1.

Write a note on the caves of Bhimbetka with special reference to

Pre-historic painting. (8)

Bhimbetka is located forty five kilometres south of Bhopal, in an area of

ten square kilometres, having about eight hundred rock shelters, five
hundred of which bear paintings.
 Recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2003, these rock
shelters offer one of the earliest traces of human life in India and
present crucial evidence of prehistoric art and culture.
 The caves of Bhimbetka were discovered in 1957–58 by eminent ar
chaeologist V.S. Wakankar.
 The site comprises over 700 rock shelters, of which around 400
contain paintings, believed to date from the Paleolithic, Mesolithic,
Chalcolithic, and even later periods.

Key features of Bhimbetka’s prehistoric paintings include:

The themes of paintings found here are of great variety, ranging from
mundane events of daily life in those times to sacred and royal images.
These include hunting, dancing, music, horse and elephant riders, animal
fighting, honey collection, decoration of bodies, and other household
scenes.
 Subjects: The art mainly depicts hunting scenes, dancing, animal
fights, domestic life, and religious rituals. Animals like bison, tigers,
elephants, and deer are frequently shown, along with human figures.
 Style: The paintings are made in simple, linear style during the early
period, progressing to more elaborate and colorful depictions in later
periods.
 Colors: Natural pigments like red and white (derived from hematite
and limestone) were primarily used. Green and yellow pigments also
appear in some artworks.
 Technique: Brushes made of plant fibers or fingers were likely used.
The durability of the art suggests advanced techniques of paint
preparation and application.
 The rock art of Bhimbetka has been classified into various groups on
the bases of style, technique and superimposition.
 The drawings and paintings can be catagorised into seven historical
periods. Period I, Upper Palaeolithic; Period II, Mesolithic; and Period
III, Chalcolithic. After Period III there are four successive periods. But
we will confine ourselves here only to the first three phases.

Conclusion
The Bhimbetka paintings bridge the gap between prehistoric art and
historical continuity, showcasing the evolution of artistic expression and
providing valuable information about the socio-cultural and spiritual life
of early humans in the Indian subcontinent.

2. Describe the significance of the seals of Indus Valley Civilization? (8)

The Harappan seal is possibly the most distinctive artefact of the

Harappan or Indus valley civilisation. Made of a stone called steatite,
seals like this one often contain animal motifs and signs from a script of
Indus Valley Civilisation.

Description of Seals
 Pictographic Script: The standard Harappan seal was a square
plaque, usually made of steatite and engraved with a pictographic
script, which is yet to be deciphered.
 While most of the seals are square, it was found that triangular,
rectangular, circular and cylindrical seals were also being used.
 Other materials used in making seals of Indus Valley Civilization
were agate, chert, faience, terracotta, gold, ivory and copper.
 Figures on seals: Generally, they had an animal or human figure on
one side and an inscription on the opposite side or inscriptions on
both sides.
 Animal Figures: Include the Unicorn Bull, Rhinoceros, Tiger,
Elephant, Bison, Goat, Buffalo etc. However, there was no evidence
of cow breed on the seals.
 Purpose: Seals were likely used for commercial purposes, potentially
as identity cards or amulets.

Different functions of the Seals

 Economic Function: The seals were used for trade and
administrative purposes. They likely served as markers for
ownership, identification of goods, or authorizing transactions. Many
seals have been found in commercial areas and warehouses,
indicating their use in regulating trade.
 Artistic and Craftsmanship Excellence: The seals reflect a high
degree of artistic skill and craftsmanship.
 Clues to the Indus Script: Many seals are inscribed with short texts in
the still-undeciphered Indus script, offering vital evidence of a
writing system in the civilization.
 Religious and Cultural Insights: The motifs on the seals such as the
famous “Pashupati” seal depicting a horned figure in a yogic posture
provide clues to religious beliefs and practices.
 Interregional Trade Evidence: Indus seals have been found in distant
regions such as Mesopotamia (modern Iraq), suggesting extensive
long-distance trade and cultural exchange between these early
civilizations.

Conclusion
The Indus seals are key to understanding the economic, cultural, and
symbolic systems of one of the world's earliest urban societies, even
though much about them remains mysterious due to the undeciphered
script.

3. Explain the features of Stupas during Maurayan period? (8)

A Stupa is a dome-shaped sacred monument containing relics of the

Buddha or other sacred objects. It holds religious and symbolic
significance in Buddhist architecture. Originating in India before the 5th
century BCE, stupas evolved from simple burial mounds into sacred
Buddhist monuments, becoming central to Buddhist worship and
practice.

Mauryan Empire
 Stupas gained prominence under Emperor Ashoka (268–232 BCE),
who is credited with building thousands of stupas to
propagate Buddhism.
 Before Ashoka’s reign, eight stupas were built to enshrine the
cremated remains of the Buddha at significant locations tied to his
life.
 Ashoka redistributed these relics into numerous stupas across his
empire, symbolising spiritual energy and enlightenment.
 Subsequently, stupas also honoured Buddhist
arhats (saints), bodhisattvas (enlightened beings), and local deities.

Stupas Features
The stupa’s basic architectural form resembles an inverted bowl. The
flattened top of the dome, called the harmika, symbolises the abode of
the gods. At its core, the stupa contains relics stored in gold or silver
caskets. A central wooden rod, or yasti, rises from the middle of the
structure and is adorned with three symbolic umbrella-like discs
representing respect, veneration, and generosity. The stupa’s design is
rich in symbolism and adheres to specific structural elements, including:
 Medhi: The square platform at the base, often surrounded by
a vedika(boundary wall).
 Anda: The hemispherical dome that encloses a casket containing
relics or symbols.
 Harmika: A square railing atop the dome, symbolising a sacred
enclosure.
 Yasti: The central spire or mast, representing the axis mundi (cosmic
axis).
 Chhatras: A series of parasols above the yasti, symbolising protection
and the Buddha’s teachings.
 Toranas: Ornate gateways aligned with the cardinal directions, each
associated with significant events in Buddha’s life:
 East: Birth of the Buddha
 South: Enlightenment
 West: First sermon
 North: Nirvana
 The circumambulatory path (pradakshina patha) encircling
the medhi allows devotees to perform ritualistic walkarounds as an
act of reverence.

Conclusion
During the Mauryan period (322 BCE-185 BCE), stupa architecture
underwent significant development, and stupas became more elaborate
and decorative. King Ashoka played a crucial role in propagating
Buddhism and utilising stupa architecture to spread Buddhist teachings
and imperial authority.

4. Maurayan architecture has played a significant role in the

foundation of later Indian architecture. In this regard illustrate the
featurs of Maurayan architecture. (12)

The Mauryan Empire, thriving from the 4th to 2nd centuries BC (322 BC
to 182 BC), made a profound impact on Indian history through its artistic
and architectural achievements. Notably, Mauryan Architecture of
sandstone pillars, featuring inscriptions of Emperor Ashoka’s edicts,
became iconic symbols. Stupas, grand dome-shaped Buddhist shrines,
showcased the Empire’s architectural prowess, while viharas, housing
Buddhist monks, reflected a commitment to religious support. This
period witnessed the prominence of monumental stone sculpture and
architecture, reaching its zenith under Ashoka’s reign. The emphasis
shifted to court art, with Ashoka’s adoption of Buddhism influencing
distinctive sculptural and architectural styles. Stupas, Pillars, Caves,
Palaces, and Potteries emerged as expressions intertwined with the lives
and patronage of ordinary people.

Features of Mauryan Architecture

 Indigenous in origin: Many scholars believe that Mauryan art
originated indigenously as a combination of court and folk elements.
 Wooden Construction: Predominantly built with wood, both
Chandragupta Maurya and Ashoka’s palaces exemplified Mauryan
architecture.
 Kumrahar Significance: Kumrahar in Patna showcased notable
Mauryan palaces, featuring intricate carvings and designs.
 Multifunctional Palaces: Used for governance, administration, and
hosting guests, Mauryan palaces served diverse purposes.
 Lost Structures: While some palaces succumbed to time, remaining
ones at Kumrahar offer glimpses into the empire’s grandeur.
 Opulence and Wealth: Reflecting the empire’s prosperity, Mauryan
palaces demonstrated opulence through their design and
construction.
 Architectural Diversity: From wooden palaces to rock-cut caves,
Mauryan architecture exhibited versatility and adaptation to
different terrains.
 Historical Insights: The surviving structures provide valuable insights
into ancient Indian architecture, design, and cultural practices.
 Cultural Significance: Mauryan architecture reflects the cultural
richness and administrative acumen of the Mauryan Empire.
 Monolithic construction of Pillars of Ashoka: These pillars were
carved out of single blocks of stone. They were inscribed with edicts
of Emperor Ashoka in Brahmi script, promoting Dhamma (moral
law). Animal capitals: The most famous is the Lion Capital at
Sarnath, which is now the national emblem of India. These capitals
often featured animals like lions, bulls, elephants, and horses,
symbolizing power and religious significance.
 Urban Planning: Cities like Pataliputra had well-planned layouts with
fortified walls, palaces, and water management systems.
Conclusion
Mauryan architecture represents the beginning of a grand Indian
architectural tradition. Its legacy can be seen in the pillars, stupas, and
cave architecture that influenced subsequent dynasties like the Shungas,
Guptas, and even the South Indian temple styles.

5. Dfferenciate between the Gandhara and Mathura school of art and

sculptures. (8)

The first century CE onwards, Gandhara (now in Pakistan) and Mathura

in northern India emerged as important centres of art production.
Buddha in the symbolic form got a human form in Mathura and
Gandhara. The sculptural tradition in Gandhara had the confluence of
Bactria, Parthia and the local Gandhara tradition.

The local sculptural tradition at Mathura became so strong that the

tradition spread to other parts of northern India. The best example in
this regard is the stupa sculptures found at Sanghol in the Punjab.The
Buddha image at Mathura is modelled on the lines of earlier Yaksha
images whereas in Gandhara it has Hellenistic features.

Difference between Mathura and Gandhara school of art

 Area: The Gandhara school of art mostly flourished in areas of
Afghanistan and present North-west India whereas Mathura school
of art developed and flourished in Mathura and areas of Uttar
Pradesh.
 Time period: The Gandhara school of art flourished from first
century BC to fifth century AD whereas the Mathura school of art
originated in the first century BC and flourished till twelfth century
AD.
 External influence: Gandhara school of art was influenced by Greek
and possibly Macedonians whereas Mathura school of art was purely
indigenous with no external influence.
 Religious influence: Gandhara school of art was influenced by
Buddhism while Mathura school of art was Influenced by Hinduism,
Buddhism and Jainism.
 Material used: Gandhara school of art used bluish Grey and grey
sandstone whereas Mathura school of art used spotted red
sandstone.
 Expression: The expression of calmness is the centre point of
attraction of Gandhara Buddha whereas Mathura Buddha is
delighted in mood, seated in Padmasana and right hand in
Abhyamudra and left hand on left thigh showing masculinity.
 Halo: The Halo around the head of Buddha was not decorated
generally in Gandhara school of art while it was largely decorated in
Mathura school of art.
 Narrative Panels: Gandhara art often featured narrative panels
depicting scenes from the life of the Buddha, as well as Jataka tales
and other religious stories. In contrast the sculptures of the Mathura
School had a profound influence on the narratives and artistic
depictions in major Indian religions of the time, including Hinduism,
Jainism, and Buddhism.

Conclusion
The other two famous schools were Amaravati School and Sarnath
School of art. All these art schools were mostly inspired by religion and
have left behind a rich heritage.

6. Give an account of literature during the Maurayan Empire. (8)

The Mauryan Empire (322 BCE – 185 BCE) was a major turning point in
ancient India, known for its political unification and centralized rule.
While limited artistic and literary works survive, sources like the
Arthasastra, foreign accounts such as Megasthenes’ Indica, and
remnants of Mauryan art offer important insights into the cultural life of
this influential period.

Mauryan Kings patronised Buddhism and other religious sects like

Ajivikas. The tolerant religious policies, flourishing economy and
peaceful empire under Ashoka made literature flourish. The literature is
described as under:
 Language and Texts: Buddhist and Jain texts were predominantly
written in Pali. Sanskrit language and literature were enriched by
Panini and Katyayana (contemporary of the Nandas; he wrote a
commentary on Panini’s work).
 Arthasastra: The Arthasastra contains 15 books and 180 chapters
but it can be divided into three parts. The first deals with the king
and his council and the departments of government; the second with
 civil and criminal law; and the third with diplomacy and war. It is the
most important literary source for the history of the Mauryas.
 Edicts of Ashoka: Another significant literary contribution is the
Edicts of Ashoka, inscribed on pillars and rocks across the empire,
written in Prakrit and Greek. These edicts reflect Emperor Ashoka’s
Buddhist values and administrative policies. During the Mauryan era,
Prakrit, Pali, and Sanskrit were the primary languages, with Buddhist
and Jain literature seeing significant development in the Pali canon
and Jain Agamas.
 Buddist literature: Deepvamsha and Mahavamsha Divyavadana,
Ashokavandana, Mahabodhivamsha, Digghanikaya, Milindpanho,
 Indica by Megasthenes: It tells the story of India during the reign of
the Maurya Dynasty. According to Indica, Heracles (a legendary
Greek hero) helped to build the great city of Pataliputra. It also
talked about the economy and society prevalent in the Mauryan
period.

Conclusion
Despite limited surviving sources, the Mauryan Empire emerges as a
sophisticated, dynamic period. The Arthasastra highlights complex
governance, while Megasthenes reveals social and political life.
Multilingualism is evident in religious texts and Sanskrit’s evolution.
These fragments offer a glimpse into India’s first great empire, fueling
ongoing research and understanding.

7. Describe the features of the Sarnath (Lion Capital) & Lauriya

Nandangarh of the Mauryana Empire (8)

Mauryan pillars are free-standing, tall, well proportionate, with tapering

shafts and monolithic.They are made of sandstone which was quarried
at Chunar.The pillars have a lustrous polish.The erection of pillars was
prevalent in the Achaemenian empire. Stone pillars were erected by
Ashoka, which have been found in north India with inscriptions engraved
by them.

Sarnath (Lion Capital) (Uttar Pradesh)

The ‘Sarnath Lion Capital’ was commissioned by the Mauryan Emperor
King Ashoka in the 3rd Century BCE. This towering Lion Capital (210 x
283 cms) originally stood (on the top of an Ashokan pillar) at the spot
where Gautama Buddha is believed to have delivered his path-breaking
first sermon after enlightenment or awakening, thereby setting the
wheel of Dharma in motion (Dharmachakrapravartana).
 The magnificent Lion Capital at Sarnath is carved from a single block
of highly polished Chunar stone and as mentioned earlier, was part
of a giant Ashokan Pillar that consisted of five component parts.
 Part I: The inscribed pillar shaft at the bottom which was also the
longest part. It was found in damaged condition and fragments can
be viewed at the Sarnath Archaeological site.
 Part II: A lotus bell base with 16 petals.
 Part III: A drum or circular abacus on the bell base with four 24-
spoked chakras or wheels which are interspersed by four animals –
an elephant, a lion, a bull and a horse, in remarkable motion on its
frieze.
 Part IV: The naturalistically carved figures of four majestic lions
which are seated back-to-back and mounted on the abacus (four
addorsed lions).
 Part V: The crowning element, a large Dharmachakra (a wheel
believed to have had 32 spokes and referred to as a maha-chakra by
Agrawala) which sat atop the lions. Five fragments of this wheel and
three spokes were recovered during the excavation are on display at
the museum.
Lauriya Nandangarh (Bihar)
 The top of the pillar is bell-shaped with a circular abacus.
 It has six edicts inscribed on its polished stone shaft.
 Situated on the trade route that connects the eastern Gangetic basin
with western Asia.
 The lotus bell capital supports a drum carved with a row of geese. A
seated lion crowns the capital.
 The pillar reveals the Achaemenid and Hellenistic influences on the
Indian stone carving tradition.
 Emperor Ashoka commemorated the site of Lauriya Nandangarh
with a Dhamma Stambhadorned with a single Lion Capital at the top.

Conclusion
Ashoka pillars as a symbol of the state, assumed a great significance in
the entire Mauryan Empire.The main objective was to disseminate the
Buddhist ideology and court orders in the entire Mauryan empire. While
most Ashoka pillar edicts were in Pali and Prakrit language, few were
written in Greek or Aramaic language also.
8. Mention the characteristics of the Ajanta caves paintings. (8)

The Ajanta cave paintings, dating from the 2nd century BCE to about 480
CE, are some of the finest surviving examples of ancient Indian art.
Found in the rock-cut caves of Ajanta in Maharashtra, these paintings
are primarily Buddhist in theme and form an important part of India's
cultural and artistic heritage.

The key characteristics of the Ajanta cave paintings:

 Religious Themes: The paintings mainly depict Buddhist themes,
focusing on the life of the Buddha, Jataka tales (stories of the
Buddha’s previous births), and scenes of Buddhist teachings and
rituals. Some caves are Hinayana (early Buddhism) and others
Mahayana (later Buddhism), showing an evolution in religious
expression.
 Narrative Style: The paintings follow a continuous narrative style,
where multiple scenes from a story are shown within a single
composition, often without dividing frames. Characters may appear
multiple times in the same painting, showing different moments of
the same story.
 Human Expression and Emotion: The figures are naturalistic and full
of grace, emotion, and movement. Expressions of compassion,
sorrow, devotion, and joy are vividly portrayed, reflecting high
artistic skill in capturing human emotions.
 Use of Color and Technique: Artists used the fresco-secco technique.
Earth-based pigments were used: red ochre, lapis lazuli (blue), green,
white, yellow, and black. Despite centuries of wear, many colors
remain vibrant due to the skillful application and natural ingredients.
 Ornamental Detailing: Rich decorative patterns are seen in clothing,
jewelry, architecture, and background elements.
 Idealized Human Forms: The human figures are idealized, with
elongated eyes, graceful limbs, and serene faces, often following the
Indian canons of beauty and proportion. Bodhisattvas like
Padmapani and Avalokiteshvara are depicted as divine,
compassionate beings in majestic postures.
 Integration with Architecture: The paintings complement the
architectural design of the caves, especially in Chaitya halls and
Viharas, often covering entire walls and ceilings.
 Influence and Legacy: These paintings influenced not only later
Indian mural traditions but also Buddhist art in Sri Lanka, Southeast
 Asia, and Central Asia. They are considered a precursor to classical
Indian art as seen in later periods like the Gupta era.
 Preservation: Despite their age, the Ajanta cave paintings remain
remarkably vivid and well-preserved, a testament to the skillful
techniques and durable materials used by the artists.

Conclusion
The Ajanta cave paintings stand as a testimony to the spiritual depth,
artistic brilliance, and cultural richness of ancient India. They continue to
be revered for their beauty, historical significance, and influence on
Indian art.

9. Give the detail description of Ellora caves in the context of religion

and architecture style. (12)

Ellora caves are located a hundred kilometres from Ajanta and has
thirty-four Buddhist, Brahmanical and Jain caves. It is a unique art-
historical site in the country as it has monastries associated with the
three religions dating from the fifth century CE onwards to the eleventh
century CE.

Features of Ellora caves:

 It is also unique in terms of stylistic eclecticism, i.e., confluence of
many styles at one place.
 The caves of Elloraand Aurangabad show the ongoing differences
between the two religions—Buddhism and Brahmanical.
 There are twelve Buddhist caves having many images belonging to
Vajrayana Buddhism like Tara, Mahamayuri, Akshobhya, etc.
 Buddhist caves are big in size and are of single, double and triple
storeys.
 Their pillars are massive. Ajanta also has excavated double-storeyed
caves but at Ellora, the triple storey is a unique achievement.
 All the caves were plastered and painted but nothing visible is left.
 The shrine Buddha images are big in size; they are generally guarded
by the images of Padmapani and Vajrapani.
 The only double-storey cave of the Brahmanical faith is Cave No. 14.
 Pillar designs grow from the Buddhist caves and when they reach the
Jain caves belonging to the ninth century CE, they become very
ornate and the decorative forms gain heavy protrusion.
 The Brahmanical Cave Nos. 13–28 have many sculptures. Many caves
are dedicated to Shaivism, but the images of both Shiva and Vishnu
and their various forms according to Puranic narrative are depicted.
 The sculptures at Ellora are monumental, and have protruding
volume that create deep recession in the picture space.
 Cave No. 16 is known as Kailash leni. A rock-cut temple has been
carved out of a single rock, a unique achievement of the artisans.
 The Ellora Caves are not only an architectural and artistic marvel but
also a powerful symbol of India's religious and cultural unity.
 They exhibit a transition from cave sanctuaries to structural temples,
with advanced artistry, engineering, and spiritual significance
spanning three major Indian religions.

Conclusion
The Ellora Caves are not only an architectural and artistic marvel but also
a powerful symbol of India's religious and cultural unity. They exhibit a
transition from cave sanctuaries to structural temples, with advanced
artistry, engineering, and spiritual significance spanning three major
Indian religions.

10. Discuss the origin and evolution of Nagara style temple

architecture withs its characteristcs. (12)

The Nagara style of temple architecture, a significant facet of Indian

cultural heritage, showcases a rich blend of spirituality and artistic
brilliance. Tracing back to the 5th century, the Nagara style of temples
originated in the northern regions of India and was first documented by
the Gupta dynasty in the 5th century CE. Its evolution can be observed
through various periods, each contributing unique elements to the
overall aesthetic.
At its core, the Nagara style of temple architecture is deeply rooted in
Vastu Shastra, an ancient Indian architectural science. This influence is
evident in the meticulous planning and alignment of the temples.
Nagara temples are built on a raised plinth, with the garbha griha
(sanctum sanctorum) — where the idol of the deity rests — the most
sacred part of the temple.

Evolution
 Khajuraho, Madhya Pradesh The Kandariya Mahadeva Temple is a
masterpiece of Nagara architecture dating back to the 11th century.
 Jagdish Temple, Udaipur built in the mid-17th century, exemplifies
the Nagara architecture style in the royal city of Udaipur. Its three-
tiered Shikhara, rising gracefully above the cityscape, captures the
essence of Rajput architecture.
 Laxminarayan Temple, Bhopal a relatively modern example, the
Laxminarayan Temple in Bhopal showcases the adaptability of
Nagara architecture. Built in the 20th century, it seamlessly blends
traditional design elements with contemporary aesthetics.
 Baijnath Temple, Himachal Pradesh nestled in the scenic landscapes
of Himachal Pradesh, the Baijnath Temple is a significant Nagara-
style shrine dedicated to Lord Shiva. The temple, believed to be over
800 years old, boasts a tall and slender Shikhara with intricate
carvings. The simplicity of its design and the serene surroundings
make it a spiritual retreat.

Major Features of Nagara Style of Architecture or North India Temple

Style include the following:
 Shikhara: The shikhara is the tallest tower of the temple. It is
typically pyramidal and tapers towards the top. It is topped by a
bulbous finial called a kalasha.
 Plan: Nagara temples are typically built on a square or rectangular
plan. The shikhara is located in the center. The temple may also have
many smaller towers, called mukhamandapas, located around the
shikhara.
 Walls: The walls of Nagara temples are typically made of stone or
brick. They are decorated with sculptures and reliefs. The walls may
also have a series of windows, which allow light to enter the temple.
 Pillars: The pillars of Nagara temples are typically carved with
intricate designs. They are topped by capitals that support the roof.
 Toranas: The toranas are the gateways to the temple. They are
typically made of stone or wood and are decorated with sculptures
and reliefs.
 Mandapa: The mandapa is the main hall of the temple. It is where
the devotees gather to worship the deity. Pillars typically support the
mandapa and have a high ceiling.
 Garbhagriha: The garbhagriha is the innermost sanctum of the
temple, where the deity is enshrined. It is a small, dark room that is
only accessible to the priests.

Conclusion
The Nagara style of temple architecture stands as a testament to India’s
rich cultural and spiritual legacy. Its intricate design, symbolic elements,
and regional variations contribute to a vibrant architectural heritage that
continues to captivate and inspire. As we explore these temples, we not
only witness architectural marvels but also delve into the profound
spiritual journey embedded in every stone and sculpture.

11. Write a Note the features of Dravida style temple architecture with
special reference to the shore temple at Mahabalipuram. (12)

Dravidian architecture, as defined by Vastushastra, is a style prominent

in South India that showcases unique temple designs and structures.
This architectural style is distinguished by its intricate carvings and
towering gopurams (gateway towers), reflecting the cultural and
religious heritage of the region. Dravidian architecture plays a vital role
in the identity of South Indian temples, contributing to their aesthetic
appeal and spiritual significance.

Features of Dravida Style Temple Architecture

 Vimana (Superstructure): The Dravida style is marked by a stepped
pyramidal tower (vimana) that rises above the sanctum
(garbhagriha). Unlike the curvilinear shikhara of the Nagara style, the
vimana of Dravida temples is tiered and straight-edged.
 Garbhagriha (Sanctum Sanctorum): The sanctum is a small, square
chamber housing the main deity. It is the most sacred part of the
temple and is usually accessed through a short vestibule (antarala).
 Mandapa (Hall): A hall or series of halls (mandapas) precedes the
garbhagriha. These are used for congregation and rituals. The halls
are supported by ornate pillars and may be open or closed.
 Gopurams (Gateway Towers): Though they became more prominent
in later periods (e.g., Chola and Vijayanagara), gopurams in early
Dravida style were smaller, serving as gateways to the temple
complex.
 Use of Stone and Rock-cut Techniques: Early Dravida temples,
especially under the Pallavas, were often monolithic or rock-cut,
showcasing intricate carvings and fine detailing.
 Decorative Elements: Pillars, walls, and ceilings are adorned with
sculptures depicting deities, mythological scenes, and motifs like
yalis (mythical creatures), lions, and floral patterns.

Shore Temple at Mahabalipuram

The Shore Temple, located on the Coromandel Coast, is one of the
earliest structural (not rock-cut) stone temples of South India and a
UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Key Features:
 Tripartite Structure: The temple complex consists of three shrines –
two dedicated to Lord Shiva and one to Lord Vishnu. The central and
largest shrine faces east towards the sea, aligning with the rising sun.
 Vimana Style: The vimana of the Shore Temple is typical of the early
Dravida style a stepped pyramidal tower with progressively smaller
storeys (talas), crowned by a dome-like structure called stupi.
 Granite Construction: Unlike the earlier Pallava cave temples, the
Shore Temple is built with dressed granite blocks. Its exposed
location near the sea gives it a unique aesthetic but also causes
weathering.
 Intricate Carvings: The temple features finely carved panels
depicting deities, particularly Shiva and Vishnu, along with narrative
reliefs like the reclining Vishnu and miniature shrines.
 In the compound there is evidence of a water tank, an early example
of a gopuram, and several other images.
 Prakara and Nandi Enclosure: The temple is surrounded by a
compound wall (prakara) and a series of Nandi statues, typical of
Shaivite temples.
 Symbolic Maritime Location: Its position by the sea not only
provided spiritual symbolism (connectivity with the cosmos) but also
served as a landmark for ancient maritime traders.

Conclusion
The Shore Temple exemplifies the early structural phase of Dravida
architecture, transitioning from rock-cut to free-standing stone temples.
It reflects the Pallava dynasty’s architectural innovations and their role in
laying the foundation for later developments in South Indian temple
design. Its balanced proportions, detailed carvings, and integration with
the coastal landscape make it a masterpiece of early Dravida temple
architecture.

12. How does Vesara temple architecture is different from Nagara and
Dravida temple architecture despite it has features of both
architectural styles. (8)

Vesara temple architecture is considered a hybrid or synthesis of the

Nagara (North Indian) and Dravida (South Indian) styles, yet it developed
into a distinct style during the early medieval period, especially under
the Chalukyas of Badami, the Rashtrakutas, and later the Hoysalas.

Vesara architecture differs from Nagara and Dravida, despite

borrowing elements from both:

Geographic Location
 Nagara: These temples predominant located in North India.
 Dravida: They are primarily located in South India.
 Vesara: These temple architecture emerged in the Deccan region,
especially Karnataka, serving as a transition zone between North and
South India.

Superstructure (Shikhara/Vimana)
 Nagara: It has curvilinear tower (shikhara) rising vertically over the
sanctum.
 Dravida: This style has stepped pyramidal tower (vimana) with
horizontal tiers.
 Vesara: It combines both typically features a curvilinear outline with
a stepped profile, resulting in a more compact and harmonious
shikhara that is neither entirely Nagara nor purely Dravida.

Plan and Layout

 Nagara: It generally has a square plan with a single tower over the
sanctum.
 Dravida: It has more complex with multiple enclosures, axial
mandapas, and towering gopurams.
 Vesara: This style often uses a stellate (star-shaped) or polygonal
plan, especially under Hoysalas. The layout is more integrated, often
with richly carved walls and a unified structure.

Ornamentation
 Nagara: Ornamentation is focused on verticality and the central
tower.
 Dravida: Heavy use of sculptures on pillars, walls, and gopurams.
 Vesara: Notably intricate and dense sculpture, especially in Hoysala
temples (e.g., Chennakesava Temple at Belur). Sculptural detail
covers every surface with mythological and decorative themes.

Material and Construction

 Nagara & Dravida: Both style used a variety of local stones.
 Vesara: In the style there was extensive use of soapstone in Hoysala
architecture, allowing for detailed carvings and refined finishes.

Mandapas and Pillars

 Dravida: Pillared halls (mandapas) in these temples are grand and
axial.
 Nagara: Simpler mandapas, more focus on verticality.
 Vesara: Highly ornate mandapas, often with lathe-turned pillars,
adding to the visual appeal.

Conclusion
While Vesara architecture adopts key elements from both Nagara and
Dravida styles, it is not merely a blend—it evolved its own identity,
especially seen in the creative layouts, exquisite sculpture, and
harmonious structural proportions. Its evolution reflects the cultural and
artistic fusion that characterized the Deccan region during the medieval
period.

13. Discuss the role of Gupta period in the development of art and
literature. (12)

The Gupta period (c. 320 – 550 CE) is widely regarded as the Golden Age
of Indian culture, marked by remarkable advancements in art,
architecture, and literature. Under the patronage of Gupta rulers like
Chandragupta I, Samudragupta, and Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya),
Indian art and literature reached new heights in refinement,
sophistication, and creativity.
It is in the Gupta years that the Indian intellect is reckoned to have
reached its high-water mark in almost all branches of art, literature, and
science. The beauty of Ajanta’s frescoes, the idyllic dramas and lyrics of
Kalidasa and the miraculous iron pillar at Mehrauli amongst others are
wondrous illustrations of Gupta excellence.

Literary Eminence
 Gupta rulers were patrons of art and literature. For example,
Samudragupta was represented on his coins playing the vina and
Chandragupta II is credited with maintaining in his court nine
luminaries.
 Sanskrit literature flourished abundantly during the Gupta reign,
witnessing the luminous presence of distinguished scholars.
 Notably, the court of Chandragupta Vikramaditya was adorned with
the literary prowess of Kalidasa, renowned for his masterpieces like
Abhijnanashaakuntalam, Kumarasambhavam, and Ritusamharam.
Shudraka, credited with the celebrated Sanskrit drama Mṛcchakatika,
contributed significantly to the literary landscape.
 Poet Harisena’s remarkable work, the Allahabad Prashasti
inscription, enriched Gupta courtly literature. The era also witnessed
the scholarly contributions of Vishnu Sharma, the mind behind the
revered Panchatantra tales, and Amarasimha, the brilliant
grammarian who penned the Amarakosha.
 There was also an increase in the production of religious literature.
The two great epics the Ramayana and the Mahabharata were
almost completed by the fourth century AD.
 The period saw commentaries and developments in Hindu
philosophy, Buddhism, and Jainism. Texts like the Puranas (e.g.,
Vishnu Purana, Matsya Purana) were compiled and popularized.
 Works like Amarakosha by Amarasimha, a thesaurus of Sanskrit,
were compiled during this time.

Artistic Marvels and Architectural Legacies

 Gupta art and architecture stand as a testament to the creative
zenith achieved during this period.
 The exquisite Dashavatara Temple in Deogarh, Uttar Pradesh,
embodies the essence of Gupta architectural finesse.
 The mural paintings of Ajanta, depicting the life of Buddha, and the
artistic marvels of Ellora, Mathura, Sarnath, and Sigiriya, stand as
enduring symbols of Gupta artistry.
 Classical Indian music and dance also found their form and structure
during this cultural renaissance.
 During the Gupta age beautiful images of Buddha were fashioned at
Sarnath and Mathura, but the finest specimens of Buddhist art in
Gupta times are the Ajanta paintings.
 Gupta sculptures are characterized by elegant forms, serene
expressions, and refined detailing. Common themes included Hindu
deities (like Vishnu, Shiva), Buddha, and Jain tirthankaras.

Conclusion
The Gupta period played a pivotal role in shaping the cultural foundation
of India. It not only refined the visual arts and established classical forms
of temple architecture and sculpture, but also saw an unprecedented
flowering of Sanskrit literature. The intellectual and artistic
achievements of this era influenced subsequent generations and left a
lasting legacy on Indian civilization.

14. Vijayanagara empire played a significant role to promote classical

languages and regional cultural through literature. Substantiate. (12)

The Vijayanagara Empire (1336–1646 CE) played a vital role in promoting

classical languages and regional culture, especially through the
encouragement and development of literature. This literary patronage
fostered a cultural renaissance in South India and left a lasting legacy.

Significance of Vijayanagara literature in shaping regional culture

 Promotion of Kannada and Telugu language: Kannada poet Kumara
Vyasa composed the famous Mahabharata in the 15th century,
which became a milestone in Kannada literature.
 Integration of Regional Traditions: Telugu poet Allasani Peddana’s
work “Manucharitam” blended local Telugu culture with Sanskrit
poetic traditions.
 Literary Patronage: The Vijayanagar rulers actively patronised poets
and scholars, fostering a thriving literary culture. Krishnadevaraya
patronised Ashtadiggajas like Tenali Ramakrishna.
 Bhakti and Devotional Literature: The Vijayanagara period
witnessed a surge in Bhakti literature, focusing on intense devotion
and personal experiences of devotees. Works of saint- poets like
Purandara Dasa, Kanakadasa, and others expressed their deep
devotion to deities, conveying spiritual teachings and moral values.
 Influence on other Works: The epic poem “Srinatha Mahakavyam”
by Srinatha, a 15th- century Telugu poet, drew inspiration from the
Vijayanagar literary tradition.
 Literature as a Cultural Medium: Epics like the Ramayana and
Mahabharata were retold in regional languages, bringing classical
themes to the common people.

Impact of Vijayanagara literature on promoting classical languages

 Preservation and promotion of classical languages: Vijayanagar
period is called the Golden period of Telugu literature. The
 patronage of Vijayanagara rulers to Kannada, Telugu, Sanskrit poets,
helped to elevate these languages to a higher literary status.
Example- Sayana’s “Vedartha Prakasha”
 Translation of literary works: They encouraged the translation of
Sanskrit texts into these languages, making literary and religious
knowledge more accessible to the common people.
 Promotion of Ethical and Moral Values: Vijayanagara literature
emphasized ethical and moral values in its compositions. Epics,
poetry, and other literary works conveyed social and moral
principles, promoting ethical behavior, compassion, justice, and
virtuous living. Example- “Gadugina Bharata” by Kumara Vyasa.
 Religious inclusivity: The poet-saint Purandara Dasa, who composed
in Kannada, is an example of someone who propagated devotion to
both Vishnu and Shiva.
 Interfaith dialogues: The Sufi poet Mohammad Shirazi composed a
Telugu work called “Rasamanjari” that blended Hindu and Islamic
themes, promoting interfaith dialogue.
 Vidyaranya, the spiritual mentor of the empire’s founders, authored
influential Sanskrit works on Vedanta philosophy. Royal courts
encouraged scriptural and scholarly debates in Sanskrit, enhancing
intellectual life.

Conclusion
Through systematic royal patronage and support for poets and scholars,
the Vijayanagara Empire greatly advanced the development of classical
Sanskrit and regional languages such as Telugu, Kannada, and Tamil. Its
literature played a crucial role in shaping the cultural identity of South
India and in transmitting religious and moral values across generations.

15. Describe the evolution of Islamic architecture in India. Also

highlights its characteristics with examples. (12)

Indo-Islamic architecture begins with the Ghurid occupation of India at

the close of the 12 century A.D. The Muslims having inherited a wealth
of varied designs from Sassanian and Byzantine empires and being
naturally endowed with good taste for buildings, never failed to adapt to
their own requirements the indigenous architecture of almost every
foreign country that they conquered.
Here is a brief description of how Islamic architecture in India evolved
as a prominent design style.
Early Islamic Architecture (12th to 16th century)
 The earliest Islamic buildings in India were constructed during the
Ghurid dynasty. These buildings featured a mix of Indian and Islamic
architectural styles. The period also saw the construction of several
mosques and tombs, which depicted a prominent use of arches,
domes, and geometric patterns. Qutub Minar is a classic example of
early Islamic architecture in India.
Mughal Architecture (16th to 18th century)
 The Mughal period was a golden age of Islamic architecture in India.
It featured a blend of Indian, Persian, and Central Asian styles, with a
focus on symmetry, intricate carvings, and the use of marble and red
sandstone. Buland Darwaza is a formidable example of Mughal
architecture in India.
Indo-Islamic Architecture (18th to 19th century)
 The 18th and 19th centuries saw the decline of the Mughal empire
and the rise of regional Islamic kingdoms in India. This period saw
the emergence of Indo-Islamic architecture, which blended Indian
and Islamic styles. Many buildings from this period featured Hindu
motifs, such as lotus flowers and elephants, alongside Islamic
features like domes and minarets. Moti Masjid is a remarkable
example of Indo-Islamic architecture.

Important Features of Indo-Islamic Architecture

Religious Influences on Architecture
 Hindu Influence: Hindus perceived multiple forms of god
everywhere. It resulted in structures adorned with sculptures and
paintings.
 Muslim Influence: Muslims believe in one god, with Muhammad as
their Prophet. The Islamic prohibition on depicting living forms led to
the development of Arabesque (Ornamental design using
intertwined flowing lines), Geometrical patterns, Calligraphy
(Decorative handwriting or handwritten lettering on plaster and
stone) etc.

Architecture of Indo-Islamic Structures

 Evolution: Over time, India witnessed the construction of various
architectural structures catering to religious and secular needs.
 Key Structures: Included daily mosques, principal Jama Masjids,
tombs, Sufi Islamic shrines known as Dargahs, tall Minars, Hammams
or bathhouses, formal gardens, educational institutions called
Madrasas, resting places for travellers named Sarais or
Caravanserais, and roadside distance markers termed Kos Minars.

Factors determined Indo-Islamic Architecture

 Indo-Islamic Synthesis: While Indo-Islamic architecture did bear
Saracenic, Persian, and Turkish influences, it was predominantly
marked by Indian architectural and decorative forms.
 Diverse Influences: Factors such as the availability of materials,
resource limitations, the skillset at hand, and the patrons’ aesthetic
preferences heavily influenced the design.
 Cultural Blend: Notably, despite the significant role of religion in
medieval India, architectural elements were borrowed liberally,
showcasing a blend of cultures and traditions.

Styles of Indo-Islamic Architecture

Indo-Islamic architecture is traditionally segmented into specific styles
for a nuanced understanding.
 The Imperial Style: It Emerged during the Delhi Sultanate era.
 The Provincial Style: It is associated with regions like Mandu,
Gujarat, Bengal, and Jaunpur.
 The Mughal Style: It is distinctively present in places such as Delhi,
Agra, and Lahore.
 The Deccani Style: It is attributed to areas like Bijapur and Golconda.

Other features of Indo-Islamic Architecture

 Wide use of red sandstone and marble
 Four-sided garden, divided by a small pathway, popularly known as
Char bagh garden style
 Decorative chhatris were common, particularly in the architecture of
forts
 Huge gateways before the main building
 Spherical domes
 Great halls and courtyards
 Fine decoration work
Conclusion
The confluence of Turks and Indians, who had distinct religious beliefs
and established notions about art, architecture, and literature, resulted
in the creation of a new composite civilisation. The Indo-Islamic culture
is the name given to this civilisation. This architectural style had a far-
reaching influence on the successive architectural styles used in India,
such as Indo-Saracenic architecture and others.