Focus on expository texts

and Reading selections for ID1112

2018

Departamento de Idiomas – Universidad Simón Bolívar

Sede de Sartenejas, Edificio de Estudios Generales, 2do piso
Focus on reading
First edition (2005) authored and compiled by Rubena St. Louis & Silvia Pereira.
Original exercises have been contributed by: Noela Cartaya, Yris Casart, Virna Ferrari, Dafne González, Célia
Guido. Berta Leiva, Marianela Najul, Silvia Pereira, Juan Pino, Ana María Posada, Magaly Rodríguez, María
Luisa Rosenblat, Wilfredo Sequera, Carlos Torrealba and Marta Trías.
This handbook was intended to be used during the three courses of the First Year English Program taught by
Departamento de Idiomas at Universidad Simón Bolívar.

Further editions (2006-2011) were authored and compiled by Rubena St. Louis & Silvia Pereira,
with Gilberto Berríos and Noela Cartaya. Interior design and production by Gilberto Berríos.
Editing and proofreading by Gilberto Berríos, Noela Cartaya, Yris Casart, Carlos Mayora & Rubena St. Louis.

Seventh edition (2012) was adapted and edited by Silvia Pereira to comply with the new
Reading Program in English for Science and Technology (2010) and intended to be used as instructional material
for its first course.

Eighth edition (2015) was revised and edited by Yris Casart and Nelly Fernández.
Proofread by Marianella Quintero.

Focus on expository texts

Corresponds to the nineth edition (2018) of Focus on Reading. It has been revised, reorganized and reformatted by
Noela Cartaya; and it is in intended to be used as instructional material for the second course of the Reading
Program in English for Science and Technology.

Reading selections for ID1112

Passages and exercises in this edition have been compiled from Reading Selections for ID1111 (Rubena St. Louis
& Silvia Pereira, 2005) and Reading Selections for ID1112 (Noela Cartaya, Virna Ferrari & Silvia Pereira, 2006).
Updated by Silvia Pereira (December 2012).



Fonts used in this handbook: Arial Narrow 24 pt for chapter headings; Arial Narrow 18 pt and 16 pt for headings
and subheads; Century Schoolbook 11 pt for the body copy, and Arial Narow 11 pt for the sample texts.



Departamento de Idiomas
Universidad Simón Bolívar (USB)
Apartado 89.000
Caracas 1080A – Venezuela
Telephone number: +58 (212) 906-3780
Email: [email protected]
Web page: www.id.isb.ve

The reading passages and exercises in this handbook have been written and/or selected for their value in helping
university students become fluent readers of science and technology English texts. Credit for selections is given to
the respective copyright holders. Please get in touch with us if you think credit is due for any particular section.

This handbook is solely intended for compulsory academic use in the course English for Science and
Technology II (Code ID1112). Commercialization outside the USB is strictly prohibited.
 i

Table of contents
Focus on expository texts
INGLÉS CIENTÍFICO Y TÉCNICO II .................................................................................................................... 1
DESCRIPCIÓN DEL CURSO ............................................................................................................................................ 1
OBJETIVO GENERAL DE ID1112 .................................................................................................................................. 1
OBJETIVOS ESPECÍFICOS DE ID1112 ........................................................................................................................... 1
INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................................................ 3
FOCUS ON RHETORICAL FUNCTIONS .............................................................................................................. 4
WHAT IS A DEFINITION? .............................................................................................................................................. 4
Why are definitions used in technical texts? ........................................................................................................ 4
What are the types of definitions found in technical texts? ................................................................................. 5
Writing definitions ................................................................................................................................................ 5
Exercise 1: Understanding the form of definitions ...................................................................................................... 6
Exercise 2: Identifying definition components ............................................................................................................. 7
Exercise 3: Identifying definitionstypes ....................................................................................................................... 8
Exercise 4: Analyzing definitions ................................................................................................................................. 9
Exercise 5: A final exercise on definition ................................................................................................................... 10
WHAT IS DESCRIPTION? ............................................................................................................................................. 12
Why is description used in technical texts? ........................................................................................................ 12
Exercise 6: Identifying descriptive text ...................................................................................................................... 13
WHAT IS CLASSIFICATION? ........................................................................................................................................ 13
Exercise 7: Determining criteria ................................................................................................................................ 14
Criteria for classification .................................................................................................................................... 14
Exercise 8: Identifying concept and criteria............................................................................................................... 14
Exercise 9: Identifying indicators of classification .................................................................................................... 15
Types of classification ......................................................................................................................................... 15
Exercise 10: A final exercise on classification .............................................................................................................. 16
WHAT IS COMPARISON AND CONTRAST? .................................................................................................................... 16
Why is comparison and contrast used in writing?............................................................................................. 16
Exercise 11: Identifying comparison and contrast....................................................................................................... 17
Comparison and contrast indicators .................................................................................................................. 18
Exercise 12: A final exercise on comparison and contrast........................................................................................... 19
WHAT ARE CHRONOLOGICAL ORDER AND PROCESS?.................................................................................................. 19
Why are they used in technical and scientific writing? ..................................................................................... 19
Exercise 13: Identifying time indicators ...................................................................................................................... 21
Exercise 14: On your own ............................................................................................................................................. 22
Exercise 15: Placing information in the correct order ................................................................................................. 22
Exercise 16: Using a graphic organizer for chronological events ................................................................................ 24
More on process.................................................................................................................................................... 25
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How to identify process........................................................................................................................................ 26

Exercise 17: On your own ............................................................................................................................................. 27
Exercise 18: Working out stages in a process .............................................................................................................. 27
Exercise 19: Using a diagram to understand a process ............................................................................................... 29
The passive voice ................................................................................................................................................. 30
Exercise 20: Writing a process ...................................................................................................................................... 30
Exercise 21: Writing and visualizing a process ........................................................................................................... 31
WHAT IS CAUSE AND EFFECT? ................................................................................................................................... 33
Cause and effect indicators ................................................................................................................................. 35
Exercise 22: Identifying cause and effect ..................................................................................................................... 35
Exercise 23: Thinking about cause and effect .............................................................................................................. 36
Exercise 24: Interpreting similar cause and effect sentences ..................................................................................... 37
Exercise 25: Using graphic organizers for cause and effect ........................................................................................ 38
Exercise 26: Reviewing organizational pattern indicators .......................................................................................... 39
FOCUS ON GRAPHIC ORGANIZERS .................................................................................................................. 41
FOCUS ON SUMMARIZING ................................................................................................................................... 45
WHAT IS SUMMARIZING? ........................................................................................................................................... 45
HOW TO WRITE A ONE-PARAGRAPH SUMMARY ........................................................................................................... 45
REFERENCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY ................................................................................................................ 47
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Reading selections for ID1112

THE DEFINITION OF LEARNING................................................................................................................................. 50
Exercises ............................................................................................................................................................... 51
WHAT IS A PREDATOR? .............................................................................................................................................. 53
Exercises ............................................................................................................................................................... 54
CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER .................................................................................................................................... 55
Exercises ............................................................................................................................................................... 56
THE NUTRIENTS IN FOOD.......................................................................................................................................... 58
Exercises ............................................................................................................................................................... 60
THE BRANCHES OF MATHEMATICS ........................................................................................................................... 62
Exercises ............................................................................................................................................................... 63
WATERPROOF COATS................................................................................................................................................. 65
Exercises ............................................................................................................................................................... 66
BIOGRAPHY — ALBERT EINSTEIN ............................................................................................................................. 67
Exercises( ............................................................................................................................................................. 69
BIOGRAPHY — ERNEST RUTHERFORD ...................................................................................................................... 70
Exercises ............................................................................................................................................................... 72
THE OCEANIC CYCLE ................................................................................................................................................. 74
Exercises ............................................................................................................................................................... 75
CLOUDS IN THE GREENHOUSE ................................................................................................................................... 77
Exercises ............................................................................................................................................................... 79
HOW TO MAKE ICE IN FIVE MINUTES ......................................................................................................................... 80
Exercises ............................................................................................................................................................... 80
GRUBS ON TAP FOR THE AYE-AYE .............................................................................................................................. 83
Exercises ............................................................................................................................................................... 84
WHAT CAUSES TSUNAMIS? ........................................................................................................................................ 86
Exercises ............................................................................................................................................................... 87
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Inglés científico y técnico II

Descripción del curso
El Programa de Lectura en Inglés Científico y Técnico está diseñado para desarrollar destrezas de
comprensión de lectura de textos académicos en inglés. Este es el segundo de tres cursos de 48 horas
cada uno (Inglés Científico y Técnico I, II y III: ID1111, 1112 y 1113). Los estudiantes pueden eximir
los tres cursos, o ingresar al programa en cualquiera de ellos, con base en los resultados que obtengan
en la prueba de ubicación que se administra a cada cohorte al inicio del año académico. Los tres cursos
que componen el programa se consideran interdependientes: los objetivos y estrategias especificados
para cada uno constituyen la base para los cursos siguientes.
El programa está dirigido a los estudiantes de ingeniería y ciencias básicas. Salvo en el caso de algunas
excepciones puntuales, forma parte del plan de estudios del Ciclo Básico ya que se considera que las
destrezas de comprensión de lectura en inglés como lengua extranjera tendrán una aplicación
inmediata para los estudiantes en las diferentes asignaturas que corresponden al Ciclo Profesional de
sus estudios universitarios.

Objetivo general de ID1112

Al finalizar el curso Inglés Científico y Técnico II (ID1112), el estudiante estará en capacidad de acceder
a la información contenida en textos expositivo-explicativos de carácter científico y técnico en inglés,
utilizando la estrategia de lectura más adecuada a sus propósitos específicos como lector.

Objetivos específicos de ID1112

En esta asignatura los contenidos giran en torno a las principales formas de organizar el discurso
propias de la estructura retórica expositivo-explicativa que caracteriza el lenguaje de la ciencia y la
tecnología.
Al igual que el primer curso del programa, este segundo curso contempla un enfoque de lectura
intensiva, con énfasis en la instrucción y práctica en destrezas específicas. Al leer los textos
seleccionados para este curso, el estudiante analizará los mismos con el propósito de entender la
información explícita y/o implícita que se presenta. Para tal fin utilizará todas las destrezas adquiridas
en el curso anterior, además de incorporar las siguientes:

1. Entender los indicadores léxicos o léxico-gramaticales de las formas de organización del discurso
propias de la estructura retórica expositivo-explicativa, a saber:
a. definición,
 2

b. descripción estática y dinámica,

c. clasificación,
d. comparación y contraste,
e. exposición cronológica,
f. descripción de procesos, y
g. relación causa-efecto.

2. Organizar en forma gráfica la información contenida en el texto.

3. Distinguir las relaciones entre las partes de la oración a través de la identificación de los
patrones sintácticos utilizados con frecuencia en el inglés científico y técnico.

4. Discriminar el grado con que el autor afirma, niega o pone en duda un enunciado.

5. Identificar la actitud del autor.

6. Resumir la información presentada en el texto.

A continuación, el vínculo directo al PROGRAMA ANALÍTICO completo:

http://www.id.usb.ve/sites/default/files/programas/vigentes/ID1112.pdf
 3

Introduction
Welcome to English for Science and Technology II (Code ID1112). The purpose of this course is to help
you become an effective and independent reader by presenting one of the rhetorical structures typically
found in science and technology English texts.

This handbook was compiled to be used as instructional and reading material for the course. It is
divided in two parts. The first part focuses on expository texts and describes the most important
features of its rhetorical functions —definition, description, classification, comparison and contrast,
chronological order and process, and cause-effect relationships. Becoming acquainted with these
patterns that authors use in writing will help you become a strategical reader. The second part includes
a selection of readings that exemplify the rhetorical functions presented in the first part.

So, get ready to start improving your reading skills. There is a lot you can do on your own to do that,
but your teacher will be there to help you as well.

Please contact your teacher if you need any additional help or information.

Departamento de Idiomas
Sección de Inglés Técnico y Científico
April 2018
 4

Focus on rhetorical functions

Writers use different organizational patterns to achieve the purpose for which they are writing the
text. Let’s look at these in some detail.

What is a definition?
A definition is the formal statement of the meaning of a concept or a word. Definitions must be
concise and relevant because they deal with the important characteristics of the concept. By recognizing
definitions, you will focus attention on the significant points to be considered in the text.

Note that definitions are often marked in texts by punctuation marks such as a comma (,), or a colon
(:). In some cases, the expressions ‘that is’ or ‘i.e.’ are used as definition markers. For example:

Infrared light waves, the waves that are in the right side of the spectrum...

Infrared light waves: the waves that are in the right side of the spectrum...

Infrared light waves, that is, the waves that are in the right side of the spectrum...

Infrared light waves, i.e., the waves that are in the right side of the spectrum...

The structure of the text should also answer questions such as “What is / are____________________?”
“What does / do_____________________ mean?”

Why are definitions used in technical texts?

Definitions help you, the reader, understand the subject of the discourse more fully. Definitions can
help the writer clarify a description of a new technology or a new development in a technical field. For
example, when a new laboratory procedure is devised, it is defined and then described in a technical
journal. Definitions can also help a specialist communicate with a less knowledgeable audience. A
manual that explains how to tune up a car will include definitions of parts and tools.
 5

What are the types of definitions found in technical texts?

1. A parenthetical definition is a brief clarification placed in a sentence.

Example: The crane was located on the starboard, the right side of the ship.

2. A sentence definition is a one or two sentence clarification that usually follows a standard pattern:
the item to be defined (the concept) is placed in a category of similar items (class) and then
distinguished from the other items (characteristics).

Example 1: A car is a vehicle that has a motor and four wheels and is used to transport things
or people from one place to another.

Concept Class Characteristics

A car is a vehicle that has a motor and four wheels and
is used to transport things or people
from one place to another.

Example 2: A flip flop is a circuit containing active elements that can assume either one of two
stable states at any given time.

Concept Class Characteristics

A flip flop is a circuit containing active elements that can
assume either one of two stable
states at any given time.

3. An extended definition is a long, detailed clarification of an object, process or idea. Often an

extended definition begins with a sentence definition, which is then elaborated using comparison
and contrast, analogy, negation, analysis, and exemplification among others.

Example: A load-distributing hitch is a trailer hitch that distributes the hitch load to all axles
of the two vehicles and the trailer. The crucial component of the load-distributing hitch is the
set of spring bars that attaches to the trailer.

Writing definitions
Simple definitions can be written in the following way, starting with the term to be defined:

TERM + VERB + GENERAL CLASS WORD +WH WORD + PARTICULAR CHARACTERISTICS

Example: A fossil is an inorganic trace which is buried by natural processes and subsequently
permanently preserved.
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Exercise 1: Understanding the form of definitions

Part I. Match the term in italics (on the left) to its definition (on the right). Then, join the two sentences
to make a simple sentence definition using the correct relative pronoun: that, which or who.

Term Definition
1. An engineer is a person A. It produces electricity.

2. A microscope is an instrument B. He studies the way in which industry

and trade produce and use wealth.
3. A generator is a machine C. It makes distant objects appear
nearer and larger.
4. A botanist is a person D. He treats the diseases of animals.

5. A square is a geometric figure E. He designs machines, buildings or

public works.
6. A cucumber is a vegetable F. It gives information on subjects in
alphabetical order.
7. An economist is a person G. It makes very small near objects
appear larger.
8. An encyclopedia is a book H. He studies plants.

I. It is long and round with a dark

green skin and light green watery
flesh.
J. It has four equal sides and four right
angles.

1. _____ 2. ______ 3. ______ 4. ______ 5. ______ 6. ______ 7. ______ 8. _____

Exercise taken from: R. R. Jordan, Academic Writing Course, Longman 1996.

 7

Part II. Let’s practice some more sentence definitions. Match each concept with its corresponding class
and characteristics and/or examples. Then, write down a definition for each concept.

Concept Class Characteristics and/or examples

dog fruit in the air

humidity electrical appliance orange-colored peel/edible parts inside

lamp animal electric bulb/gives light

orange instrument a tail and four legs/ a house pet

telephone amount of water transmitter and receiver/transmits the

voice of a person in one place to another
person in another place.

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.
Adapted from Feuerstein, T., & Schcolnik, M. (1995). Enhancing Reading Comprehension in the Language Learning Classroom. San Francisco, CA: Alta Books Center.

Exercise 2: Identifying definition components

Part I. Identify the different components of the following definitions.

1. For some, God is a divine being considered as having power over nature and control over human affairs.

What is the term being defined? __________________________________________________

What are its specific characteristics? ______________________________________________

2. The method which relies solely on observation and experiment is called empiricism.

What is the general class it belongs to? ____________________________________________

What are its specific characteristics? ______________________________________________

3. Introspection is the process by which a person examines his thoughts and feelings.

What is the term being defined? __________________________________________________

What are its specific characteristics? ______________________________________________

 8

4. The intellectual capacity which enables a person to make use of mental powers with the intention to do something is
called will.

What is the term being defined? __________________________________________________

What is the general class it belongs to? ____________________________________________

5. Acids which always contain the element carbon are called organic acids.

What is the term being defined? __________________________________________________

What are its specific characteristics? ______________________________________________

6. Feedback is the provision of information about whether or not a person has achieved the intended objective.

What is the term being defined? __________________________________________________

What are its specific characteristics? ______________________________________________

7. Plastics are synthetic materials, products of the chemical industry.

What is the term being defined? __________________________________________________

What is the general class it belongs to? ____________________________________________

8. Organisms that live on the host are known as ectoparasites.

What is the term being defined? __________________________________________________

What is the general class it belongs to? ____________________________________________

What are its specific characteristics? ______________________________________________

Part II. Indicators of definitions. Each of the terms defined in the above examples is linked to its
characteristics by words such as ‘is’, ‘is called’, ‘are called’ and ‘are known as’. The function of these
words is to indicate that a term is being defined. Look again at the eight sentences above and identify
the indicators of definition used in each.

Exercise 3: Identifying definitions types

Go back to the different types of definitions you can find in technical texts. Then read the following
selections, underline each definition and indicate the example of the definition given. Some definitions
will have several examples, but you need to mark off the example that makes the definition clear to
you.

1. Mixtures are combinations of two or more elements and compounds, or of two or more compounds. The combination is
merely a physical mixing. Therefore, the components of a mixture can be separated by physical means. For example,
consider a mixture of iron fillings (element) and salt (a compound). We know this combination is a mixture because we
can separate the components by a physical process. We can use a magnet to attract the iron away from the salt. Or we
could place the mixture in water (which dissolves the salt) and filter, thereby separating the iron fillings. The salt solution
 9

is also a mixture. The mixed compounds, salt and water, can be separated by the physical change of boiling the water
away and thereby leaving the salt behind.

Type of definition: _________________________________________________________________

Term being defined: _______________________________________________________________

General class: _____________________________________________________________________

Indicators: ________________________________________________________________________

2. Our self-concept is the product of learning. This learning goes on every day, usually without our being aware of it. Learning
may be defined as a relatively permanent psychological change that occurs in us as a consequence of experience.
Through the experience of falling in the bathtub and getting his nose full of water, a child may learn to fear the water.
The same principle operates in the learning of the self-concept. A fat child, through the experience of listening to her
classmates’ poke fun at her body, learns that being fat is bad and therefore that she is bad. In the learning of the self-
concept, there are three important factors that must be considered: association, consequences and motivation.

Type of definition: ________________________________________________________________

Term being defined: _______________________________________________________________

General class: ____________________________________________________________________

Indicators: _______________________________________________________________________

Exercise 4: Analyzing definitions

1. According to Bertrand Russell, mathematics may be defined as the science which deals with the logical deduction
of consequences from the general premises of all reasoning.

Term defined:____________________________________________________________________

Indicator:________________________________________________________________________

Characteristics:__________________________________________________________________

2. Elements possessing properties which are intermediate between metals and non-metals are known as metalloids.

Term defined:____________________________________________________________________

Indicator:________________________________________________________________________

Characteristics:__________________________________________________________________
 10

3. Broadly defined, a frequency changer is a machine which receives power at one frequency and delivers it at
another frequency.

Term defined:____________________________________________________________________

Indicator:________________________________________________________________________

Characteristics:__________________________________________________________________

4. Digestion can take place either outside or inside the cell itself. Digestion that takes place outside the cells, either in
the environment or in a specialized cavity, is known as extracellular digestion. Digestion within the cell is known as
intracellular digestion

Term defined:____________________________________________________________________

Indicator:________________________________________________________________________

Characteristics:__________________________________________________________________

5. A stethoscope is an instrument for studying sound generated inside the human body.

Term defined:____________________________________________________________________

Indicator:________________________________________________________________________

Characteristics:__________________________________________________________________

Here are some more indicators of definitions. See if you can find them in the sentences that follow:

is defined as
is concerned with
Astronomy deals with
relates to
involves

We can define
We can consider
astronomy
In this context,
For our purposes,

Exercise 5: A final exercise on definition

Read the paragraphs below and answer the questions.

1. Parasitology may be defined as the branch of biology which deals with the nature of parasitism and its effects on both
the parasite and the host. Broadly defined, a parasite is an organism which lives for all or part of its life on or in another
organism from which it derives some benefit, such as food, shelter or protection. Organisms living on the host are known
as ectoparasites; those living within the host organism are called endoparasites.
Paragraph taken from Bates/Dudley Evans, pp. 38
 11

What terms are defined in the text? ________________________________________________.

Underline the words which point to these definitions. What is the main definition in the
paragraph?
Circle the more specific of the two: A. parasite B. endoparasites
Explain your choice. _______________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
Give an example of an endoparasite and an ectoparasite. _____________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________

2. Kinematics is the branch of applied mathematics that deals with the motion of bodies without considering the forces which
produce such motion. When a body moves, so changing its position, the distance it has moved is measured by the length
of its path of motion. Distance is therefore a scalar quantity. Speed is also a scalar quantity. Speed is defined as the rate
of change of distance with time. The speed of a body measured in a definite direction is known as its velocity.
Consequently, velocity is a vector quantity. If there is a change in either the speed of a body or its direction of motion,
then the body is subject to an acceleration. We may therefore define acceleration as the rate of change of velocity with
time. When the speed of a body decreases with time the rate of decrease of speed is known as deceleration.
Passage taken from Bates/Dudley Evans, pp.38

Underline the words which point to the definitions in the text.

Write the terms defined in the text in the space below.

__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________

3. To compute is to calculate, or to solve a problem in arithmetic. Thus, we might assume that a “computer” can be defined
as a machine that computes or calculates. An electronic computer does calculate, but this is only one of the processes
it carries out. The overall function of a computer is to process data. An electronic computer is correctly defined as a data
processing machine.
A computer processes data. But what is data? Data is a set of facts, figures and information. Collectively, all the facts,
figures and information that a corporation needs to prepare its payroll can be looked upon as data. All the income tax
returns submitted to the federal government each year are data. A record of sales and inventory is another set of data.

Write the terms found in the text. ____________________________________________________

How does the writer extend the definition? ____________________________________________

 12

What is description?
To describe is to give the characteristics of something or someone. It emphasizes the
physical nature and/or structure of an object (shape, size, colour, etc.) It may also give the
relationship of the object to its surroundings (location, position). Some specific devices which
are characteristic of description are: adjectives, sense data and descriptive sequence.

1. Adjectives

The presence of adjectives is characteristic of description as adjectives tell us what something

is like. Adjectives are words like short, old, cheap, happy, nice, electric, etc. An adjective
modifies a noun; the function of adjectives is to give you a sense of the physical and other
qualities of things (large, quiet, friendly) as well as the writer’s opinion or attitude (excellent,
beautiful).

2. Sense data

The second device typical of description is sense data, that is, words, phrases and expressions
that refer to the five senses: sight, touch, hearing, smell and taste.

We often use can and could for perceptions; e.g.:

I can see something under the sofa. We could hear music.

I can smell something burning. Sam could feel the weight of the rucksack.

3. Descriptive sequence

Finally, the third device is descriptive sequence or the structure the writer uses when
describing the different parts or characteristics of the object/scene/person/situation.

In order to identify the structure of description, look for words or expressions such as:

X has/have…, X consist(s) of…, X contain(s)…, X is/are characterized by…, X is/are

made of…, X is/are composed of…, etc.

The structure should also answer questions such as:

How is X? Which are the characteristics of X? What does X look like? What are the
parts of X?

Why is description used in technical texts?

Descriptions of objects, mechanisms and processes appear in almost every kind of technical
writing. An engineer who is trying to explain to a sales staff how a product works, so they can
advertise it effectively, includes a mechanical description. If a new law limits the amount of
heated water that a nuclear power plant may discharge into a river, the plant managers have
to understand how water is discharged. To do this, writers use description.
 13

Take a look at these statements. What is the writer describing?

1. An atom consists of protons and neutrons forming a central nucleus, around which electrons revolve in orbits
or shells.
2. Sedimentary rocks are composed largely of small fragments derived from the disintegration of existing rocks
and in some instances from the remains of animals.

Exercise 6: Identifying descriptive text

Now let’s look at some extracts. How can you identify them as being descriptive? What was the
author’s purpose in writing them?

1. Sonar: is the name put together from “Sound Navigation and Ranging”. It uses high-frequency sound waves
to measure ocean depths. An instrument on shipboard called a fathometer, using an electrical vibrator, sends
a short blast of sound into the water. The waves produced, travelling at about 4,800 feet/second hit the ocean
bottom and bounce back to a microphone on the ship. The time between the sending of the blast and the
return of the echo is marked automatically on a moving strip of paper. With this information the distance to
the bottom can be determined easily.

The author uses: A. adjectives B. sense data C. descriptive sequence

The author’s purpose is to ___________________________________________

2. An octopus appears to be just a huge head with eight long, fearful arms. Its head is soft and rubberlike. Its
eyes stick out on stalks so that it can see in all directions. Its mouth is on the underside of its body and has
powerful jaws shaped like a beak. The long arms, or tentacles, have double rows of suckers. These can fasten
onto objects with such suction that they cannot be pulled off.

The author uses: A. adjectives B. sense data C. descriptive sequence

The author’s purpose is to ___________________________________________

What is classification?
When we divide something into groups, classes, categories, etc. we are classifying those items,
i.e., separating objects from one another. The simplest classification divides things into
those that show groups of characteristics that are shared and those that do not. For example,
you would not place fish and birds together in the same class with trees and so the
classification is made according to a criterion or several criteria. The criteria are the
basic concepts or ideas that the author is using as the basis for grouping information. Let’s
look at this first example.
 14

Exercise 7: Determining criteria

Cross out the word that is not related to the other words in the rows below. Write the common
criteria on the line to the right. The first is done for you.

1. red blue yellow square colors

2. morning year noon night
3. piano violin orchestra oboe
4. second five three six
5. minutes clock hours seconds
6. English Arabic Italy French
7. Saturn Venus Radium Mars
8. physics chemistry dance biology

In explaining how the words are related, you are classifying the information.

Criteria for classification

Materials are different from each other. For example, some are solids, others are liquids and
others are gases. By looking at the materials, smelling them or touching them, you can learn
what their characteristics are. We can classify materials by their characteristics and in fact
different materials can belong to different groups depending on the classifying characteristic
that is used. Classify the following list of materials according to consistency (hard or soft, rough
or smooth, flexible or rigid), taste (sweet or sour), physical state (solid, liquid or gas), edibility
(edible or inedible), color, and size. Each time use a different characteristic and see how the
materials group.

List of materials: coal, wax, vinegar, carbon dioxide, wood, stone, salt, syrup, milk, rubber,
sponges, glass, bronze, steam.

Exercise 8: Identifying concept and criteria

Read the following paragraph and first highlight the concept being classified and then
underline the criteria used for the classification. The first has been marked for you. Find the
others.

Before Mendeleev, chemical elements were classified according to their properties. Mendeleev’s contribution
was to find a much more exact system of classification, based on atomic weight. More recently, the basis of
classification has moved to atomic number. Thus, chemical classification has a quantitative basis while
biological classification only has a qualitative basis. The basic criteria considered in biological classification
are anatomical, ecological and genetical facts relating to each species. Sometimes it is also convenient to
group animals with respect to their behavior, their feeding habits, for example. The point about biological
classification is that, unlike a quantitative classification, it gives few grounds for predicting the occurrence of
unrecognized species.

What are the words that the author uses to indicate the criteria?

________________, ________________, ________________, ________________.

 15

Exercise 9: Identifying indicators of classification

Now, take a look at these sentences. Can you identify the words which indicate classification?
Underline them. The first one has been done for you.

1. Materials can be broadly divided into the following categories: metals and metal alloys; inorganic materials,
ceramics and cements; organic substances, synthetic polymers; biological structures.

2. Reactions may be classified as combinations or decompositions.

3. Mechanical mixtures can be separated into the two or more phases that constitute them by suitable
mechanical means: filtration, flotation, centrifugation, etc.

4. There are many classes of vertebrates: one class includes all those vertebrates which produce milk to
suckle their young.

5. Other studies of blood DNA confirmed that humans should be grouped with the chimps and gorillas, leaving
the orangutans and gibbons in two other groups.

6. The control of carbon dioxide is an example of homeostasis in which some sense receptors outside the
central nervous system and others in the brain itself affect coordinating centers in two different parts of the
brain.

How did these words indicate that a classification was being made?

______________________________________________________________________________________

Types of classification
Information can be classified in several ways. For example, from general to specific, in other
words, the text presents first the superordinate term and then the subordinate ones.

classified divisions
grouped groups
divided into types
are arranged classes
Parasites may be categorized categories
The chemical elements can be
could be classified
categorized
as X
grouped
classed
kinds
types
There are three chief of symbiosis: commensalism, parasitism and mutualism
classes
categories

From specific to general, that is, a subordinate individual is an example of the superordinate
class to which it belongs.
 16

is classified
The direction of the helix may be categorized as right-handed
could be classed
an example of
a type of
The amoeba is a kind of animal that carries on only intracellular digestion
a form of
a (n)

Exercise 10: A final exercise on classification

Go back to Exercise 9. Can you find the term being classified and the type of classification used
based on the chart above? Tick the appropriate one.

1. ________________________ ❑ general to specific ❑ specific to general

2. _________________________ ❑ general to specific ❑ specific to general

3. _________________________ ❑ general to specific ❑ specific to general

4. _________________________ ❑ general to specific ❑ specific to general

5. __________________________ ❑ general to specific ❑ specific to general

6 __________________________ ❑ general to specific ❑ specific to general

7. __________________________ ❑ general to specific ❑ specific to general

What is comparison and contrast?

One of the common organizational patterns used in writing is the use of comparison and
contrast. Here, we determine the similarities and/or differences between two or more objects,
people, ideas, situations. Let’s look at this example. When we compare two or more cities, we
look for things that they share, or have in common; population, transport systems, recreational
facilities, types of structures etc. When we contrast things, on the other hand, we look for the
ways in which they are different. In the case of our two cities, we might take the same criteria
and see the ways in which the population, transport systems, recreation facilities and types of
structures are different.

Why is comparison and contrast used in writing?

Comparison and contrast is a common writing technique in the technical field because
institutions constantly decide between alternatives. Should we buy the model A computer, or
the B, or the C? Should site A be used for the construction of the new chemical plant or should
site B? Comparison and contrast is therefore used a lot in writing technical reports.
 17

Comparisons and contrasts are also one way of classifying information. Here it is done by
showing similarities and differences. Look at the following example of the classification of
plant tissue.

We shall first divide all plant tissues into two major categories: meristematic tissue and permanent tissue.
Meristematic tissues are composed of immature cells and are regions of active cell division; permanent
tissues are composed of more mature, differentiated cells.

Comparison and contrast is also used with extended definitions where the writer discusses
similarities or differences between the item being defined and an item with which the readers
are more familiar.

Exercise 11: Identifying comparison and contrast

Part A. Read the following extract. What item is being defined? How does the writer do this?

A bit brace is a manual tool used to drill holes. Cranked by hand, it can theoretically turn bit to bore a hole in
any material that a power drill can bore. Like a power drill, a bit brace can accept any number of different sizes
and shapes of bits. The principal differences between a bit brace and a power drill are: a bit brace drills much
more slowly, it is a manual tool and so it can be used where no electricity is available, and it makes almost no
noise in use.

Item being defined: ____________________________________________________________

The writer does this by:________________________________________________________

Part B. Let’s look at the following text to answer these questions.

What is the author comparing? _________________________________________________

In what ways are they similar? _________________________________________________

In what ways are they different? _______________________________________________

What words indicate the similarities and differences? Underline them.

Use a Venn diagram to map the information. Remember to put the areas in which they are
similar in C and the differences in A and B.

The elements phosphorus (P) and silicon (Si) have numerous similarities and differences. They are both
nonmetallic elements with comparable atomic numbers. Neither number is high: silicon’s atomic number is 14
and phosphorus’s number is 15. Their melting points are also parallel: the melting point of silicon is 1410ºC
and that of phosphorus is 1554ºC. Nonetheless, phosphorus and silicon are dissimilar in many ways.
Phosphorus is a yellow, waxy solid, whereas silicon often appears in a brown crystalline form. Phosphorus is
used in fertilizers and detergents, but silicon, in contrast, is used in semi-conductor devices.

Remember,
Venn Diagrams
are used to show
similarities and differences.
 18

Part C. Let’s look at the following text to answer these questions.

What is the author comparing? _________________________________________________

In what ways are they similar? ________________________________________________

In what ways are they different? _______________________________________________

Assuming that the brain and the computer are both machines, how are the two to be compared? The exercise is
interesting. Computers are invented by man and are therefore thoroughly understood, if human beings can be said
to understand anything; what they do not know is what future computers will be like. The brain was created by
evolution and is in many important ways not understood. Both machines process information and both work with
signals that are roughly speaking electrical. Both have, in the largest versions, many elements. Here, however,
there is an interesting difference. For cells to be manufactured biologically appears to be reasonably simple and
neurons are in fact produced in prodigious numbers. It seems to be not so easy to increase the elements of a
computer, even though the numbers are expanding rapidly. If synapses rather than neurons are considered to be
elements of the nervous system, however, I can hardly imagine computers catching up. No one would want to be
held to a guess as to the number of synapses in a brain, but 10 trillion would not be implausible.

Comparison and contrast indicators

Many expressions are useful for comparing and contrasting. These special words are signals
to the reader that a comparison is being made. Let’s look at the chart below.

The general structure of a sentence indicating a contrast.

differs from
Where microcosmos other hands-on programs is in its choice of subject matter.
is different from

Unlike
In contrast to
feline homebodies which are primarily nocturnal hunters, the wildcats hunt by day.
Compared to
In comparison to

The general structure of a sentence indicating a comparison.

like
Titanium is a rare metal and, similar to indium, very soft.
comparable to

resemble(s)
The trends in hardness, boiling temperature and AH sub those for groups I and II.
parallel(s)
 19

Exercise 12: A final exercise on comparison and contrast

Now look at the following statements. Decide what the writer is comparing or contrasting.
Underline the similarities and highlight the differences.

1. Although the basic unit of the vertebrate kidney, the nephron, differs from that of the crayfish kidney in
external appearance, the general processes are parallel in both.

The writer is comparing/contrasting: _____________________________________________

2. The chemistry of gallium is very similar to that of aluminum.

The writer is comparing/contrasting: _____________________________________________

3. The strain rates computed for both the eastern and western sub-networks are comparable in magnitude
and direction.

The writer is comparing/contrasting: _____________________________________________

4. A computer can solve a complex problem in seconds; by way of contrast, men would take weeks, maybe
months, to do the same operations.

The writer is comparing/contrasting: _____________________________________________

What are chronological order and process?

When a writer organizes information by time, for example, when describing the
development of an idea, the life of an individual or events which occurred, he is using
chronological order. The writer usually states the events in the same order in which they
occurred but sometimes, he may “flash back” to describe past events which affect the present
or “flash forward” to show the results of present events.

When the writer describes the way in which something is done or the way in which a
machine works, he is describing a process. In this case, the information is organized in
strict chronological order because the steps or stages of the process, like in the case of an
experiment, are all interrelated. That is, each step or stage, with the exception of the first, is
dependent on the other.

Why are they used in technical and scientific writing?

Time order is used when we have to describe the order in which important events occurred. A
scientist who is asking for an increase in a grant to further research in genetics, might present
the important events in the field leading up to his research. The process pattern is essential
in all sciences when we describe the way in which a machine or a system works, or an
experiment is done. It is also used to give instructions.
 20

How do we understand chronological order in a text? Let’s look at these examples.

Reorganize the following sentences to make a coherent text on the life of Darwin. Go through
each of the sentences and find the logical link.

1. Charles Darwin (1809-1882) is the founder of modern evolutionary theory.

2. One study that led to this conclusion was that of finches on the Galapagos Islands, where closely related
birds on different islands had developed quite different characteristics in response to their different
environment.
3. Shortly after finishing his university studies, Darwin signed on as a naturalist for a five-year voyage of
exploration on a ship called the Beagle.
4. Although strongly opposed by theologians at the time, Darwin’s view of life has since become accepted by
all but a fringe element among religious thinkers.
5. During this trip, he became convinced that species were not immutable, but changed gradually over time.
6. In 1859, Darwin published On the Origin of Species by means of Natural Selection, perhaps one of the most
influential books ever written
The correct order is ____1____, ________, ________, ________, ________ and ________.

Sentence 1 states the topic of the paragraph (Darwin and evolutionary theory) and also tells
us when he was born and died. We have to look for a sentence that tells us how he arrived at
his theory. Sentence 2 talks about a conclusion. As we have no idea what Darwin concluded,
this cannot be the following sentence. Sentence 3 talks about a trip that occurs after he
graduated from university. So, we look for a sentence that is going to continue talking about
his trip (Sentence 5). This sentence, then gives us the idea which is developed in sentence 2.
We are then left with sentence 4 and 6. Sentence 4 talks about our belief today while sentence
6 describes events in the past. So, the order should be???

The text gave us the clues to put the sentences in the correct order. Remember:

1. The author sometimes includes words such as later, afterwards, to point out the
order of events.

2. Dates are often used and logic tells us that 1832 comes before 1878

3. Structural and logical clues such as referents “...one study that led to this
conclusion…” and verb tenses are used, “…Darwin’s view of life has since become
accepted…”
 21

Let’s take a look at some words that indicate chronology and are taken from a text called “The
invention of the radio.”

by (specific time) By the early 1920s, there was a radio tube that could handle enough power for
broadcasting.

during (period of time) During the 19th century, important breakthroughs were made that led to the
invention of the radio.

from (specific time) to Radio communication has come a long way from the theoretical work of Maxwell
in the 19th century to the practical inventions of the modern electronics industry in
the 20th century.

until (specific time) Until the 1940’s, this tube, the only amplifier, was the basis of the electronics
industry.

in (year, month, season, Marconi did his first experiments in the spring of 1895.
decade)

on (day, date) On June 30, 1948, they presented their new invention, the first transistor radio.

Exercise 13: Identifying time indicators

Now from the examples, see if you can identify some other words that also indicate time
sequence. Underline them and then write them in the column. Some are done for you.

1. Next, Marconi used his new invention to help ships at sea. Next

2. A year later, he invented the first wireless telegraph.

3. After the invention of AM radio, radio broadcasting did not

begin immediately for two main reasons.

4. The first important discovery was made by Maxwell.

5. He then discovered that when the antenna was higher, the

waves went further. Then

6. Finally, Marconi transmitted radio waves from one side of the

Atlantic Ocean to the other.
 22

Exercise 14: On your own

Here are some other indicators of time. Find examples of their use in your readings. Write the
sentence next to the corresponding word.

Before

Eventually

While

Subsequently

Recently

Exercise 15: Placing information in the correct order

Part A. Place the following sentences in their correct position in the text. Write the letter
corresponding to the sentence in the space provided.

1. ___. He introduced the theory of electromagnetic energy. ___. In his paper he showed that when an
electromagnetic force is changed, it travels through space as a wave. Maxwell, however, did not make
electromagnetic waves, experiment with them, or suggest using them for communication. ___. He transmitted
the first electromagnetic waves across a room, and he received the wave signal on a simple receiver. These
waves were called Hertzian waves. Hertz did not think he could use his apparatus for communication. ___.

a. In 1864, Maxwell published a paper which suggested that light was part of
the electromagnetic spectrum.

b. In 1888, Hertz proved Maxwell’s theory.

c. The first important discovery was made by Maxwell.

d. Marconi, however, did believe that it was possible to use Hertzian waves for
communication.

2. Guglielmo Marconi believed that it was possible to use Hertzian waves for communication. ___.___. With this
wireless telegraph, Marconi first transmitted electromagnetic waves a short distance, only across a room. ___.
He then discovered that when the antenna was higher, the waves went farther, even over a hill. ___. In
November 1899, the American ship St. Paul received messages when it was almost 100 kilometers away
from the transmitter. ___. He built a special transmitter station on the coast of England and then took a ship
to North America. ___.
 23

a. Finally, Marconi transmitted radio waves from one side of the Atlantic Ocean
to the other.

b. Next, Marconi used his new invention to help ships on the sea.

c. Marconi did his first experiments in the spring of 1895.

d. A year later, he invented the first wireless telegraph.

e. In December 1901, when Marconi received three dots (…, “S”) on his receiver
in Canada, he knew it was possible to transmit radio waves across the ocean.

f. Later, he discovered that it was possible to transmit the waves further when
there was an antenna.

Part B. Reorganize the following sentences into a coherent paragraph.

Paragraph 1

1. Throughout most of recorded history, people believed in spontaneous generation.

2. The first was by an Italian physician named Francesco Redi.

3. This was the belief that life could arise spontaneously from nonliving materials.

4. The idea of spontaneous generation was a long time dying, and it took a series of experiments over a
period of several centuries to lay it to rest.

5. In 1688, he showed that if meat was covered to keep flies away, maggots did not develop.

6. By the end of the eighteenth century, spontaneous generation of entire organisms had been pretty well
discredited.

7. Thus, flies created the maggots which, in time, developed into new flies–life from previous life.

8. The Dutch scientist Antonie Van Leuwenhoek (1632-1723), using a recently developed microscope,
followed the life cycle of the flea and showed that fleas, too, come from other fleas.

The correct order of these sentences is: ________.

A. 1, 3, 6, 2, 5, 7, 8, 4
B. 6, 1, 3, 4, 2, 5, 8, 7
C. 1, 3, 4, 8, 2, 5, 7, 6
D. 1, 3, 4, 2, 5, 7, 8, 6

Paragraph 2

1. Between 1855 and 1872 he published his investigations on color and color blindness.

2. His findings were published in 1873 in his great work “Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism”

3. His textbook, Theory of Heat, was published in 1871.

 24

4. In 1856, J.C. Maxwell, a Scottish physicist, wrote a prize-winning paper about the rings around Saturn.

5. Maxwell is most famous for his studies in electricity and magnetism.

The correct order of these sentences is: ________

A. 4, 1, 2, 3, 5
B. 5, 1, 2, 3, 4
C. 4, 1, 3, 5, 2
D. 5, 2, 1, 4, 3

Exercise 16: Using a graphic organizer for chronological events

We can map chronological information on a time-line graphic organizer. Write the year in one
column and the event which occurred in the next. Use the following encyclopedia entry on
Edward Teller.

Teller, Edward (b. Jan. 15, 1908, Budapest, Hungary), physicist who made contributions in nuclear science
and led as a scientist, administrator, and public advocate in the development of the hydrogen bomb.
Abstract of text biography. Teller studied at Budapest, Karlsruhe, Munich, and Leipzig, and received a PhD in
physical chemistry. He continued his studies under Niels Bohr in Copenhagen and taught at the University of
Gottingen. In 1935, he emigrated to the United States. By 1941, he joined Enrico Fermi’s team that produced
the first nuclear chain reaction. In 1943, he joined with J. Robert Openheimer on the secret atomic weapons
project at the Los Alamos weapons laboratory in New Mexico. At war’s end, he became the leading advocate
of the construction of the hydrogen bomb. In 1958, he became director of the U.S. second weapons laboratory
at Livermore, Calif. He also taught physics at the University of California at Berkeley. In 1962, the U.S. Atomic
Energy Commission presented him with the Enrico Fermi Award.

1908 Edward Teller was born

 25

More on process
Once you can detect chronological order in a text, process is easy because you are identifying
the different stages in an experiment or a process. Let’s look at the first example which
describes an experiment. First, read the text through, then underline the different stages of
the experiment. Finally, read the sentences which follow and put the stages in the correct order
by numbering them.

1. Hunter studied short-term memory in rats. He used a special apparatus that had a cage for the rat and three
doors. There was a light in each door. First, Hunter placed the rat in the closed cage. Next, he turned one of
the lights on and then off. There was food for the rat only at this door. After the light was turned off, the rat had
to wait a short time before it was released from its cage. Then, if it went to the correct door, it was rewarded
with the food that was there. If the rat had to wait only ten seconds or less, it remembered which was the
correct door.

_____ The rat waited ten seconds.

_____ The rat was placed in the closed cage.

_____ The rat went to the correct door.

_____ One of the lights was turned on and then off.

_____ The rat was released.

_____ The rat was rewarded with food.

Let’s look at another experiment. This time involving short-term memory of information which
is heard. Follow the same procedure as in the first exercise.

2. The following procedure can be used to test short-term memory of information which is heard. Prior to the
experiment, take ten index cards and write three consonants on each card. Use different letters on each card,
for example LTV, QRX, ZYN, etc. To begin the experiment, sit facing a subject. Read the first card to the
subject. Immediately after you read the card, give the subject a number, for example, 241. The subject must
immediately begin counting backwards from that number by three’s (e.g. 241, 238, 235, etc.) After ten seconds,
say “Stop.” When you say “Stop”, the subject stops counting and is asked to tell you the letters. Keep a record
of the number of correct responses. Wait five seconds and then read the next card. Repeat the procedure until
you have read all ten cards.

____ Give the subject a number.

____ Read the first card to the subject.

____ The subject is asked to tell you the letters.

____ Repeat the procedure.

____ The subject counts backwards.

____ Sit facing the subject.

 26

____ Write three consonants on each card.

_____ Say “Stop.”

Go back through the texts. What are the words that indicate the different parts or stages of
the experiment? _______________________________________________________________________

Are they similar to the ones you find in texts that describe sequential events? If so, how?
______________________________________________________________________________________

How to identify process

Here are some words which indicate the stages or steps in a process.

First,
First of all,
electrodes are cemented on the subjects’ skin to measure their emotional reactions.
To begin with,
Initially,
Beforehand,
Previously,
Earlier, the subjects had been given a thorough medical examination.
Prior to this,
Before this,
At the same time,
lab assistants prepare the film the patients would be watching.
Simultaneously,
Next, the subjects are placed in front of a 25-inch television screen.
After this,
they watch different scenes depicting important events in world history.
Afterwards,
During this period their emotional responses are measured.
Finally,
To conclude, the researchers study the subjects’ responses.
In conclusion,
 27

Exercise 17: On your own

Here are some more words which indicate that a process is being described. Find sentences
which illustrate their use as you read other texts.

The first step

is…
The first stage

The next step

is…
The next stage

begins with
…
commences with

When this happens

…
While

Exercise 18: Working out stages in a process

Look at the following processes. You will find that the steps described contain very few of the
words you found above. It describes the way in which coffee seeds are dried. Can you put the
stages in order, anyway? Analyze each stage of the procedure logically. Use the structure of
the sentence to help you.

Put the sentences in the correct order. Write the number in the space provided. Then give texts
2 and 3 a title.

Text 1. Drying coffee beans

1. The few remaining traces of pulp are then removed by washing.

2. If dried in the sun, they must be turned by hand several times a day for even drying.

3. First, the fresh fruit is pulped by a pulping machine.

4. The coffee seeds are then dried to a moisture content of about 12 per cent either by exposure to the sun
or by hot-air driers.

5. Some pulp still clings to the coffee, however.

________ ________ ________ ________ ________

Text 2. _____________________________________

1. The homogenizer is a pump which is capable of exerting considerable pressure on the milk, thus forcing it
through a restricted opening.

2. The milk goes first to a clarifier.

3. The streams of milk then pass into a pre-heater.

4. The small size of the opening causes the milk to travel at high velocity.
 28

5. The clarifier is a machine for applying centrifugal force.

6. The homogenizer thus prevents cream formation even after long standing.

7. The disks separate the milk into thin streams.

8. The preheater elevates the temperature of the milk to 130 F and then allows the milk to flow to the
homogenizer.

9. It consists of a rapidly revolving bowl containing several disks.

10. This causes a reduction in the size of the butterfat globules.

____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____

Text 3. _________________________________________

1. As the mixture falls into the furnace, it meets with a blast of hot air which fires the coke and raises the
temperature of the mixture to about 1800ºC.

2. Pig iron is extracted from iron ores such as iron carbonate.

3. As the coke burns, some of it reacts with the oxygen in the air to form carbon monoxide.

4. This mixture is then fed into a blast furnace.

5. First, the ore is mixed with coke and crushed limestone.

______ ______ ______ ______ ______

How did the words in the sentences help you place the stages in the correct order?
 29

Exercise 19: Using a diagram to understand a process

Part A. Now, let’s see if you can use the diagram, which shows the distribution of electricity
from the power station to the consumer, to put the stages in the correct order.

Taken from Glendinning, E. & McEwan, J. (1999). Oxford English for Electronics

1. It is fed to substations.
2. It is stepped up by a transformer to high voltages for long distance distribution.
3. It is distributed via the grid to supply points.
4. It is distributed to the domestic consumer.
5. Electricity is generated at the power station at 25 kV.
6. It passes via the switching compound to the grid.
7. It is distributed via overhead or underground cables to intermediate substations.
______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______

Part B. Finally, let’s look at another graphic organizer, a cycle graph, that you can use with
texts in which a process is described. Use it to map the information found in the text that
follows.

Carbon, the basic element of organic chemistry, undergoes a

natural cycle in the environment. It exists in the form of carbon
dioxide in the atmosphere. From there it is absorbed by plants
to build carbohydrates in green leaves. When plants burn, and
animals breathe out, carbon dioxide passes back into the air.
Also, in decaying plant and animal remains, carbohydrates
are broken down to release carbon dioxide into the
atmosphere.
 30

The passive voice

The passive voice is often used in technical writing to describe processes. We are often more
interested in what was done than in who did the action. You may already know that texts in
science and technology tend to use an impersonal voice when describing phenomena, events,
etc. The passive voice is used to express this.

Remember that to form the passive voice, you must use the verb to be (be, is, are) and the
past participle of the verb. The passive voice can also be formed with modal verbs (can,
may, might, should).

In the sentence “The chemical is dumped into a flask” (be + past participle of dump), we are
interested in what occurs to the chemical. If we were interested in who performs the action,
we would say something like “Professor X dumps the chemical into a flask.”

Read the following paragraph and underline the verbs you consider to be in the passive voice.
One is done for you.

Let us look at a very simple process as the chemist does it and as it might be done in a chemical
process plant. The chemist takes a bottle of Chemical A from a shelf and pours the required quantity
into a glass measure. The chemical is dumped into a flask and a second liquid, Chemical B, is
measured and added in the same way. Chemical C, a powder, is weighed on a small laboratory scale
and added to the two liquids. The chemist mixes the chemicals together by shaking the flask and
heats the mixture over a small gas flame, with constant shaking. Finally, the mixture is rapidly cooled
by placing the flask in a container of crushed ice. The chemist may have made a total quantity of a
half-liter or less of product.
Taken from Hughson, R. V. The Language of Chemical Engineering in English, Regents Publishing Company, 1979.

Exercise 20: Writing a process

These sentences describing how a breakfast cereal is made are incomplete and in the wrong
order.

Part A. First, complete each sentence by putting the verb in parentheses in the passive voice.
Then, write out the correct order using the sequence of pictures to help you. Use the best
sequence words to link the sentences. Be sure to give your text a title.

1. It (store) in the silos

2. These (weave) into biscuits.
3. The wheat (harvest) from the field
4. Each biscuit (bake) until brown.
5. It (cut) in thin strips
6. The grain (cook) to soften it.
7. It (pack) ready to be eaten.
8. The wheat grain (transport) to the silos.

______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______

 31

Part B. Now, write out the correct order for the process using the sequence of pictures to help
you. Use the best sequence words to link the sentences. Be sure to give your text a title.

______________________________________

Exercise 21: Writing and visualizing a process

The sentences for this exercise were taken from a description of the process for making glass
bottles.

Part A. First, complete the sentences by putting the verb, given at the end of each, in the
correct passive form.

1. It ______________________ into bottles in the mold. (shape)

2. Sometimes broken glass ______________________ (add)

3. The bottles ____________________________ to strengthen the glass. (reheat and cool)

4. Glass ______________________from sand, limestone and soda ash. (make)

5. They are ready ______________________ (use)

6. Glass ____________________________. (produce)

 32

7. This mixture ______________________________ strongly in a furnace (heat)

8. These three materials ____________________together in the right proportions. (mix)

Part B. Now, write out the process by placing each sentence in the correct order joined
together by the most appropriate sequence words. Give your text a title!

______________________________________

Part C. Finally, complete the following diagram with the key information of the process.
 33

What is cause and effect?

We see cause and effect relationships all around us. There was heavy traffic this morning, so
you got to class late. You woke up late and you missed the bus! When a writer uses a cause
and effect pattern in a text, he wants to discuss the reason something has happened. This is
the cause. What occurs as a result of this action, is the effect. Sometimes, one cause may lead
to several effects and the effects can, in turn, become the cause of another effect. Let’s begin
by recognizing cause and effect patterns in this passage.

When a load is placed on the platform, it causes the load cell to bend very slightly. This, in turn,
causes a change in strain, which triggers a change in the electrical resistance of the strain gauge.
As the resistance changes, so does the output voltage from the strain gauge. In short, the change in
voltage across the strain gauge is proportional to the load on the platform.
Text taken from Oxford English for Electrical and Mechanical Engineering

Look at these sentences taken from the text above. They describe two actions. What is the
relationship between them?

1a. A load is placed on the platform. 1b. The load cell bends very slightly.

2a. The strain gauge is stretched. 2b. The electrical resistance changes.

One is the cause and the other is the effect and they can be linked like this:

A load is placed on the platform, which causes the load cell

to bend very slightly.

The strain gauge is stretched, which causes the electrical

resistance to change.

Or it can be expressed by placing the effect first as in the following manner:

The load cell bends very slightly because the load

is placed on the platform.

The electrical resistance changes as a result of the strain gauge

being stretched.

The words in italics indicate cause-effect relationships.

 34

Let’s look at some other sentences to find the cause and effect pattern and the words which
indicate them. Remember to ask yourself questions.

1. When the air cools off at night, the surface of the rock contracts.
Cause:
Effect:
Indicator:

2. Alternating periods of expansion and contraction lead to fragmentation.

Cause:
Effect:
Indicator:

3. As the drill turns, it collides with the metal, causing the atoms to speed up.
Cause:
Effect:
Indicator:

4. Normally, atomic nuclei repel each other because both have positive electric charges.
Cause:
Effect:
Indicator:

5. It is estimated that 80 to 90 percent of human cancer is related to environmental factors.

Cause:
Effect:
Indicator:

6. In 1929, 25% of the American population lived on farms. Due to higher wages, shorter working hours and
a better social life in the city, many Americans have left the farms to work in the city.
Cause:
Effect:
Indicator:

Now that you’ve found some of the words which indicate cause and effect patterns in texts,
let’s look at them more closely.
 35

Cause and effect indicators

These are some words which indicate that the information that follows is the cause. Note that
the writer can place the causes of an action or event in any part of his sentence.

As a result of
improved technology and skill, the productivity of American industry has increased during the 20th
Due to
century.
Owing to

caused by
The crumbling of rock can be due to the freezing of moisture present in the cracks of rocks.
as a result of

As
Because Richard wants to become a veterinarian, he has enrolled in veterinary school.
Since

Likewise, authors can place the effect anywhere in the text.

causes
Vitamin B1 deficiency Beriberi, a dysfunction of the nervous system.
leads to

Therefore,
Middle-aged individuals have already spent the money Consequently, middle-aged people generally save a larger
necessary for raising a family. They are starting to So, percentage of their money than young people
think about retirement. Thus, do.
For this reason,

But, look at the next sentence. These words do not appear. Which action is the cause, and
which is the effect?

The sun’s rays heat up rock during the day and the rock expands.

You can ask the question “What does the heat do to the rock?” and the answer is that it causes
it to expand.

Obesity facilitates the emergence of diabetes in certain individuals.

You can ask the question “Why are some people diabetic?” and the answer is because they are
obese.

Exercise 22: Identifying cause and effect

There you have found the cause and effect relationship even though there were no words to
guide you. These sentences include verbs that join cause and effect statements.

Can you identify the verbs and the statements that they link in the following sentences? Circle
the verbs, underline the causes and double underline the effects.

1. The introduction of computers has brought about significant changes in office routines.
 36

2. Computers can create artificial objects in their memories. This allows developers to test product design
without actually creating a real prototype.

3. A solar eclipse results when the moon comes between the earth and the sun.

4. It has been proven that extended periods of exposure to sun produce cancer of the skin.

Exercise 23: Thinking about cause and effect

Although it is important to recognize the indicators of cause and effect, it is perhaps more
important to recognize the cause and effect pattern itself. In the following exercise, determine
which comes first. Then draw an arrow from the cause to the effect. Finally, write sentences
showing the relationship. Use as many different signal words as possible.

Viruses Infectious diseases

Epidemics Bacteria
Headaches Colds and flu
Improperly stored food Food poisoning
Slow development Improper nutrition
Swimming in pools Ear infection
Heart trouble Diet high in fat
Skin cancer Too much exposure to sun
 37

Exercise 24: Interpreting similar cause and effect sentences

Do they mean the same? Read each sentence. Then circle the letter corresponding to the option
which best matches the meaning of the sentence. Remember, first identify the cause (C) and
then look for its effect (E). Use the charts to help explain your choice.

1. Increasing the temperature increases the rate of a chemical reaction.

A. Chemical reactions cause an increase in temperature.

B. An increase in the rate of a chemical reaction may be caused by increasing the
temperature.

Original sentence Option A Option B

Cause ______________________ ______________________ ______________________

Effect ______________________ ______________________ ______________________

2. Ions are formed when an acid is dissolved in water.

A. Ions cause an acid to be dissolved in water.

B. Dissolving an acid in water causes ions to be formed.

Original sentence Option A Option B

Cause ______________________ ______________________ ______________________

Effect ______________________ ______________________ ______________________

3. Heating solid carbon dioxide (dry ice) produces a gas.

A. A gas results from heating solid carbon dioxide.

B. Carbon dioxide turns solid when heated.

Original sentence Option A Option B

Cause ______________________ ______________________ ______________________

Effect ______________________ ______________________ ______________________

4. Mirages are caused by light rays bending in the air.

A. Mirages can result from light rays bending in the air.

B. Mirages cause light rays to bend in the air.

Original sentence Option A Option B

Cause ______________________ ______________________ ______________________

Effect ______________________ ______________________ ______________________

 38

Exercise 25: Using graphic organizers for cause and effect

Part A. You can also use graphic organizers to map the cause and effect pattern in texts. You
can simply use an arrow to indicate the relationship, as in the example text below. Read the
passage and then fill in the missing information in the organizer.

There are several factors to be taken into account when studying why some plants become weak or die. One
reason is lack of water. Dryness in the soil causes the leaves to wilt and may give rise to the death of the
plant. On the other hand, too much water may result in the leaves drooping, or becoming yellow. While
sunshine is necessary for plants, if it is too strong, the soil may be baked, and the roots killed. However, if
there is no light, the leaves will become pale and the stems thin. Consequently, the plant may die.

1. Lack of water dryness in the soil ___________________ death of plant

2. ____________________ leaves droop or become yellow death of the plant

3. Too strong sun _______________________ ____________________

4. _______________ _____________ _____________ death of the plant

Part B. Now select another kind of organizer and try to map the information from this text in
the space below.

Headaches, with their characteristic pain or throbbing sensation in the head, are an extremely common
complaint, experienced by almost everyone at some time or other. Occasionally, they are a symptom of an
underlying disorder, but, if they occur on their own, developing gradually and clearing up with no side-effects,
the probability is that they are totally harmless, apart from the discomfort they cause. Probably the commonest
form of headache is caused by tension, from the contraction of the muscles of the neck, shoulders and scalp.
The second commonest is the result of the swelling of local blood vessels. There can be many contributing
factors. These range from stress, sleeplessness and drinking and eating too much, to noise and stuffy rooms,
but, insofar as tension headaches are concerned, one of the commonest causes is poor posture. The muscles
of the neck become tense and sore because they have to support the considerable weight of the head in an
awkward position. Another common cause is eye strain. This can be due to the simple need for glasses. If
headaches persist, it is as well to go to an optician for a check-up, and to work in a good light.

Below you will find some short texts which show the cause and effect pattern. Use an
appropriate graphic organizer to map the information. Remember to first identify the causes
and the effects.

1. Many people do not think of coffee as a drug. But, in fact, it is a drug and it has important effects on your body.
Some of the effects are good and some are not. Coffee can help you stay awake when you are driving or
working. But it can also keep you awake at night when you want to sleep. Coffee makes some people feel
more alive, so they can work better. Other people feel too nervous when they drink coffee. After a large meal,
coffee can help your stomach. But too much coffee can cause a stomach ache.
2. In the United States, poor city children are often ill because of their diet. Some children do not get enough
food. Sometimes they do not get healthy food. Poor health is also caused by bad housing. The apartments
may not have heat in the winter or fresh air in the summer. Poor health may also be the result of dirty water.
Or it may be caused by crowded apartments and crowded schools.
3. Actinic keratosis is an effect of many years of chronic over-exposure to sunlight. It usually appears as hard,
gray, scaly patches of thickened skin surface. People with blond or red hair are more likely than others to
develop the disorder. It is not cancerous, but it is classified as a pre-cancerous condition. There has been
 39

some difference of opinion among specialists concerning the exact relationship to cancer of some conditions
described as pre-cancerous. It is widely believed, however, that there is a heightened likelihood of skin cancer
among persons whose overexposure to sunlight has already produced actinic keratosis.
4. A pulse laser is basically a device for storing energy and then releasing it all at once to give a very intense
beam of light. The heart of the laser is a crystal or tube of gas or liquid into which energy is pumped. This is
usually done by surrounding it with a device to produce a powerful flash of light or an intense beam of radio
waves or electrons. As pumping occurs, more and more of the atoms inside take up energy and are excited
to high energy states. Suddenly an atom spontaneously returns to its first energy state and gives out a particle
of light (a photon). This photon strikes another excited atom and causes it to produce another photon. Very
rapidly, a cascade of photons develops. The crystal or tube is closed at both ends by mirrors and the photons
bounce to and fro between them, building up the cascade. A proportion of this light is able to escape through
one of the mirrors, which is half-silvered, and an intense flash of light emerges from the laser.

Exercise 26: Reviewing organizational pattern indicators

We’ve looked at the different organizational patterns a writer uses in the text: time sequence,
either through chronological order or process, description where the author might have to
define, classify, compare or contrast an idea or device and finally cause and effect. Let’s check
your knowledge of the signal words with this exercise. Ask yourself “What does this word do
in the sentence to make the meaning clear?”
Choose the best signal word for each passage. Look at the example below.
During a temperature inversion, an upper layer of warm air acts like a lid. __A__, polluted cooler air cannot
rise, and harmful fumes pile up and make people sick.
A. As a result
B. However
C. For example
The upper layer of warm air acts as a lid (i.e., a cover). You can infer that a cover prevents the
cool air from rising. Therefore, the correct option is A. Now you do the rest.

1. In December 1930, a dark smog of smoke and fog covered the Meuse Valley in Belgium. ________ the
smog, sixty people died.
A. In contrast to
B. Because of
C. In front of

2. Thousands of people may die from a killer smog. _____, 4,000 people were killed by thick black smog in
London in 1952.
A. For example
B. Afterwards
C. However

3. There is a lot of carbon monoxide in the air where there is a lot of traffic. _____ carbon monoxide
prevents the red blood cells from carrying oxygen all over the body, people in traffic jams may get
headaches or feel dizzy.
A. Therefore
B. Since
C. Whereas
 40

4. ___________ the population of the world continues to increase at the same rate, there will not be enough
resources on the earth to support all the people in the future.
A. Eventually
B. During
C. If

5. Sea birds have died in great numbers _________ oil which escaped from deep-sea wells.
A. prior to
B. owing to
C. after

6. The smoke from the copper ore refinery in Ducktown, Tennessee, destroyed all the trees and plants on
the hills around the refinery. Pine trees in the mountains east of Los Angeles have been killed by
photochemical smog. Smoke from the phosphate refineries in Florida contains fluorides which eventually
kill cattle. ______, air pollution may have harmful effects on the ecology of an area.
A. In short
B. Therefore
C. Finally

7. In the upper parts of a river, the water is clear and clean. As it flows past the farms on its banks, it picks
up nitrates, phosphates, and pesticides. ______, it reaches the first towns along its banks, and it picks
up sewage from home and factory drains.
A. However
B. Generally speaking
C. Next

8. The method for producing fresh water from sea water is similar to the water cycle in nature. First, the sea
water is boiled. _____, the water vapor is condensed.
A. Then
B. Before
C. Consequently

9. Solid waste breeds rats, flies and mosquitoes if it is dumped on land. _____, it can make land for parks
and other useful purposes if it is used to make sanitary landfills.
A. However
B. On the whole
C. In conclusion

10. How does strontium 90 enter the human body? First, plants take up strontium 90 from the air. Then it
enters the bodies of cows when they eat the plants. _______ humans drink milk from the cows. There is
strontium 90 in the milk.
A. Finally
B. While
C. Therefore
 41

Focus on graphic organizers

A graphic organizer is a visual representation of information and, in reading, is a way
to organize the patterns and concepts of a text. Why should we use graphic organizers?
Well, their use in language learning is based on information from cognitive theory that says:

When we extract information from a text, it is easier to see the connection between
concepts.

Information is stored in our memory in an orderly manner in a framework that is called a

schema. When we activate our prior knowledge of a topic, this schema provides the frame for
the new information we are receiving.

It’s easier for us to remember visual information than lots of written text.

When we use both visual and verbal language to create a graphic organizer, we learn more.

Concept maps are special forms of diagrams used for obtaining information, finding
relationships between data and sharing the information gathered. They consist of cells that
contain a concept, item or question and labelled links which show the link between the
different concepts or ideas. Examples of kinds of concept maps are:

The Spider concept map

The main theme is placed in the center of the map and sub-
themes radiate outward. This kind of map can be used to
describe things, concepts or propositions with support.

Key questions can be: What is the main idea? What concept is
being described? What are its attributes? What does it do?
 42

The Hierarchy concept map

Here the information is presented in a descending order of

importance. The most important data is placed on the top. This
kind of map is used to place things, people, places or ideas into
categories.

Key questions can be: What items can be put together? (Level
1) How are they alike? (Level 2) How are they different? (Level
3)

The Flowchart concept map

These maps organize information in a linear format and are

used to describe a series of events, stages in a process, life cycles
and outcomes, all linked by time.

Key questions are: What is the event being described? What

are the steps, phases, stages or events? How do these relate to
one another? What is the final outcome?

Here are some other graphic organizers that will be useful:

The Double Cell Diagram

This is used to describe and

compare the attributes and
characteristics of two items,
places, events or ideas.

Key questions are: What items

are being compared? How are
they similar? How are they
different? The common areas are
in the center and the differences
are in the outer sections.
 43

The Venn Diagram

This is another map which can be used for describing,

comparing and contrasting more than one item, idea
or event.

Key questions are: What characteristics do they

have in common? (intersecting parts) How do they
differ? (non-intersecting parts).

The Comparison Matrix

This is used to describe and compare the

attributes and characteristics of events,
people, ideas or places.

Key questions include: What is being

described? What characteristics are being
compared? In what way are they similar
or different?

The Fishbone

This type of map is used to show

the causal interaction of complex
events.

Key questions are: What are

the factors that cause X to occur?
How do they interrelate? Do
these factors allow X to persist?

The Problem/Solution map

With this type of map, key questions help identify

the problem, find several solutions and probable
results.

Probable key questions include: Who did what?

Why? How was it done? How can this situation be
changed?
 44

The Spider map

Very similar to the spider concept map, this type

of organizer is good for distinguishing the topic,
main ideas and details of a text.

Key questions are: What is the subject of this

text? Who or what is the author talking about?
What is important about this topic? What
information supports this idea?

Remember: use graphic organizers when you read texts to help you visualize the
information more easily.
 45

Focus on summarizing
What is summarizing?
Summarizing is the process of retelling the important parts of a passage in a much shorter
form. It is an important reading skill. When you are able to summarize a passage, you can be
confident that you have understood it.
A good summary should present a clear, concise idea of the main points of an article. It should
include the main ideas and the major supporting points of what you have read.

How to write a one-paragraph summary

A paragraph summary should express the main points of an article in as few words as possible.
When writing the summary there are three main requirements:
1. The summary should cover the original as a whole.
2. The material should be presented in a neutral fashion.
3. The summary should be a condensed version of the material, presented in your own
words.
Here are some preliminary steps in writing a summary
1. Skim the text to determine the author`s thesis.
2. Reread the text, highlight important information and take notes on the main points.
3. Using your notes as guide, write the first draft of your summary. It should include:
A. A topic sentence that states the name of the article, the author, and the source.
B. A body that focuses on explaining, in your own words, the main ideas presented in
the article, but do not include minor detail. An effective way to do this is by
answering the questions what, where, when, and why.
C. A final statement that summarizes any conclusions the author made in the article.
4. Revise the draft of your summary and be sure that you did not include any of your own
thoughts or opinions about the topic.
5. Edit your summary to make sure that the grammar, spelling, punctuation, and
capitalization are correct.
6. Go through the process again, making changes as appropriate.
 46

Here is an example of a summary based on an article called “Global Implications of Patent

Law Variation” which is presented below.
Summary
In his paper “Global Implications of Patent Law Variation,” Koji Suzuki (1991) states
that lack of consistency in the world’s patent laws is a serious problem. In most of the
world, patent ownership is given to the inventor that is first to file for a patent. However,
the United States maintains a first-to-invent policy. In view of this, patent ownership
can change depending on the country. Multiple patent ownership can result in economic
problems; however, most striking is the international tension it causes. The fact that the
United States does not recognize patent ownership in other countries, in violation of the
Paris Convention on Industrial Properties, has prompted the World Intellectual
Properties Organization (WIPO) to push the United States to review its existing patent
law principles.

Original article.

Global Implications of Patent Law Variation

A patent is an exclusive right to use an invention for a certain period of time, which is given to an inventor as compensation
for disclosure of an invention. Although it would be beneficial for the world economy to have uniform patent laws, each
country has its own laws designed to protect domestic inventions and safeguard technology.
Despite widespread variation, patent laws generally fall under one of two principles: the first-to-file and first-to-invent.
The first-to-file principle awards a patent to the person or institution that applies for a patent first, while the first-to invent
principle grants the patent to the person or institution that was first to invent and can prove it. Most countries have
adopted the first-to-file system.
However, the United States maintains a first-to-invent system, despite obvious shortcomings. A result of countries
employing different patent law principles is inconsistency of patent ownership.
Patent ownership is not recognized globally. On the contrary, ownership may change depending on the country. It is not
uncommon for an invention to have two patent owners, one in the United States and one in the rest of the world.
This unclear ownership often has economic consequences. If a company is interested in using a patented invention, it
may be unable to receive permission from both patent owners, which in turn may prevent manufacture of a particular
product. Even if permission is received from both owners, pay royalties to both may be quite costly. In this case, if the
invention is useful enough, a company may proceed and pass on the added cost to consumers.
International economic tension has also been increasing as a result of differing policies. Many foreign individuals and
companies believe that they are at a serious disadvantage in the United States with regard to patent ownership because
of the logistical difficulties in establishing first-to invent status. Further, failure of the United States to recognize patent
ownership in other countries is in violation of the Paris Conventions on Industrial Properties, which requires all member
nations to treat all patents equally.
The conflict surrounding patents has prompted the World Intellectual Properties Organization (WIPO) to lobby for
universality in patent laws. WIPO maintains that the first necessary step involves compelling the United States to
reexamine its patent principle, taking into account the reality of a global economy. This push may indeed result in more
global economic cooperation.
Taken and adapted from: How to Write a Summary available at http://www.sa.sdsu.edu/dss/summary.pdf
 47

References and bibliography

Cambridge Dictionaries Online. (2005). http://www.cambridgedictionaries.com
Cuesta College. Interpreting what you read. In Reading comprehension. [Last modified June 2003]. Retrieved from:
http://academic.cuesta.edu/acasupp/AS/310.HTM
Departamento de Idiomas. (2001). Guía de Lectura ID-1112. Caracas: Universidad Simón Bolívar.
Departamento de Idiomas. (2002). Guía de Lectura ID-1112 (Paralelo). Caracas: Universidad Simón Bolívar.
Departamento de Idiomas. (2002-2004). Guía de Lectura ID-1111. Caracas: Universidad Simón Bolívar.
Departamento de Idiomas. (2003). Guía de Lectura ID-1111 (Paralelo). Caracas: Universidad Simón Bolívar.
Dobbs, C. (1989). Reading for a Reason. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall Regents.
Donahue Latulippe, L. (1987). Developing Academic Reading Skills. Prentice Hall Regents.
Feuerstein, T., & Schcolnik, M. (1995). Enhancing Reading Comprehension in the Language Learning Classroom. San
Francisco, CA: Alta Books Center.
Gillett, A. (2005). Rhetorical functions in academic writing. In Using English for Academic Purposes: A Guide for International
Students. Hatfield, UK: School of Combined Studies, University of Hertfordshire. Retrieved from:
http://www.uefap.co.uk/writing/function/function.htm
Glendinning, E., & Glendinning, N. (1995). Oxford English for Electrical and Mechanical Engineering.
Hornby, A.S., & Ruse, C.A. (1992). The Oxford ESL Dictionary. Oxford University Press.
Jordan, R.R. (1999). Academic writing course. Edinburgh: Addison Wesley Longman
Mahnke, K. & Duffy, C.B. (1992). The Heinemann TOEFL Preparation Course.
Mikulecky, B.S. & Jeffries, L. (1996). Reading Power. Addison-Wesley Publishing Company.
Mikulecky, B.S. & Jeffries, L. (2004). More Reading Power. Longman.
Quirk, R., Greenbaum, S., Leech, G., & Svartvik, J. (1972). A grammar of contemporary English. London: Longman.
St. Louis, R. (2004). Reading Skills Guide. Caracas: Universidad Simón Bolívar.
Swales, J.M. & Feat, C.B. (1994). Academic Writing for Graduate Students, Essential Tasks and Skills. Ann Arbor: University of
Michigan Press.
The Graphic Organizer. (2005). Retrieved from http://www.graphic.org/bubble.html
The Jamestown Comprehension Skills Series. (1993). Jamestown Publishers.
Wilson, B. (2005). Bob Wilson’s Auto-English. Retrieved from: http://perso.wanadoo.es/autoenglish
Worsley School Online. (2005). Fact or opinion? Retrieved from: http://www.worsleyschool.net/socialarts/factopinion/factopinion.html
48
Reading Selections for ID1112
 50

Before reading
Discussion: Look at these questions and discuss your ideas with your classmates.
1. Do you think there is a link between intelligence and our ability to learn?
2. How would you describe an intelligent person?
3. How would you define “learning”?

Skimming: Read the first line of each paragraph of the text. Is the author’s definition of learning
different or similar to yours? In what ways?

The Definition of Learning

Learning may be defined as the process whereby an organism changes its behavior as a result of
experience. Because this definition is deceptively simple, we should look closely at its various
components.
The idea that learning involves change in an organism means that learning takes time. To measure
learning, we compare the way in which the organism behaves at Time I with the way it behaves at
Time II under similar circumstances. If the behavior under similar circumstances differs on the two
occasions, we may infer that learning has occurred.
Further, it is change in behavior that occurs in the process of learning. Changes in physical
characteristics, such as height and weight, do not count as learning. Neither do changes in physical
strength, such as lifting ability, which occur as a result of physiological change in the size of muscles
or the efficiency of circulatory and respiratory processes.
Learning is what we infer has taken place when the behavior of animals, including humans, has
changed. Behavior refers to some action, muscular or glandular, and combinations of these actions.
The verbal behavior is of prime interest, because from the writing and speaking actions of humans
we can determine whether changes in those behaviors have taken place. The changes from “da-da” to
“father,” from an essay about “How I Feel Today” to one about “Transcendental Meditation,” and from
writing shool* to writing school enable us to infer that learning has taken place. The overt behaviors
of talking, writing, moving, and the like, allow us to study the psychological behaviors of interest to
us —thinking, feeling, wanting, remembering, problem-solving, creativity, and so on. The overt
behavior of the organism —pigeon or school-age child, worm or teacher— is always our starting point.
Some psychologists focus only on overt behavior. They are often called behaviorists. Other
psychologists regard overt behavior as a clue for inferring what goes on in a person's mind. They are
often called cognitive psychologists. But all psychologists need to value overt behavior in order to
determine if change has occurred. Typically, in school learning, the change in behavior refers to the
ability to remember or comprehend various things and the tendency to have certain kinds of attitudes
and values, of the kind set forth in statements of educational objectives.
The final component of the definition of learning is “as a result of experience.” The term experience
limits the kinds of changes in behavior that can be considered to represent learning. The limitation is
important and difficult to define. Usually the limitation is made by pointing to various causes of
change in behavior that should not be considered to reflect experience. We have already referred to
some of these kinds of change in our attempt to specify behavior. Thus, behavior changes resulting
from fatigue, sensory adaptation, drugs, and mechanical forces are not considered to be changes
caused by experience and hence are not considered to reflect learning. So, if a person lifts a 50-pound
weight repeatedly, he eventually must do it more slowly and finally become incapable of continuing
to lift the weight; the change in his behavior would be due to fatigue, a physiological process. When a
 51

person enters a darkened room, she gradually sees more clearly; this change in her behavioral
capability resulting from dilation of the pupil and photochemical changes in the retina. It is also
considered to be physiological and does not represent learning. Changes in behavior because of the
ingestion of alcohol or other drugs are not considered to represent learning because they also reflect
physiological changes. Changes resulting from being pushed or tripped are mechanical changes, not
learning.
Another process that produces change in behavior, for reasons other than learning is maturation.
Behavioral change is attributed to maturation if it is due to changes that occur in the normal process
of the organism's physiological growth and development. Walking and talking develop in human
beings to a large extent because of such maturation rather than through learning. A certain level of
maturity is prerequisite to learning to talk, although experience with talking adults is necessary to
capitalize on the readiness brought about through maturation.
After all of the foregoing types of changes (i.e., those resulting from physiological, mechanical, and
maturational processes) have been excluded from the category of those reflecting learning, what kinds
of changes in behavior remain to be included? The answer is that learning results from experience
with the environment whereby relationships between stimuli and responses are established.
Taken from: Gage, N.L. & Berliner, D.C (1975). Educational Psychology.
Chicago: Rand McNally Publishing Co.

Exercises
References
What do the following words in italics refer to in the text?

Par. Line Word Answer

1. 1 1 …organism changes its behavior…

2. 4 10 They are often called behaviorists…
3. 6 2 …if it is due to changes…

Vocabulary
Each of the following sentences has a word underlined. Select the best replacement from the words
found in the box. Write the letter in the space provided.

1. Learning may be defined as the process whereby an organism changes its behavior as a
result of experience. _____
2. This definition has various components. _____
3. We can infer that learning has taken place when there has been a change in behavior.
_____
4. Behavior refers to some action, muscular or glandular, and the combination of these actions.
_____
5. All psychologists need to value overt behavior to determine if change has occurred. _____

a. allows to b. elements c. cognitive d. deals with

e. deduce f. observable g. through which h. as a result

 52

After reading
Choose the correct option to answer the following questions.

1. Which of the following cannot be considered learning?

a. Overt changes in behavior
b. Accomplishment of educational objectives
c. Behavioral changes produced by physiological growth
d. Experiences which establish stimulus-response relationships

2. Which of the following is a result of learning?

a. physiological changes
b. behavioral changes
c. mechanical changes
d. physical changes

3. Which of the following is an example of learning?

a. gaining two kilos
b. lifting a heavy box
c. speaking
d. breathing

The author’s purpose in writing this article is to__________________________________________.

He does this by ________________________________________________________________________.
 53

Before reading
What do you know about predators? Can you think of any animals that live by predation? Write your
ideas in the space provided. Check your ideas against the author’s as you read.

What they do
What predators are

Predator

What is a Predator?
In the broadest sense of the word predators are organisms that eat all or parts of other live organisms
as an energy source. By this definition any consumer organism is a predator, and herbivores as well
as carnivores are included. Here we will restrict the definition of predator to an animal whose feeding
removes the prey individual from the population. Because of this removal, the prey taken no longer
will deplete further the resources used by the prey population or contribute to their growth in
numbers. Although grazing herbivores that do not destroy their “prey” require different theoretical
treatment than is given in this chapter, they will be included in the discussion of predator strategies
where useful. However, consumer organisms that move plant reproductive parts to new areas are not
included. A fruit-eating bird, for instance, that disperses the seed of a plant is not a predator in the
same sense as a beetle larva that destructively eats a seed. Parasites are not included because they
usually have evolved a sufficiently close relation with their normal host to allow it to remain alive
and continue to provide them with energy. Parasitoids, organisms that are parasitic but kill the host,
albeit gradually, are, however, usually included in predator-prey discussions. The adult parasitoid
locates the host or prey and lays an egg in or on the host. The larva then parasitizes and eventually
kills the host. Thus, different stages of the life cycle of the parasitoid are responsible for finding and
killing the prey and the time lag from attack to death is usually considered as minimal in classical
predator-prey interactions.

Taken from: McNaughton, S.J. & Wolf, L.L. (1973). General Ecology. New York: Holt,
Rinehart & Winston, Inc.
 54

Exercises
References. What do the following words in italics refer to in the text?

Line Word Answer

1. 5 …contribute to their growth…

2. 6 …destroy their “prey”…
3. 10 …included because they…
4. 11 …normal host to allow it to…

Vocabulary. Match the words in column A with their meaning in column B by writing the
corresponding number in the space provided.

A B Match
1. broadest a. to lessen markedly in quantity, content, power, or value _____

2. source b. having ample extent from side to side or between limits _____

3. prey c. to stay in the same place or with the same person or

group _____

4. deplete d. an animal taken by a predator as food _____

5. further e. a point of origin _____

6. remain f. to a greater degree or extent _____

Checking comprehension of text

Based on the information in the text, indicate if the following sentences are true (T) or false (F).

1. An herbivore is a predator in a broad sense of the term. (T) – (F).

2. Parasitoids are considered predators while parasites are not. (T) – (F).

Finally, what are the definitions of predator given in the text?

1. Broad:

2. Restricted:
 55

Before reading

Discuss the following questions with a classmate.

What do you know about matter? If you were told to classify matter, how would you do it? What
criteria would you use? Put your ideas in the graphic organizer.

What it is… How I would classify it

• •
• •
• Matter •
• •
• •

Now, skim the text. Did you and the author use the same criteria? ________

Classification of Matter
Matter exists in countless different forms, and it is necessary to develop broad categories for its
description. For example, it is generally classified into the categories substance and mixture.
Particularly important among substances are those that cannot be made into simpler materials either
by physical or chemical changes, that is, not by heating, cooling, crushing, exposing to acids, and so
on. These substances are the chemical elements. At present, 106 different elements are known. They
range from such common materials as iron, copper, silver, and gold to uncommon ones such as
lutetium, promethium, and thulium. About 90 of the elements can be extracted from natural sources;
the rest have been created through nuclear processes.
Chemical compounds comprise a second class of substances. These are chemical combinations of two
or more elements. Clearly, the potential number of different combinations of the 106 elements is
enormous. The number of chemical compounds now known is in the millions, ranging in complexity
from ordinary water to the protein hemoglobin. Chemical compounds retain their identities during
physical changes but can be separated into their component elements by appropriate chemical
changes.
The composition and properties of an element or a compound are uniform throughout a given sample
and from one sample to another. Elements and compounds are said to be pure and are called
substances. Some mixtures of substances also have compositions and properties that are uniform
throughout a given sample but variable from one sample to another. These are homogeneous mixtures
or solutions. A homogeneous mixture can be separated into its two or more components by appropriate
physical changes. Ordinary air is a solution of several gases, principally the elements nitrogen and
oxygen. Seawater is a solution of the compounds water, sodium chloride (salt), and a host of others.
In some mixtures —sand and water, for example— the components separate into physically distinct
regions. As a result, the composition and physical properties vary from one part of the mixture to
another. Such mixtures are said to be heterogeneous. Samples of matter ranging from a glass of iced
tea to a slab of concrete to the leaf of a plant are heterogeneous.
Taken from: Perucci, R. (1982). General chemistry: Principles and Modern Applications (3rd edition).
New York: Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc.
 56

Exercises
References. What do the words in italics refer to in the text?

Paragraph Line Word Answer

1 1 …categories for its description.

1 3 …are those that cannot be made…
1 5 They range from such common…
2 5 …separated into their component…
3 5 …separated into its two…

Vocabulary

Find the following words in the text and match them to their synonym from the box below.

Paragraph Word Synonym

1 develop
1 broad
1 through
3 several
4 distinct

extensive different by
various elaborate same

Checking comprehension
Using the chart above, decide if these statements are true (T) or false (F). Mark your choice.

1. Substances are made up of elements and compounds. (T) (F)

2. Mixtures are divided into heterogeneous and homogeneous. (T) (F)
3. Ordinary air is a good example of a solution. (T) (F)
4. Solutions are homogeneous mixtures. (T) (F)
 57

How is matter classified? Use the information in the text to show this classification on the
graphic organizer below. Give an example (Ex.)

Ex. Ex. Ex. Ex.

After reading activity

Select the correct option to complete the statement below.

The author wrote this text to: a. define matter.

b. define and describe matter.
c. show how matter is classified.
d. compare and contrast types of matter.
 58

Before reading

Work with a partner or in a small group and write as many words as possible for each of these
categories. Then, skim the text to find any you may have missed.

Fruits Vegetables

Nutrients in
foods

Meats Starches

What is the importance of these foods to our daily diet?

Skimming the text. There are 13 paragraphs in this text. Read the first line of each and underline
the topic sentence. Then read the first and last paragraph of the text. What’s the main idea?

The Nutrients in Food

Nutrients are the parts of food that are important for life and health. Nutrients are important for
three reasons. First, some nutrients provide fuel for energy. Second, some nutrients build and repair
body tissues. Third, some nutrients help control different processes of the body like the absorption of
minerals and the clotting of blood. Scientists think there are 40 to 50 nutrients. These nutrients are
divided into five general groups: carbohydrates, fats, proteins, minerals, and vitamins.
The first group of nutrients is carbohydrates. There are two kinds of carbohydrates: starches and
sugars. Bread, potatoes, and rice are starches. They have many carbohydrates: candy, soft drinks,
 59

jelly, and other foods with sugar also have carbohydrates. Carbohydrates are important because they
provide the body with heat and energy. Sugar, for instance, is 100 percent energy. It has no other food
value. Sugar does not build body tissues or control body processes. If there are too many carbohydrates
in the body, they are stored as body fat. The body stores fuel as fat.
There are two types of fats: animal and vegetable. Butter, cream, and the fat in bacon are animal fats.
Olive oil, corn oil, and peanut oil are vegetable fats. The body has fat under the skin and around some
of the organs inside. The average adult has 10 to 11 kilograms (20 to 25 pounds) of body fat. If adults
eat too many carbohydrates and fats, they can add another 45 kilograms (100 pounds) to their bodies.
Fat is extra fuel. When the body needs energy, it changes the fat into carbohydrates. The
carbohydrates are used for energy. Fat also keeps the body warm.
The third group of nutrients is proteins. The word “protein” comes from a Greek word that means “of
first importance”. Proteins are “of first importance” because they are necessary for life. Proteins are
made of amino acids which build and repair body tissue. They are an important part of all the muscles,
organs. Skin, and hair. The body has 22 different amino acids. Nutritionists call eight of these amino
acids essential because the body does not manufacture them.
There are two kinds of proteins: complete proteins and incomplete proteins. Complete proteins, which
the body needs for growth, have all the essential amino acids. Meat, fish, poultry, eggs, milk, and
cheese have complete proteins. The body needs complete proteins every day. Incomplete proteins do
not have all the essential amino acids. The proteins in vegetables and grains, for instance, are
incomplete proteins. Two ways to form complete proteins from incomplete proteins are: (1) to mix
vegetables and grains correctly or (2) to add a small amount of meat or milk to a large amount of
grains. The body can then use the complete proteins which result from the mixtures.
Extra protein in the body can be changed to fat and stored as body fat. It can also be changed to
carbohydrates and used for energy. If people do not eat enough carbohydrates and fats for the energy
that they need, their body uses proteins for energy. Then the body does not have the proteins that it
needs to build and repair tissues. A nutritious diet includes carbohydrates and fat for energy, and
proteins for growth.
The fourth group of nutrients is minerals. More than twenty different minerals are in the body. Three
of the most important minerals are calcium, phosphorus, and iron. Calcium and phosphorus work
together. The bones and the teeth, have 99 percent of the calcium in the body. If people have enough
calcium and phosphorus, their bones and teeth will be strong and hard. In addition, muscles, nerves
and heart will work correctly. Milk and hard cheeses are the best sources of calcium. After the age of
19, people need 400 to 500 milligrams of calcium a day. People who do not drink three glasses of milk
daily can eat 50 hamburgers or 56 apples to get the calcium they need.
Iron is the mineral that makes blood look red. All lean meats have iron; liver is an especially good
source of iron. Whole grains, nuts, some vegetables, and dried fruits also have iron. If there is not
enough iron in their diets, people will get a disease that is commonly called anemia. Anemia is found
all over the world. People with anemia do not have enough iron in their blood. Because iron carries
oxygen, people who do not have enough iron do not get enough oxygen for their normal activities.
Their hearts beat faster so their bodies can get more oxygen. People who have anemia often get tired
easily. Sometimes their skin looks white: it does not look pink and healthy.
Nutritionists think there are thirteen vitamins that humans need. Vitamins are important because
they prevent diseases and help control body processes. Vitamin A is important for healthy skin and
eyes. People who do not have enough vitamin A may have night blindness. Some automobile accidents
happen in the evening because people who lack vitamin A do not see the road well after they look at
the bright headlights of a car. Vitamin A in the diet comes from deep yellow fruits and vegetables,
dark green leafy vegetables, and whole milk.
 60

When people have enough B vitamins, their appetite is good, and their nerves are calm. B vitamins
in the diet come from some meats and vegetables, milk, cottage cheese, and whole grains. When a
grain is processed, it loses vitamins. For example, there is a big difference between brown and white
rice. When rice is processed, the brown outside is lost. The brown outside of rice has an important B
vitamin which white rice lacks. In short, brown rice has more B vitamins than processed rice.
Vitamin C keeps the cells of the body together. It helps skin tissue recover from cuts and burns.
Vitamin C in the diet comes from tomatoes, citrus fruits like lemons and oranges, and some vegetables
such as cabbage and green peppers.
Vitamin D is called the “sunshine” vitamin. When people sit outside, ultraviolet rays from the sun
change a fat in their skin to vitamin D. Vitamin D is also in cod liver oil and the yellow of eggs. It is
sometimes added to milk. Vitamin D helps the body absorb calcium. It helps build strong bones, and
it prevents a disease in children that is called rickets. When children have this disease, their bones
bend because they do not become hard. Rickets is seldom found in sunny, tropical countries. Rickets
is more common in countries that have long winters with little sunshine, in cities that have pollution
that keeps the sun out, and in towns surrounded by mountains that keep the sun out.
There is no one food that is essential, but there are nutrients that are necessary for good health. If
people want to be healthy and active, they need to get all the essential nutrients. A healthy body needs
carbohydrates, fats, proteins, minerals, and vitamins.

Exercises
Read the questions below then scan the text to find the answers.
1. What is the difference between complete and in complete proteins?

2. Why is a diet low in carbohydrates and fats unhealthy for a child?

3. Which of these two is more nutritious: brown or white rice? Why?

4. Why would it be advisable for children who live in cold countries or in very large
industrialized cities to take vitamin D supplements?
 61

Fill in the chart with the information found in the text. Give examples of local foods when possible.
Carbohydrates
starches
Fats

vegetable
Proteins
Minerals

phosphorus
Vitamins

After reading
Using the chart above, select the foods you would choose for your diet. Mark your choices with a
checkmark ().

Discussion.
Talk to your classmates about the following:

➔ What differences might there be in a diet for: a young child, an adult and an
elderly person.
➔ What advice would you give to someone with the following problems:
❑ Cuts that take long to heal.
❑ Poor appetite and nervous tension.
❑ Loose teeth and fragile bones.
❑ Lack of energy, feelings of tiredness.

Text and activities taken from: Sonka, A. (1981). Skillful Reading. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, p. 91.
 62

Before reading

What is Mathematics? How many areas of mathematics do you know? ____________

What do these images represent and how are they related to Mathematics? How many of the words
in the box can you match to the images below.

a. angle c. cube e. square

b. circle d. plane f. triangle

Skim the text. How many areas of mathematics are mentioned in the text? ______

The Branches of Mathematics

Mathematics is an essential and fascinating branch of human knowledge. It has important uses in
many areas of modern life, including science, industry, and business. Mathematics can be defined
simply as the study of quantities and relations. It uses numbers and symbols to do this. This
definition, however, does not explain that mathematics can be divided into many different branches.
There are at least eight areas of math generally studied by elementary, secondary, and college
students: arithmetic, algebra, geometry, trigonometry, analytic geometry, calculus, probability, and
statistics.
Arithmetic can be divided into four basic operations: addition, subtraction, multiplication, and
division. It is the simplest branch of math and is usually studied in school. After arithmetic, students
usually study algebra. Algebra is more general than arithmetic. It uses letters such as “x” and “y” to
find unknown numbers. One interesting invention of algebra is logarithms. They are usually found
by referring to a logarithm table.
Geometry is generally learned in secondary schools. This branch of math deals with lines, angles,
planes, and solids. For purposes of teaching, geometry is often divided into two branches, plane
geometry and solid geometry. Plane geometry deals with shapes, such as circles and squares that lie
on a flat surface. Such shapes are in two dimensions. Solid geometry deals with shapes that have
three dimensions. Such shapes are spheres, cubes, and pyramids.
The branch of math that deals with the relation between the sides and angles of triangles is
trigonometry. Trigonometry also is often divided into two branches: plane trigonometry and spherical
trigonometry. Plane trigonometry deals with triangles on a flat surface. Spherical trigonometry deals
with triangles on the surface of a sphere. Trigonometry is very useful to navigators, astronomers, and
surveyors.
 63

Analytic geometry is the branch of math that applies algebra to geometry. It is often used by engineers
and physicists. An example of analytic geometry is the drawing of a curved line to represent an
algebraic equation (e.g. “y = x2”).
The branch of math that deals with changing quantities is calculus. Calculus has many applications
in all areas of science. Without calculus, the calculations necessary for landing on the moon could not
have been made.
Two final subdivisions of mathematics are probability and statistics. Probability is used to make
predictions about whether something will happen and has a wide range of applications. Statistics is
used to analyze large bodies of numbers. It is used in all the sciences to organize and analyze masses
of facts and draw conclusions from them.
Taken from: Drobnic, K., Abrams, S., & Murray, M. (1981).
SCI Tech. Reading and writing: The English of science and technology. ELS Publications, p. 74.

Exercises
Vocabulary. Using the dictionary.
Choose the best dictionary meaning for the words found in bold print.

1. This branch of math deals with lines, angles, planes, and solids.
a. part of a complex body as an area of knowledge that may be considered
apart from related areas.
b. a natural subdivision of a plant stem.
c. a division of an organization.

2. This branch of math deals with lines, angles, planes, and solids.
a. powered heavier-than-air aircraft that has fixed wings from which it
derives most of its lift.
b. flat or level surface.
c. level of existence, consciousness, or development.

3. Plane geometry deals with shapes, such as circles and squares that lie on a flat surface.
a. a person who is conventional or conservative in taste or way of life.
b. the product of a number multiplied by itself.
c. a rectangle with all four sides equal.

4. Plane geometry deals with shapes, such as circles and squares that lie on a flat surface.
a. an apartment on one floor.
b. a deflated tire.
c. a level part.
 64

Creating a graphic organizer

Using the information in the text, create your own graphic organizer to show the different branches
of mathematics.

Things to consider:

a. What criteria does the author use to separate the different areas of mathematics?
b. What examples does he give to illustrate them?

After reading activity

How well did you select the information for your organizer? See if you can answer the questions that
follow using only the information that is found there.

1. Which branch of mathematics…

a. …is used for analyzing large amounts of data? _____________________________________
b. …applies algebra to geometry? ___________________________________________________
c. …deals with changing quantities? ________________________________________________
d. …deals with lines, angles, planes and solids? ______________________________________

2. What is the difference between:

a. plane and solid geometry? ________________________________________________________
b. plane and spherical trigonometry? _________________________________________________
 65

Waterproof Coats
Materials Repel Water with Simplicity, Style
Scientists have long sought new coatings that zealously repel water. This week, publications describe
two promising finds. Research from Japan shows that water-repellant materials can also be
decorative. In a separate report, Turkish researchers describe a way to convert a plastic into a new
type of cheap, easily produced waterproofing.

Although their final coatings are different, both teams took their
inspiration from nature—from the wings of a butterfly and the leaves
of the lotus plant. The microscopically rough surfaces of these
organisms prevent water drops from flattening, so the drops roll off and
carry away dirt. Because water beads so well on these surfaces, they're
called superhydrophobic.
Using the brilliantly blue Morpho sulkowskyi butterfly as their model,
Zhong-Ze Gu of the Kanagawa Academy of Science and Technology in
Japan and his coworkers designed a synthetic superhydrophobic
coating in a variety of bright colors. The microstructure of the insect's
wings not only shuns water but also scatters and diffracts light to create RAIN COAT. Water beads atop a
an iridescent color. new hydrophobic material
(above) modeled after the wings
Similarly, the microstructure of the new, decorative coating repels of the Morpho sulkowskyi
water while producing striking colors. Gu's team made the material by butterfly (below). In both cases, a
rough microstructure shuns
permitting 6-nanometer-wide silica particles and several-hundred- water.
micrometer-wide polystyrene spheres to assemble into a film. The
researchers then heated the film to remove the polystyrene, leaving the
silica particles uniformly spaced with air gaps between them. To this
rough surface, the scientists added a layer of fluoroalkylsilane, a
commercially available waterproofing compound. The researchers
describe the procedure in the Feb. 24 Angewandte Chemie International
Edition.
The bumpy topography enhanced the fluoroalkylsilane's water-
repelling power, says Gu. By varying the distance between air gaps, the
team created materials in colors ranging from red to blue and versions
with no apparent color.
“It's a very clever trick,” comments Manoj K. Chaudhury of Lehigh University in Bethlehem, Pa.
The new technique “may lead to self-cleaning photonic crystals for decoration and optical circuitry,”
adds Ray Baughman of the University of Texas at Dallas.
The new material may also provide a colorful, self-cleaning coating for cameras or windows, says Gu.
It would be environmentally friendly because no organic dye would be required to create color and no
detergent would be needed to clean the surface, he adds.
The Turkish research team set its sights on low-cost coatings that are easy to make and use. In the
Feb. 28 Science, A. Levent Demirel of Koç University in Istanbul and researchers at Kocaeli
University report that they've created a superhydrophobic coating from a low-cost, widely produced
plastic called isotactic polypropylene, or iPP.
Making the coating is “simple, inexpensive, and time-saving,” says Demirel. The Turkish group
dissolved iPP in organic solvents, dropped the solution onto glass slides, and then evaporated the
solvents. This procedure produced a porous plastic film that, when viewed with a microscope,
 66

“resembles a bird's nest made of branched and intermingled sticks and bumps,” the researchers
report. Just as they do on rough lotus leaves, water drops readily bead up on the rough plastic coating.
Jessica Gorman. Science News Online. Week of March 1, 2003; Vol. 163, No. 9, p. 132
Taken from: http://www.sciencenews.org/articles/20030301/fob4.asp

Exercises
Skimming
Skim the text and answer:
a. What two things are being compared in this article?
_______________________________________________________________________________________
b. How are they similar?
_______________________________________________________________________________________
c. How are they different?
_______________________________________________________________________________________

Vocabulary
1. If you look up the term ‘superhydrophobic’ in the dictionary, you are not going to find it. What to
do?
a. Try to guess the meaning of the term.
_______________________________________________________________________________________
b. Are there any contextual/morphological clues helped you identify its meaning?
_______________________________________________________________________________________
2. What is the meaning of the term ‘fluoroalkylsilane’? Could you use the same clues to find out its
meaning?
_______________________________________________________________________________________
 67

Before reading
What do you know about Albert Einstein? Inside the balloons, write key words or phrases to
indicate what you know about him:

Nobel
Prize in
Physics
1921

Biography — Albert Einstein

Albert Einstein was born at Ulm, in Württemberg, Germany, on March 14,
1879. Six weeks later the family moved to Munich and he began his schooling
there at the Luitpold Gymnasium. Later, they moved to Italy and Albert
continued his education at Aarau, Switzerland and in 1896 he entered the
Swiss Federal Polytechnic School in Zurich to be trained as a teacher in
physics and mathematics. In 1901, the year he gained his diploma, he
acquired Swiss citizenship and, as he was unable to find a teaching post, he
accepted a position as technical assistant in the Swiss Patent Office. In 1905
he obtained his doctor's degree.
During his stay at the Patent Office, and in his spare time, he produced much
of his remarkable work and in 1908 he was appointed Privatdozent in Berne.
In 1909 he became Professor Extraordinary at Zurich, in 1911 Professor of
Theoretical Physics at Prague, returning to Zurich in the following year to fill a similar post. In 1914
he was appointed Director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Physical Institute and Professor in the University
of Berlin. He became a German citizen in 1914 and remained in Berlin until 1933 when he renounced
his citizenship for political reasons and emigrated to America to take the position of Professor of
Theoretical Physics at Princeton*. He became a United States citizen in 1940 and retired from his
post in 1945.
After World War II, Einstein was a leading figure in the World Government Movement, he was offered
the Presidency of the State of Israel, which he declined, and he collaborated with Dr. Chaim
Weizmann in establishing the Hebrew University of Jerusalem.
Einstein always appeared to have a clear view of the problems of physics and the determination to
solve them. He had a strategy of his own and was able to visualize the main stages on the way to his
goal. He regarded his major achievements as mere stepping-stones for the next advance.
At the start of his scientific work, Einstein realized the inadequacies of Newtonian mechanics and his
special theory of relativity stemmed from an attempt to reconcile the laws of mechanics with the laws
of the electromagnetic field. He dealt with classical problems of statistical mechanics and problems in
which they were merged with quantum theory: this led to an explanation of the Brownian movement
 68

of molecules. He investigated the thermal properties of light with a low radiation density and his
observations laid the foundation of the photon theory of light.
In his early days in Berlin, Einstein postulated that the correct interpretation of the special theory of
relativity must also furnish a theory of gravitation and in 1916 he published his paper on the general
theory of relativity. During this time, he also contributed to the problems of the theory of radiation
and statistical mechanics.
In the 1920s, Einstein embarked on the construction of unified field theories, although he continued
to work on the probabilistic interpretation of quantum theory, and he persevered with this work in
America. He contributed to statistical mechanics by his development of the quantum theory of a
monatomic gas and he has also accomplished valuable work in connection with atomic transition
probabilities and relativistic cosmology.
After his retirement he continued to work towards the unification of the basic concepts of physics,
taking the opposite approach, geometrization, to the majority of physicists.
Einstein's researches are, of course, well chronicled and his more important works include Special
Theory of Relativity (1905), Relativity (English translations, 1920 and 1950), General Theory of
Relativity (1916), Investigations on Theory of Brownian Movement (1926), and The Evolution of
Physics (1938). Among his non-scientific works, About Zionism (1930), Why War? (1933), My
Philosophy (1934), and Out of My Later Years (1950) are perhaps the most important.
Albert Einstein received honorary doctorate degrees in science, medicine and philosophy from many
European and American universities. During the 1920s he lectured in Europe, America and the Far
East and he was awarded Fellowships or Memberships of all the leading scientific academies
throughout the world. He gained numerous awards in recognition of his work, including the Copley
Medal of the Royal Society of London in 1925, and the Franklin Medal of the Franklin Institute in
1935.
Einstein's gifts inevitably resulted in his dwelling much in intellectual solitude and, for relaxation,
music played an important part in his life. He married Mileva Maric in 1903 and they had a daughter
and two sons; their marriage was dissolved in 1919 and in the same year he married his cousin, Elsa
Löwenthal, who died in 1936. He died on April 18, 1955 at Princeton, New Jersey.

Taken from: Nobel Lectures, Physics 1901-1921, Elsevier Publishing Company, Amsterdam, 1967.

First published in the book series Les Prix Nobel.

It was later edited and republished in Nobel Lectures. Copyright © The Nobel Foundation 1921.
Available at: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1921/einstein-bio.html

* Albert Einstein was formally associated with the Institute for Advanced Study located in Princeton, New Jersey.
 69

Exercises
Working with the text
Now that you have learnt a great deal about Albert Einstein, in the following table summarize the
main aspects of his life:

Born

Lived in

Nationalities

Major field

Level of instruction

Known for

Wrote

Notable Prize

Died

When did Einstein…

…realize the inadequacies of Newtonian Mechanics?

…become a Swiss citizen?

…decline the offer of becoming the President of Israel?

….give lectures in Europe?

Activities for this text were prepared by Prof. Magaly Rodríguez.

Pictures were taken from www.wikipedia.com
 70

Before reading
Group and class discussion: Discuss the following questions in small groups. Then, if appropriate,
discuss them with the whole class.
1. What do you know about Ernest Rutherford? Do you know why he was given the Nobel Prize
in Chemistry in 1908?
2. What is the Nobel Prize in Chemistry?
3. Do you remember the name of another person who has won it?

Classwork: Think about words that you believe you will find in the reading. Your teacher will write
them on the board.

Biography — Ernest Rutherford

Ernest Rutherford was born on August 30, 1871, in Nelson, New Zealand, the
fourth child and second son in a family of seven sons and five daughters. His
father James Rutherford, a Scottish wheelwright, emigrated to New Zealand
with Ernest's grandfather and the whole family in 1842. His mother, née
Martha Thompson, was an English schoolteacher, who, with her widowed
mother, also went to live there in 1855.

Ernest received his early education in Government schools and at the age of
16 entered Nelson Collegiate School. In 1889 he was awarded a University
scholarship and he proceeded to the University of New Zealand, Wellington,
where he entered Canterbury College*. He graduated M.A. in 1893 with a
double first in Mathematics and Physical Science and he continued with
research work at the College for a short time, receiving the B.Sc. degree the
following year. That same year, 1894, he was awarded an 1851 Exhibition Science Scholarship,
enabling him to go to Trinity College, Cambridge, as a research student at the Cavendish Laboratory
under J.J. Thomson. In 1897 he was awarded the B.A. Research Degree and the Coutts-Trotter
Studentship of Trinity College. An opportunity came when the Macdonald Chair of Physics at McGill
University, Montreal, became vacant, and in 1898 he left for Canada to take up the post.

Rutherford returned to England in 1907 to become Langworthy Professor of Physics in the University
of Manchester, succeeding Sir Arthur Schuster, and in 1919 he accepted an invitation to succeed Sir
Joseph Thomson as Cavendish Professor of Physics at Cambridge. He also became Chairman of the
Advisory Council, H.M. Government, Department of Scientific and Industrial Research; Professor of
Natural Philosophy, Royal Institution, London; and Director of the Royal Society Mond Laboratory,
Cambridge.

Rutherford's first researches, in New Zealand, were concerned with the magnetic properties of iron
exposed to high-frequency oscillations, and his thesis was entitled Magnetization of Iron by High-
Frequency Discharges. He was one of the first to design highly original experiments with high-
frequency, alternating currents. His second paper, Magnetic Viscosity, was published in the
Transactions of the New Zealand Institute (1896) and contains a description of a time-apparatus
capable of measuring time intervals of a hundred-thousandth of a second.

On his arrival at Cambridge his talents were quickly recognized by Professor Thomson. During his
first spell at the Cavendish Laboratory, he invented a detector for electromagnetic waves, an essential
feature being an ingenious magnetizing coil containing tiny bundles of magnetized iron wire. He
 71

worked jointly with Thomson on the behavior of the ions observed in gases which had been treated
with X-rays, and, in 1897, on the mobility of ions in relation to the strength of the electric field, and
on related topics such as the photoelectric effect. In 1898 he reported the existence of alpha and beta
rays in uranium radiation and indicated some of their properties.

In Montreal, there were ample opportunities for research at McGill, and his work on radioactive
bodies, particularly on the emission of alpha rays, was continued in the Macdonald Laboratory. With
R.B. Owens he studied the "emanation" of thorium and discovered a new noble gas, an isotope of
radon, which was later to be known as thoron. Frederick Soddy arrived at McGill in 1900 from Oxford,
and he collaborated with Rutherford in creating the "disintegration theory" of radioactivity which
regards radioactive phenomena as atomic —not molecular— processes. The theory was supported by
a large amount of experimental evidence, a number of new radioactive substances were discovered
and their position in the series of transformations was fixed. Otto Hahn, who later discovered atomic
fission, worked under Rutherford at the Montreal Laboratory in 1905-06.

At Manchester, Rutherford continued his research on the properties of the radium emanation and of
the alpha rays and, in conjunction with H. Geiger, a method of detecting a single alpha particle and
counting the number emitted from radium was devised. In 1910, his investigations into the scattering
of alpha rays and the nature of the inner structure of the atom which caused such scattering led to
the postulation of his concept of the "nucleus", his greatest contribution to physics. According to him
practically the whole mass of the atom and at the same time all positive charge of the atom is
concentrated in a minute space at the center. In 1912 Niels Bohr joined him at Manchester and he
adapted Rutherford's nuclear structure to Max Planck's quantum theory and so obtained a theory of
atomic structure which, with later improvements, mainly as a result of Heisenberg's concepts,
remains valid to this day. In 1913, together with H. G. Moseley, he used cathode rays to bombard
atoms of various elements and showed that the inner structures correspond with a group of lines
which characterize the elements. Each element could then be assigned an atomic number and, more
important, the properties of each element could be defined by this number. In 1919, during his last
year at Manchester, he discovered that the nuclei of certain light elements, such as nitrogen, could be
"disintegrated" by the impact of energetic alpha particles coming from some radioactive source, and
that during this process fast protons were emitted. Blackett later proved, with the cloud chamber,
that the nitrogen in this process was actually transformed into an oxygen isotope, so that Rutherford
was the first to deliberately transmute one element into another. G. de Hevesy was also one of
Rutherford's collaborators at Manchester.

An inspiring leader of the Cavendish Laboratory, he steered numerous future Nobel Prize winners
towards their great achievements: Chadwick, Blackett, Cockcroft and Walton; while other laureates
worked with him at the Cavendish for shorter or longer periods: G.P. Thomson, Appleton, Powell, and
Aston. C.D. Ellis, his co-author in 1919 and 1930, pointed out "that the majority of the experiments
at the Cavendish were really started by Rutherford's direct or indirect suggestion". He remained
active and working to the very end of his life.

Rutherford published several books: Radioactivity (1904); Radioactive Transformations (1906), being
his Silliman Lectures at Yale University; Radiation from Radioactive Substances, with James
Chadwick and C.D. Ellis (1919, 1930) —a thoroughly documented book which serves as a chronological
list of his many papers to learned societies, etc.; The Electrical Structure of Matter (1926); The
Artificial Transmutation of the Elements (1933); The Newer Alchemy (1937).

Rutherford was knighted in 1914; he was appointed to the Order of Merit in 1925, and in 1931 he was
created First Baron Rutherford of Nelson, New Zealand, and Cambridge. He was elected Fellow of the
Royal Society in 1903 and was its President from 1925 to 1930. Amongst his many honors, he was
awarded the Rumford Medal (1905) and the Copley Medal (1922) of the Royal Society, the Bressa
 72

Prize (1910) of the Turin Academy of Science, the Albert Medal (1928) of the Royal Society of Arts,
the Faraday Medal (1930) of the Institution of Electrical Engineers, the D.Sc. degree of the University
of New Zealand, and honorary doctorates from the Universities of Pennsylvania, Wisconsin, McGill,
Birmingham, Edinburgh, Melbourne, Yale, Glasgow, Giessen, Copenhagen, Cambridge, Dublin,
Durham, Oxford, Liverpool, Toronto, Bristol, Cape Town, London and Leeds.

Rutherford married Mary Newton, only daughter of Arthur and Mary de Renzy Newton, in 1900.
Their only child, Eileen, married the physicist R.H. Fowler. Rutherford's chief recreations were golf
and motoring.

He died in Cambridge on October 19, 1937. His ashes were buried in the nave of Westminster Abbey,
just west of Sir Isaac Newton's tomb and by that of Lord Kelvin.

Taken from Nobel Lectures, Chemistry 1901-1921, Elsevier Publishing Company, Amsterdam, 1966.

This biography was first published in the book series Les Prix Nobel.
It was later edited and republished in Nobel Lectures.
Copyright © The Nobel Foundation 1908
Available at: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1908/rutherford-bio.html

* Canterbury College (now Canterbury University) was located in Christchurch, but was administered from
the University of New Zealand, Wellington.

Exercises
Group work. When you finish reading the article find out:
1. How many of the words on the board are in the reading?
2. Which ones you don’t know? Find them in your dictionaries.

References. What do the following words in italics refer to in the text?

Paragraph Line Word Answer

1. 1 6 …also went to live there in 1855. _______________________

2. 2 11 …for Canada to take up the post. _______________________

3. 5 2-3 …an essential feature being an… _______________________

4. 6 4 …, which was later to be known… _______________________

5. 7 9 …theory of atomic structure which… _______________________

6. 12 2 …and by that of Lord Kelvin. _______________________

 73

Text organization. Make a timeline in which you show at least five of the most important events
in the life of Ernest Rutherford.

After reading
Answer the following questions:

1. Why is Ernest Rutherford called an inspiring leader of the Cavendish Laboratory?

2. How many books did Ernest Rutherford write?

3. How many and which prizes did Ernest Rutherford win? Why did he win those prizes?

Activities for this text were prepared by Prof. Virna Ferrari.

 74

Before reading
Look at the illustration below. From the information given, can you determine:
1. What is plankton?

2. What is its function?

3. Which factors influence plankton growth?

4. How many different types of plankton are there?

5. In which months there is an increase and a decrease in plankton?

Now read the text. See if your answers are correct. How many of your answers were correct?

The oceanic cycle

The conditions in northern temperate regions serve as an example of an annual plankton cycle. The
growth of the phytoplankton is dependent upon adequate amounts of required nutrients and light.
 75

Temperature is not a critical factor because species with low temperature optima prevail during cold
seasons and in low temperature areas. During the cold winter months, the nutrient situation is
excellent in northern temperate oceans, but low light levels and complete mixing of water masses (i.e.
unstabilized waters), which in the North Atlantic prevails down to several hundred meters, combine
to give the phytoplankton population below the light zone. As a result, no photosynthesis occurs, and
primary production is impossible. During spring, the upper water masses are warmed by the sun; this
results in lighter water layers on top of colder, heavier ones (i.e. stabilized waters). The phytoplankton
remain within the light zone; nutrients are available; and a burst in phytoplankton population,
consisting of diatoms (i.e. spring diatom bloom), occurs. The high population level falls quickly because
the phytoplankton are consumed by the zooplankton whose numbers now increase. As dead organisms
and feces sink, the upper water masses become depleted of plant nutrients, resulting in moderate
production during the summer months. During the autumn months, cooling of nutrient-poor surface
water layers makes them heavier and results in their mixing with deeper water rich in nutrients; an
autumn increase in phytoplankton of short duration occurs. As the mixing of water masses extends
far below the light zone during winter, primary production again diminishes. In polar regions only
one summer maximum occurs, while in tropical areas the production is either uniform or irregular
throughout the year.

Source: Encyclopedia Britannica, Macropedia, Vol. 14, 1984, p. 496.

Exercises
Working with the text

1. Match the season in the left column with the event which occurs in the right column.

a. Autumn ___d___ water is stabilized.

b. Winter ___a___ water is unstabilized.
c. Spring ___b___ visibility is in its lowest point.
d. Summer ___c___ zooplankton population rises.

2. Opposites. Write an antonym next to each of the following words from the text.

adequate low
unstabilized cold
available fall (v)
upper heavier
possible depleted (v)
regular tropical
decrease (v)
 76

After reading

1. Why do you think the author wrote this text? To _______.

a. show that nutrients and light vary in temperate regions
b. highlight that water masses are warmer during the summer
c. describe northern temperate regions
d. describe the annual plankton cycle

2. What information in the text led you to the answer?

________________________________________________________________________________________

3. Fill in the blanks with information from the text.

Critical factors
Plankton
Seasons Nutrients Light production

Winter excellent lowest levels very low

Spring available incrases peaks

Summer depleated peaks moderate

Autumn low decreases short increase

Activities for this text were prepared by Profs. Dafne González, Carlos Torrealba and Yris Casart.
 77

Before reading
Using the information found in the title of the text Clouds in the greenhouse, discuss with your
classmates the following:
1. What is the greenhouse effect?
2. What is the link between clouds and this phenomenon?
3. How can you explain the title of the text?

Clouds in the greenhouse

As vexing as they are beautiful, clouds play an important role in Earth's planetary greenhouse.

Clouds may be a delight to children

lying in a field on a summer day,
letting their imaginations bend the
wispy shapes into ducks or boats or
dinosaurs.
But clouds can be a real pain in the
neck for climate researchers.To
understand why, consider again that
summer day: If a big, fluffy cumulus
cloud comes drifting by, it's usually
good news for hot cloud-watchers.
Low thick clouds cast a refreshing
shadow and reflect sunlight back into
space. They cool the planet and the
people beneath them.
On the other hand, high wispy clouds
drifting by are less refreshing. Such
clouds cast meager shadows and,
The complex role of clouds in Earth's energy balance. Credit: NASA/Langley. because they are themselves cold,
they trap heat radiated from the
planet below. The air temperature near the ground might actually increase. It is this schizophrenic
behavior that makes clouds so vexing to researchers who are trying to predict the course of climate
change.
Clouds are an important part of Earth's planetary greenhouse. Greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide
and methane are perhaps more widely discussed, but clouds can do the same thing: they warm our
planet by trapping heat beneath them. Yet unlike greenhouse gases, sunlight-reflecting clouds also
have a cooling influence. Furthermore, the air temperature, which is affected by clouds, in turn affects
cloud formation. It's a circular relationship that makes climate research all the more difficult.
"Clouds remain one of the largest uncertainties in the climate system's response to temperature
changes," laments Bruce Wielicki, a scientist at NASA's Langley Research Center. "We need more
data to understand how real clouds behave."
How much sunlight do different kinds of clouds reflect? How much heat do they absorb? And how do
they respond to ambient temperature changes? Wielicki is the principal investigator for an orbiting
instrument that will answer some of these questions. "It's called CERES," he says, "short for Cloud
and the Earth's Radiant Energy System."
 78

CERES is a package of three telescopes that watch our planet from Earth orbit. "One telescope is
sensitive to ordinary sunlight," says Wielicki. "It tells us how much solar radiation is reflected from
clouds or ice." The other two telescopes sense longer-wavelength infrared heat. They reveal how much
heat is trapped by clouds and how much of it escapes back to space.
CERES is orbiting Earth now on board NASA's Terra satellite. The instrument was monitoring our
planet last summer when a heat wave struck California and produced a remarkable surge in infrared
radiation from that region. CERES revealed not only the infrared glow on the ground, but also how
much of that heat was absorbed by the atmosphere -- key data for global warming studies. NASA's
Aqua satellite, slated to launch on May 2nd, will soon carry another package of CERES telescopes to
orbit. "Having CERES on board two satellites (Aqua and Terra) will help us cover the entire planet -
- to study, for example, day-night variations in Earth's energy balance," explains Wielicki.
CERES is a welcome development for scientists who are often forced to test their ideas about climate
change using computer models -- models that may or may not faithfully represent our complicated
planet. Using CERES, researchers can now examine some of those theories in the real world.

Clouds containing many aerosols (left) also contain many water droplets. Such clouds
reflect light well. Clouds containing fewer aerosols (right) tend to harbor larger water
droplets; they transmit more solar energy to the planet below.

For example, a group of scientists recently proposed an idea called the "iris hypothesis." They
suggested that the canopy of clouds over the tropical Pacific Ocean recedes when the water's surface
temperature increases. Fewer clouds would open a window through which heat could escape to space
and thus cool the planet. Earth, they argued, has a natural response that counteracts rising
temperatures -- a bit like an iris in a human eye dilating to adapt to low light. But does Earth really
respond that way?
Wielicki and other NASA scientists used CERES to test the idea. It turned out that such clouds did
trap infrared heat. But even more so they reflected visible sunlight back into space. Fewer of the
clouds would mean more global warming, not less. The iris hypothesis was wrong.
Another problem CERES will tackle concerns aerosols. Aerosols are tiny particles like volcanic dust,
pollution and even sea spray suspended in the air. Aerosols reflect sunlight. They also help clouds
form by serving as "nucleation sites" around which water droplets grow. No one knows if increasing
numbers of aerosols will cool or warm our planet.
"The aerosols are a mess," says Thomas Charlock, a senior scientist at NASA's Langley Research
Center and co-investigator for CERES. "We don't know how much is out there, and every gosh-darned
aerosol particle looks different from every other one. So we just can't estimate their influence with
calculations alone."
"What we can do is look at the energy balance in a dusty area and a non-dusty area," Charlock
continues. "That's where CERES and MODIS (a Terra instrument that can sense aerosol properties)
used together will be very powerful."
 79

When Aqua joins Terra in orbit, it will bring its own special set of tools to bear on climate research.
Says Charlock: "Part of our mission we can do much better with [instruments on board] Aqua -- things
relating to humidity and water clouds."
Scientists hope the unprecedented "cloud watching" power of these two satellites will reveal much
about the inner workings of climate change. Don't expect any pictures of ducks or dinosaurs, though.
Neither satellite has that kind of imagination. Yet in their own way, they will reveal the complex
beauty of clouds as never before.

Source: Phillips, T. & Barry, P.L. (2002, April 22). Clouds in the greenhouse. In Science@NASA. Retrieved
November 29, 2007 from: http://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2002/22apr_ceres.htm

Exercises
What is the main idea of the text?

Working with vocabulary and referents

1. Match the words in column A to their synonym or definition in column B.

A B
a. fluffy (adj) ____ relating to conversion of solar radiation into heat
b. drifting (v) ____ directly under: underneath
c. beneath (p) ____ lacking desirable qualities: deficient in quality or quantity
d. wispy (adj) ____ being carried along (as by a current of wind): to float effortlessly
e. meager (adj) ____ being light and soft or airy: puffed up
f. vexing (adj) ____ something that is frail, slight, or fleeting
g. greenhouse (adj) ____ causing or likely to cause trouble

General comprehension questions

1. What’s the greenhouse effect?

2. What’s the difference between the effect produced on earth by greenhouse gases and the ones
that result from clouds?
3. Why do authors describe clouds’ behavior as “schizophrenic”?
4. What do CERES stand for?
5. What’s the “iris hypothesis”?
6. What’s the role of aerosols on earth’s climate?

Activities for this text were based on those prepared by Profs. Marianela Najul
and Carlos Torrealba.
 80

Before reading

Read the title and try to predict the content of the article. How do you think ice could be made in five
minutes? Write down your ideas!

Now read the text.

How to make ice in five minutes

Patience may be a virtue, but it's impatience that drives sales of such timesavers as microwave ovens
and Cuisinarts. Now disciples of 10-minute dinners will soon have a new toy in their kitchen: a
refrigeration technology that makes ice in as little as five minutes.

Like conventional refrigerators, the quick-chill technology relies on the condensation and
evaporation of refrigerants to move heat from one place to another. But it does so by chemical reactions
without the mechanical compressor or ozone-depleting refrigerants in current models. The
“reverse microwave” uses metal-based salts, which when heated release gaseous ammonia. As the
pressure rises, the ammonia is pushed to a condenser, then to an evaporator and finally back to the
original chamber, where it gets reabsorbed in the salts. Continual repeating of the cycle can drop the
temperature in the chiller a lot to as low as minus 15 degrees Celsius.

Since the chiller doesn’t require a bulky compressor, it can be small enough to replace the cooling fan
in your computer or big enough to chill a locker full of beef, says inventor Uwe Rockenfeller of Rocky
Research in Boulder City, Nevada. The company is currently developing the technology for counter-
top freezers, air conditioners and industrial coolers. But Rockenfeller expects that it will be about 18
months before any new devices land on store shelves.

Source: Communications Systems (1993, November).

Exercises
References. What do the following words refer to in the article?

Paragraph Line Word Answer

1. 1 2 their

2. 2 2 it

3. 2 6 it

4. 3 1 it

Skimming. Skim the text and answer the following questions:

1. How is quick chill technology similar to conventional refrigeration technology?
2. How does quick chill technology deal with the elimination of heat?
3. What are the advantages of this technology?
 81

Vocabulary. Find the underlined expressions listed below. Explain their meaning in your own words.
Use the context to help you.

…such timesavers as…

…the quick-chill technology…

…ozone-depleting refrigerants…

…“reverse microwave”…

…land on store shelves.

Graphic organizers. Fill in the bubbles below with a summary of each of the steps in the process
of reverse microwave technology.

Sequence of events. The sentences that describe the process of how to make ice in five minutes are
in the wrong order. Number the stages in the correct order.

Ammonia is sent to a condenser _____

Gaseous ammonia is released _____
Ammonia is reabsorbed in the salts _____
It is delivered to an evaporator _____
The pressure is increased _____
The cycle is repeated _____
It is sent back to the chamber _____
Metal-based salts are heated _____
 82

The aye-aye is a mammal that lives

in rain forests of Madagascar, a
large island off the southeast coast
of Africa. This solitary animal is
nocturnal (most active at night).
The aye-aye spends most of its time
in trees. During the day, the aye-
aye sleeps in a nest which is located
in the fork of a tree. It builds the
nest out of leaves and twigs. The
aye-aye is an endangered species.
The scientific name of the aye-aye is
Daubentonia madagascariensis
(Genus and species). Aye-ayes are
primates, mammals closely related
to monkeys, apes, and people.
Anatomy: The Aye-aye has large
eyes, black hair, big ears, and a
long, bushy tail. The body is 16
inches (40 cm) long plus a tail that
is 2 feet (61 cm) long. It weighs
about 4 pounds (2 kg). It has 5-
fingered hands with flat nails, and
the middle finger is very long.
Diet: The aye-aye eats insects, insect larvae, and fruit (especially coconuts). The aye-aye chews an
opening in the bark of a tree, and it digs out insects or larvae of wood-boring insects with its long
middle finger. It gnaws on the tree with its continuously growing incisors (sharp teeth at the front of
the mouth). Aye-ayes are like a mammalian version of the woodpecker.

Source: Aye-aye. (2005, February 21). In EnchantedLearning.com. Retrieved February 21, 2005,
from: http://www.enchantedlearning.com/subjects/mammals/primate/Ayeayeprintout.shtml .
 83

Before reading
Be sure to check below the meaning of the following words in this particular context. They will help
you understand the main ideas of the text:

tap (v) to strike lightly especially with a slight sound

grub (n) a soft thick wormlike larva of an insect (as a beetle)
gnaw (v) to bite or chew on with the teeth; to wear away by persistent biting or nibbling e.g. a
dog gnawing a bone
prise (v) to estimate the value of
spindly (adj) of a disproportionately tall or long and thin appearance that often suggests physical
weakness e.g. spindly legs
morsel (n) a small piece of food

devoid (adj) being without a usual, typical, or expected attribute or accompaniment --used with
‘of’ e.g. an argument devoid of sense
borehole (n) a hole bored or drilled in the earth
bark (n) the tough exterior covering of a woody root or stem
forage (n) food for animals especially when taken by browsing or grazing

larvae (n) Plural of ‘larva’, the immature, wingless, and often wormlike feeding form that
hatches from the egg of many insects
cup (v) to curve into the shape of a cup e.g. cupped his hands around his mouth

Grubs on tap for the aye-aye

The AYE-AYE, one of the strangest and rarest species of primates in the world, has an equally unusual
method of finding food. Zoologists have discovered that it taps wood to locate cavities under the
surface. Its skills are so well developed that it can tell holes containing grubs from those that are
empty. It is the only mammal known to use such a technique.
The aye-aye (Daubentonia madagascariensis) is one of Madagascar’s most endangered species of
lemur and has several remarkable features. Measuring 80 centimeters nose tall, it is the largest
nocturnal primate species of the world. It has big hairless bat-like ears, large incisors which grow
continuously like those of a rodent, and a middle finger on each hand which is remarkably elongated.
It feeds on fruit, nuts and insect larvae. It uses its incisors, which are bevel-edged and curve forwards,
to gnaw through nutshells and to reach grubs living in wood, and its spindly middle finger to prise
them out.
Woodpeckers use a similar technique, opening up cavities with their chisel-like bills and probing out
edible morsels with their long flexible tongues. In fact, the aye-aye, living on an island devoid of
woodpeckers, may have evolved to fill the ecological niche which is occupied by woodpeckers in other
parts of the world.
A recent study at Duke University, in North Carolina, is revealing just how specialized aye-ayes are
for finding their larva prey. Carl Erickson conducted a series of experiments on four captive animals
(Animal Behaviour, vol 41, p.793). He found that when mealworms were hidden in cavities in a piece
of wood, the animals would always locate them accurately –they were obviously not searching at
random.
 84

Nor were they relying on visual cues such as boreholes on the surface of the wood. When Erickson
added surface holes to his experimental woodblock, this did not distract the animals from finding the
cavities.
He also found that they would open up empty cavities, even detecting ones as far as 2 centimeters
below the wood surface. This showed that movement of prey is not needed for the aye-ayes to find
hidden cavities. But given the choice between empty cavities and ones containing actives mealworms,
the primates would be able to locate the grub every time.
Aye-ayes are obviously very skillful. But what exactly are they doing? When foraging, the animals use
their long middle fingers to tap the wood. They work with their faces close to bark and huge ears
cupped forwards and down. Erickson had observed that aye-ayes would tap hollow objects, such as
the lens of his camera, with particular interest, and he suggests that the tapping in some way enables
them to detect cavities. Perhaps the quality of sound changes, becoming more reflective. Or perhaps
the skin of the finger is so sensitive that it can detect unusual elasticity in the wood surface.
How the animal manages to detect those cavities that contain prey is more mysterious. It may hear
movements –the tapping may stimulate the larvae to give themselves away, or it may use its sense of
smell. Either way, the aye-aye’s use of tapping, which Erickson has dubbed “percussive foraging”, is
unique among mammals.

Source: New Scientist (1991, June 21).

Exercises
References. What do these terms refer to in the text?

Paragraph Line Word Answer

1. 5 4 the animals

2. 5 5 they

3. 7 4 the primates

4. 9 1 it

5. 9 2 it

Comprehension questions
1. What is the general purpose of this text?

___________________________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________________
 85

2. Write an outline of this text stating the topics of the following paragraphs or groups of
paragraphs:

Paragraph 1

Paragraph 2

Paragraph 3

Paragraph 4

Paragraphs 5-7

Paragraphs 8-9

3. From reading paragraph 4, it can be inferred that:

a. The aye-aye coexisted with woodpeckers in other parts of the world.
b. If woodpeckers had lived in Madagascar, the aye-aye would probably not have evolved.
c. The aye-aye and woodpeckers probably evolved from the same species.

4. List five possible reasons given in the text to explain the animal’s accurate detection of cavities:

a. ______________________________________________________________________________________

b. ______________________________________________________________________________________

c. ______________________________________________________________________________________

d. _____________________________________________________________________________________

e. ______________________________________________________________________________________

Activities for this text were prepared by Prof. María Luisa Rosenblat.
 86

What causes tsunamis?

Tsunamis, also called seismic sea waves or, incorrectly, tidal waves, generally are caused by
earthquakes, less commonly by submarine landslides, infrequently by submarine volcanic eruptions
and very rarely by a large meteorite impact in the ocean. Submarine volcanic eruptions have the
potential to produce truly awesome tsunami waves. The Great Krakatau volcanic eruption of 1883
generated giant waves reaching heights of 125 feet above sea-level, killing thousands of people and
wiping out numerous coastal villages.
The 1992 Nicaragua tsunami may have
been the result of a "slow" earthquake
comprised of very long-period movement
occurring beneath the sea floor. This
earthquake generated a devastating
tsunami with localized damage to coastal
communities in Nicaragua.
Not all earthquakes generate tsunamis. To
generate tsunamis, earthquakes must
occur underneath or near the ocean, be
large and create movements in the sea
floor. All oceanic regions of the world can
experience tsunamis, but in the Pacific
Ocean there is a much more frequent
occurrence of large, destructive tsunamis
because of the many large earthquakes
along the margins of the Pacific Ocean.

Ring of fire
About two-thirds of the Earth is covered by the waters of the four oceans. The Pacific Ocean is the
world's largest, covering more than one third of the total surface area of our planet. The Pacific Ocean
is surrounded by a series of mountain chains, deep ocean trenches and island arcs, sometimes called
a "ring of fire." The great size of the Pacific Ocean and the large earthquakes associated with the "ring
of fire" combine to produce deadly tsunamis.
In less than a day, these tsunamis can travel from one side of the Pacific to the other. However, people
living near areas where large earthquakes occur may find that the tsunami waves will reach their
shores within minutes of the earthquake. For these reasons, the tsunami threat to many areas
(Alaska, the Philippines, Japan or the U.S. West Coast) can be immediate (for tsunamis from nearby
earthquakes taking only a few minutes to reach coastal areas) or less urgent (for tsunamis from
distant earthquakes taking from 3 to 22 hours to reach coastal areas).

Earth and earthquakes

The continents and sea floor that cover the Earth's surface are part of a worldwide system of plates
that are in motion. These motions are very slow, only an inch or two per year. Earthquakes occur
where the edges of plates run into one another. Such edges are called fault lines or faults. Sometimes
the forces along faults can build-up over long periods of time so that when the rocks finally break an
earthquake occurs. Examples of features produced by forces released along plate edge faults are the
Andes Mountains in South America (on land) and the Aleutian Trench near Alaska (under water).
When powerful, rapid faulting occurs underneath or near the ocean, a large earthquake is produced
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and, possibly, a tsunami. The deep ocean trenches off the coasts of Alaska, the Kuril Islands, Russia,
and South America are well known for their violent underwater earthquakes and as the source area
for destructive Pacific-wide tsunamis.
The tsunami generating process is more complicated than a sudden push against the column of ocean
water. The earthquake's magnitude and depth, water depth in the region of tsunami generation, the
amount of vertical motion of the sea floor, the velocity of such motion, whether there is coincident
slumping of sediments and the efficiency with which energy is transferred from the earth's crust to
ocean water are all part of the generation mechanism.

Source: What causes tsunamis? (2006, November 29). In NOAA’s National Weather Center. Retrieved 17:13,
November 29, 2006, from: http://www.nws.noaa.gov/om/brochures/tsunami2.htm.

Exercises
Cause-effect relationships
1. Make a bar/pie chart representing the different causes of tsunamis, as they are presented in
paragraph.

2. Choose expressions from the box below to fill in the blank spaces. Each expression can be used
only once.

produce is the result of earthquakes the size of the

can cause are caused by landslides Pacific Ocean

meteorites seismic sea waves source

a. Another correct name for tsunamis is _________________________.

b. The least frequent cause of tsunamis is ________________________.
c. Seismic sea waves ________________________ earthquakes.
d. Large earthquakes ________________________ destructive tsunamis in the Pacific Ocean.
e. Two elements cause tsunamis in the Pacific Ocean: ______________________ and
________________________.

f. Violent water earthquakes and deep ocean trenches are the ________________ of deadly
tsunamis.
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3. What elements do the following signal words connect?

Signal Word Par. / line Elements connected

…are caused by… par. 1, line 1

…may have been the result… par. 2, line 1-2

…because of… par. 3, line 9

…for these reasons… par. 5, line 3

Comprehension questions.
1. What is the main cause of tsunamis according to the text?
2. What is the area of the world most affected by deadly tsunamis?
3. What are the three conditions that an earthquake must have in order to generate tsunamis?
4. What causes earthquakes?
5. What makes the Pacific Ocean be the most frequent source of tsunamis?

Activities for this text were prepared by Prof. Marta Trías.