Nickel Laterite Potential in
Eastern Indonesia
Ade Kadarusman PhD
Senior Geologist Specialist
Exploration and Mine Development Department
PT INCO Tbk, Sorowako, South Sulawesi
Nickel Laterites
WHAT ARE NICKEL
LATERITES?
• Nickel laterites are residual soils that have developed
over ultramafic rocks through processes of chemical
weathering and supergene enrichment
• Laterite development controlled by the
following factors:
1. Nature of the underlying bedrock
2. Appropriate climatic factors (rainfall,
temperature)
3. Degree of tectonism (faults, fractures, joints)
4. Morphology of the ground WA, ITSL
APPROACH TO LATERITE STUDY
• Study of Laterites requires a good
knowledge of the relevant principles of:
• Chemistry
• Mineralogy
• Petrology
• Geomorphology
• Soil formation
• Processing constraints & technology WA, ITSL
Ni IN ULTRAMAFIC ROCKS
• Ni in ultramafic rocks is primarily in mafic minerals
– High in olivines (0.2 – 0.3% Ni)
– Low in orthopyroxenes (0.05 – 0.1% Ni)
– Very low in clinopyroxenes (< 0.05% Ni)
• Thus, decrease in the olivine content of the ultramafic reduces the
overall nickel content of the rock:
– Highest Ni grades in dunites
– Lower Ni grades in peridotites
– Lowest Ni grades in pyroxenites
• Ni in mafic minerals is largely as a replacement of Mg
• Ni in mafic minerals falls with the order of crystallisation
• Some Ni may exist as replacement of the larger Fe atoms
• Primary chromite and magnetite may contain minor Ni
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Sulawesi Laterite Development
TYPICAL NICKEL LATERITE PROFILE
Red Laterite
Limonite zone
Saprolite zone
Bedrock pinnacle
LATERITE PROFILE OF SOROWAKO TYPE
NICKEL LATERITE PROFILES
-wet and dry-
Dryer Climate Humid Climate
(Western Australia) (Indonesia)
WA
Laterite
Profile
Ferricrete
Limonite
Nontronite
Saprolite
Altered Peridotite
%Ni %Co %Mg %Fe %Ni %Co %Mg %Fe %Ni %Co %Mg %Fe
Ferricrete .2 -.5 .02 .6 35+ .2 -.5 .02 .6 35+ .2 -.5 .02 .6 35+
Limonite .6-1.4 .1-.2 1-2 45 1.2-1.7 .1-.2 1-2 45 1.2-17 .1-.2 1 -4 45
Nontronite 1.2 .08 3.5 18
Saprolite .4 .02 12.0 9 1.5 -3 .05-.1 10-20 10-25 1.5-3 .05-.1 10-30 10-20
Processing Nickel Laterite
Ores
Processing Ores Export
Pig Iron
HPAL China
Australia
Japan
Smelting
Eastern Europe
Mineral Conservation and Added Values
Ultramafic rocks or Peridotite
Ø Ultramafic Rock→ the presence of essentially mafic
minerals without considering the silica content
Ultramafic rocks
classification
Rock classification for peridotites and pyroxenites
COMPOSITION OF
THE UPPER MANTLE
• The upper mantle is a
peridotitic metamorphic
complex dominated by
olivine with increasingly
lesser amount of
orthopyroxene,
clinopyroxene and an
aluminous phase
(plagioclase, spinel or
garnet depending on
pressure). Eclogite and
pyroxenite are omni
present.
Three principle sources of upper mantle
rock exposed in the Earth’s surface
• Orogenic peridotite massifs
packages of ultramafic rocks (m to km in scale) that were
tectonically emplaced onto continental crust or island arc during
continental collision
- Layered intrusion
• Oceanic peridotite
uplifted onto continental margin or island arc in ophiolite sequences
• Peridotitic xenoliths
cm to m scale samples carried in rapidly erupted host volcanics
such as alkali basalts and kimberlites
The upper mantle beneath pre-Cambrian craton
peridotite as mantle xenoliths
• Peridotitic rocks were sampled by kimberlite-like rock from
depth of 40 km minimum as mantle xenoliths
Menzies &
Chazot, 1995
The upper mantle rock in continental collisions
-Orogenic Peridotite-
Deep subducted crustal rocks (to depth of at least 40 km) in continental
collision zone can uplift peridotitic rocks to the surface
Origin of Ophiolites (oceanic crust on the land):
• Mid Oceanic Ridge (MOR)
• Supra Subduction Zone (SSZ)
• Oceanic Plateau / Seamounts (OP)
Worldwide Database showed that SSZ ophiolite is
common for:
-Ultramafic hosted chromite deposit
-Chromite and nickel sulphides hosted PGM
-Volcanic Massive Sulphides Deposit
The Origin of Ophiolites
MOR OP
SSZ SSZ
Ultramafic rocks
emplacement
onto continental
margins or
island arcs :
- Obduction
- Accretion
Accretion
Obduction
Ultramafic rocks
(Upper Mantle Origin)
Expose on the Earth’s Surface
(oceanic or orogenic peridotite)
Equatorial Location Magmatism
Laterite Development Sulphides Mineralization
Nickel Sulphides
Nickel Laterite
Ultramafic rocks distribution and
Nickel laterite Potential in Eastern
Indonesia
Key for laterites development : ultramafic rock on
the surface and equatorial locations
East Sulawesi Potential :the Batui
Thrust Development
Lakes area and Matano fault
Coastal Area and Mekongga Block
Huge Laterite Deposit in Eastern Indonesia
Eastern Indonesia :The World’s largest of ultramafic rock outcrops,
Indonesian Position in World
Laterite Deposit
GLOBAL NICKEL RESOURCES
CUBA
PHILIPPINES
INDONESIA
NEW CALEDONIA
AUSTRALIA
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LATERITES SULPHIDES
INDONESIA
Principal Nickel Laterite Deposits
SERAWAK
HALMAHERA
SULAWESI
GEBE
WEDA BAY WAIGEO IRIAN JAYA
SOROAKO OBI GAG PNG
BAHODOPI SENTANI
SUMATRA
KALIMANTAN POMALAA
JAVA
TIMOR
500km
WA, Laterite Manual
Conclusions
• Unique geology and tectonic of Eastern
Indonesia exposed large distribution of
ultramafic rocks on the land
• Eastern Indonesia can overtake New
Caledonia as the world largest nickel
laterite resources
• Nickel Laterite Resources widespread in
Sulawesi, Halmahera and Papua
• Detailed exploration need to confirm all
potential area
THANK YOU
SSZ
Supra Subduction
