
(a) Water Treatment: Compounds like chlorine and ozone are used for
water disinfection.
(b) Catalysts for Environmental Remediation: Inorganic catalysts are
employed in processes like catalytic converters to reduce emissions from
vehicles.
(c) Soil Amendments: Inorganic compounds such as lime are used to
amend soil pH and improve fertility.

5. Energy Industry:
(a) Batteries: Inorganic compounds are essential components of batteries,
such as lithium-ion batteries.
(b) Fuel Cells: Catalysts based on inorganic compounds are used in fuel
cells for efficient energy conversion.
(c) Solar Cells: Many photovoltaic materials are composed of inorganic
compounds like silicon.

6. Construction and Engineering:

(a) Cement: Cement, a key material in construction, is made from
inorganic compounds like calcium carbonate, silica, alumina, and iron
oxide.
(b) Paints and Pigments: Many pigments and additives used in paints and
coatings are inorganic compounds.

7. Agriculture:
(a) Fertilizers: Compounds like ammonium nitrate and potassium chloride
are essential components of fertilizers.
(b) Pesticides: Some inorganic compounds are used as pesticides and
herbicides in agriculture.
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8. Nanotechnology:
(a) Inorganic nanoparticles are utilized in various fields, including
electronics, medicine, and catalysis, due to their unique properties and
applications.

Inorganic compounds play critical roles in nearly every aspect of modern

life, from basic chemical processes to advanced technologies and
applications. Their versatility and utility make them indispensable in a wide
range of industries and scientific endeavors.

Pharmaceutical Uses of Inorganic Compounds

Inorganic compounds play essential roles in pharmaceuticals, contributing

to the development of therapeutic agents, diagnostic tools, and drug
delivery systems. Here are some key pharmaceutical uses of inorganic
compounds:

1. Chemotherapy Agents: Platinum-based inorganic compounds, such as

cisplatin, carboplatin, and oxaliplatin, are widely used in cancer treatment.
These compounds form DNA adducts, disrupting DNA replication and
leading to apoptosis (cell death) in rapidly dividing cancer cells.

2. Radiopharmaceuticals: Inorganic compounds containing radioactive

isotopes are used in nuclear medicine for diagnostic imaging and targeted
therapy. Examples include technetium-99m complexes for imaging and
lutetium-177 for therapeutic purposes in cancer treatment.

3. Contrast Agents: Inorganic compounds like gadolinium-based

complexes are employed as contrast agents in magnetic resonance
imaging (MRI) scans to enhance the visibility of soft tissues and blood
vessels, aiding in the diagnosis of various medical conditions.
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4. Antibacterial Agents: Silver compounds, such as silver sulfadiazine, are

utilized as topical antimicrobial agents to prevent infection in burns and
wounds. Silver nanoparticles also exhibit antibacterial properties and find
application in wound dressings and medical devices.

5. Antacids and Antireflux Agents: Inorganic compounds like aluminum

hydroxide, magnesium hydroxide, and calcium carbonate are used as
antacids to neutralize excess stomach acid and as antireflux agents to
alleviate symptoms of gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD).

6. Iron Supplements: Iron salts, such as ferrous sulfate and ferrous

gluconate, are commonly used as oral iron supplements to treat iron
deficiency anemia, a condition characterized by low levels of hemoglobin
and red blood cells.

7. Electrolytes: Inorganic salts containing ions like sodium, potassium,

chloride, and calcium are used as electrolytes in intravenous fluids to restore
electrolyte balance in patients with dehydration, electrolyte imbalances, or
fluid loss due to various medical conditions.

8. Diagnostics: Inorganic compounds are used in diagnostic tests and

imaging techniques. For example, radioactive isotopes like technetium-99m
are employed in single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT)
imaging, while contrast agents based on iodine compounds are used in X-
ray imaging and computed tomography (CT) scans.

9. Bone Health: Calcium and phosphate salts are used in the treatment and
prevention of osteoporosis and other bone disorders. These inorganic
compounds are essential components of bone tissue and are
supplemented to maintain bone density and strength.

These examples illustrate the diverse pharmaceutical uses of inorganic

compounds, highlighting their critical roles in disease treatment, diagnosis,
and patient care.