The period from 1200 to 1500 CE marked a vibrant and dynamic era for Indian Ocean trade,
characterized by complex networks connecting India's lengthy coastline with key regions across
East Africa, the Middle East, Southeast Asia, and China. This period built upon existing patterns
of commerce, such as the seasonal dependence on monsoon winds and the exchange of
traditional commodities, while also witnessing significant transformations in routes, participants,
and the overall flow of goods and wealth. India's position was central, supported by a strong
agrarian and industrial base, developed economic institutions, and skilled merchant
communities. Trade with India and China was considered a particularly "exciting proposition for
merchants globally" before the influx of treasure from the New World.
Key Trade Routes and Entrepôts: Trade flourished via both land and sea, but the maritime
routes were particularly defining of the Indian Ocean network. The sea routes linked India's
western coast, from Sind to Malabar, with the Persian Gulf, the Red Sea, and East Africa. The
eastern coast, stretching from Bengal to Coromandel and also encompassing Malabar ports,
connected with Southeast Asia and China.
Within this structure, there were notable shifts. The Red Sea route, primarily the
Aden–Alexandria axis, grew significantly in importance from the thirteenth century
onwards, becoming a dominant artery for East-West trade. This rise may have been influenced
by political factors, such as the Mongol sacking of Baghdad in 1258 and the Mamluk destruction
of Crusader ports. After the decline of the port of Ayzab, the Aden-Jidda-Tur route became a
major connection. While the Red Sea route gained prominence, the Persian Gulf route, with
Hormuz as a major entrepôt, remained active, although some sources suggest it was at a low
ebb compared to the Red Sea trade during parts of this period, other indications suggest its
continued importance, linking parts of the Mamluk kingdom via Basra and Ubulla. Direct sea
navigation to Europe was not possible via these routes until the late 15th century.
Numerous ports served as vital nodes in this vast network. On the Indian west coast, Cambay
was a principal entrepôt, described poetically as having "two outstretched arms" reaching
towards the Islamic West/Europe and towards Southeast Asia/China. Its outer ports, Gandhar
and Gogha, also played roles. Quilon and Calicut on the Malabar coast were renowned hubs,
counted by Ibn Battuta among the world's great ports. Other significant Indian ports included
Lahari Bandar (Sind), Diu, Chaul, Dabhol, Mangalore, and various ports along the Coromandel
coast (like Kaveripatnam, Pondicherry, Markanam, Masulipatam, Kayal, Malipatan, Negapatan)
and in Bengal (Sonargaon). Abroad, major partner ports included Aden, Hormuz (Hurmuz),
Jidda, Alexandria, and Aleppo. In Southeast Asia, Malacca emerged as a crucial entrepôt
in the fifteenth century, serving as a meeting point for Indian, Chinese, and Javanese
merchants. Chinese ports like Canton and Zayton (Quanzhou) were major destinations in the
east.
Ships, Navigation, and Changing Dynamics: Navigation in the Indian Ocean relied heavily on
the seasonal monsoon winds. Ships often made port calls, though captains preferred brief stays
to collect warehoused merchandise.
A dramatic and significant feature of the period was the arrival and prominence of large
Chinese ships, known as janks or juncos, in Indian waters from the mid-12th century. Ibn
Battuta observed vast numbers of these impressive vessels in Malabar ports. They were known
for their large size, sturdiness, multiple masts, and capacity for immense cargoes, playing a
major role in the eastern Indian Ocean. However, a key change occurred after 1433 when the
Chinese government, for reasons that are not entirely clear (perhaps linked to political
shifts and a perceived anti-climax after receiving exotic 'tribute' like a giraffe),
discouraged overseas navigation, leading to a significant withdrawal of Chinese junks from
Indian waters before the Portuguese arrival. This created a vacuum in the carrying trade.
Vessels in the western Indian Ocean were often built from Indian teakwood, sometimes
described as "rope-sewn" or "stitched" (dhows), and while perceived as less robust by European
observers, their flexible construction was suited to Indian roadsteads. Indian shipbuilding
capabilities are noted, particularly in southern and eastern India, linked to the expansion of the
textile trade towards Southeast Asia. Direct navigation across the full length of the Indian Ocean
and beyond within a single favorable season was challenging, leading to transshipment
points, often located in south India, where goods from the East and West segments of the
trade were exchanged.
The withdrawal of Chinese shipping facilitated the increasing role of Gujarati ships,
particularly in the western and middle Indian Ocean, as Gujarati merchants expanded their
presence and filled some of the void. At the turn of the 15th century, the Gujarati Muslim
mercantile marine was especially dominant in the sea-lanes between Cambay and Malacca.
Commodities and Bullion Flows: The range of goods traded was vast and diverse. Exports
from India included key commodities such as spices (with Malabar being a major source of
pepper), textiles (cotton cloth, silk, silk fabrics from regions like Gujarat, Coromandel, and
Bengal), indigo, rice, sugar, aromatic substances, timber (like teakwood), and precious stones.
Indian textiles were particularly important for the Southeast Asian markets, where they were
exchanged for spices, and began to find markets in Europe and the Levant in the later part of
this period.
Imports to India were also crucial. Horses, essential for military needs, were a vital import,
arriving from Arabia, Iran, and Central Asia. A permanent and defining feature of India's foreign
trade was a constant favorable balance of payments, leading to a significant influx of
special and monetary metals, primarily gold, silver, and copper. These precious metals
acquired through trade were generally not exported from India. India's expanding economy and
monetary system heavily relied on this import of foreign coin and bullion. The movement of
specie "from the west (Europe, North Africa, Egypt) to the east (India and the Orient) was
a permanent feature" of the trade.
The period, however, also saw a "severe crisis of silver supply" in the wider trading network
between approximately 1370 and 1450 CE, sometimes referred to as a "bullion famine". This
significantly impacted monetary systems, particularly in northern India under the later Delhi
Sultanate, which shifted towards billon and copper coinage during this crisis. Coastal regions,
especially Gujarat and South India, were better able to maintain their precious metal coinage
through the continued flow of bullion from maritime trade, although Gujarat's silver currency did
see some debasement during this time. The 14th century saw an increase in gold circulation,
and coins like Egyptian dinars and Venetian ducats were found in Indian hoards, indicating their
role in trade. This led to the imitation of ducats (e.g., Vijayanagara huns), integrating gold-based
regions into the wider network. Copper coins also flowed from Egypt, often sourced from
Europe.
Merchants and Organization: Trade was conducted by diverse and well-organized merchant
communities. Indian merchants were prominent, with groups like the Banyas excelling in
commodity trade, brokerage, money-changing, and banking. Bohras, Muslim merchants in
Gujarat, were active in the trade with Iran and sometimes partnered with state entities. The
Multanis were important for financing foreign trade and lending money, particularly active in the
Delhi region. In South India, the Chatis (Chettys) were significant players. While Hindu
merchants were often dominant in shore-based activities feeding the shipping lines, Indian
shipowning merchants, particularly Muslim groups like the Bohras and Gujarati Muslims, were
crucial.
Foreign merchant communities also settled in India's ports, including Arabs, Iranians, and
merchants from key entrepôts like Hormuz and Aden, and Chinese. Italian merchants, such as
Venetians and Genoese, also sought direct trade links, though this was challenging before the
Cape route.
Trade practices involved sophisticated instruments like hundis (credit notes) and various
partnership arrangements. The period saw a dynamic interplay between numerous smaller
merchants and a few very wealthy traders. Despite the potential for great fortunes, even major
merchants found it difficult to establish monopolies due to the ubiquitous presence of smaller
traders and a culture of intense, sometimes ruthless, competition. Traditional practices, such as
weavers being able to break contracts by returning advances, endured, contrasting with the
more rigid contractual ideas later introduced by European companies with political influence.
State protection and administrative support were important factors in the ports.
Political Context and State Attitudes: While regional political changes occurred, the overall
structure of Indian Ocean trade remained remarkably durable. The establishment of the Delhi
Sultanate earlier fostered monetary expansion and urbanization, supporting trade. The
fragmentation of the Delhi Sultanate in the 15th century and the rise of regional powers like the
Sultanates of Gujarat and Bengal did not necessarily disrupt overseas trade; in fact, these
regional states often saw flourishing commerce. For instance, Gujarat's overseas trade
expanded significantly, partly capitalizing on the vacuum left by the Chinese withdrawal, and its
ability to maintain a silver currency was linked to trade earnings. Bengal also experienced
economic vibrancy, evidenced by shipbuilding and textile exports, possibly boosted by the
cessation of tribute payments to Delhi.
Indian states, such as the Vijayanagara Empire, Bijapur, and the Mughal Empire (later in the
period), generally did not have a primary focus or "serious interest" in maritime trade at
the central level, often delegating related matters to local administrations. While they
appreciated the revenue from trade, there was a notable absence of a centralized Indian navy
capable of protecting the considerable Indian commercial marine. This continental
perspective contrasted with the growing maritime focus of some foreign powers. Despite this,
state policies, such as the abolition of arbitrary customs exactions at specific ports (like by the
Kakatiya ruler Ganapatideva at Motupalli in the early 13th century), could foster a more
favorable trading environment.
Historiography
Based on the sources provided, here is an overview of the historiography and different
perspectives on Indian Ocean trade, particularly focusing on the views of Irfan Habib and A. Das
Gupta, who are authors in the Cambridge Economic History of India volume, and referencing
others mentioned in the texts.
The sources themselves represent a significant effort in the historiography of Indian economic
history, including maritime trade. The preface to the Cambridge Economic History of India notes
that the earlier 1922 Cambridge History of India paid little attention to economic and social
history. The current volume aims to provide an authoritative summary of existing knowledge and
initiate inquiry into areas needing further research, acknowledging significant gaps in
knowledge, particularly for earlier centuries and quantitative data. The editors note a surprising
degree of agreement among contributors, who share a broad common approach. Irfan Habib is
a key author and editor for both provided sources, covering the medieval period, including
towns, manufactures, and trade. A. Das Gupta specifically contributes the section on Indian
Merchants and the trade in the Indian Ocean from c. 1500 to 1750. K. N. Chaudhuri covers
European trade with India in the same period.
Challenges in Historiography:
● A key challenge highlighted is the absence of comprehensive Indian statistics and
indigenous sources that focus on economic phenomena; they tend to take the urban
and commercial aspects for granted.
● Historians often lean heavily on European sources, which are extensive but inherently
limited and biased, focusing primarily on the operations and interests of European official
agencies like the East India Companies or private European trade, often neglecting the
larger Indian trade in the Indian Ocean. These sources can also be untrustworthy,
warped by personal considerations and inflated figures.
● Despite their limitations, European records provide continuous data on trade and
trading conditions, while Jesuit records offer insights into social and cultural life
connected to trade.
● Travelers' accounts (Muslim, Chinese, European like Marco Polo and Ibn Battuta) are
crucial sources, especially for periods with scarce indigenous records, but they also have
biases and limitations.
● The influence of Islamic and later European (Newtonian) historiography introduced
concepts of causality, datability, and continuity to Indian historical writing, contrasting
with traditional Indian approaches.
Key Perspectives on Indian Ocean Trade:
Irfan Habib: As a primary author and editor of the sources, Irfan Habib's perspective underpins
much of the presented economic history. His work emphasizes the economic history of
Medieval India (1200-1500), including its foreign trade. He highlights India's large agrarian
and industrial base, efficient fiscal and monetary institutions, and skilled mercantile
groups as supporting its foreign trade. A significant feature he points out, drawing on earlier
accounts like that of Shihabuddin Wassaf, is India's constant favorable balance of payments,
leading to an inflow of specie (gold and silver). This bullion inflow was crucial for monetary
exchange. He notes that while there was a limited outflow of specie for imports like horses and
Levantine textiles, the overall balance remained favorable. He covers the structure of inland
commerce and the heterogeneous community of merchants involved.
A. Das Gupta: In his section on Indian merchants, A. Das Gupta focuses on the period from c.
1500 to 1750. He argues that the Indian merchant investing in Indian Ocean trade was the
most important figure in India's overseas trade during the sixteenth and seventeenth
centuries. He notes the absence of statistics and the need to focus on the structure of
commerce and the merchant's role. He points out a significant social fragmentation in
maritime India, where the seafaring population, including shipowners and seamen, was
overwhelmingly Muslim, while shore-based merchants were often Hindu, though Hindus also
traveled and traded. Das Gupta discusses the changes in the deployment of Indian shipping
due to political shifts in Asia and European intervention. He highlights the emergence of
Malacca as a crucial entrepot in the fifteenth century, dominated by Gujarati Muslim shipping,
where Indian, Chinese, and Javanese merchants met. He notes that in the west, Indian trade
primarily flowed through the Red Sea and Persian Gulf, with Arab ships dominating the
Arabian Sea carrying trade. He emphasizes that European trade in the Indian Ocean
remained part of the traditional structure, initially enriching it. However, he also discusses
how Portuguese intervention, particularly their occupation of Malacca and efforts to control
routes, led to a reorientation of Indian shipping, especially Gujarati ships, towards the Red Sea.
Despite Portuguese claims of monopoly, Das Gupta, referencing Charles Boxer, suggests that
Gujarati ships carried significant amounts of pepper from Achin to the Red Sea at the end of the
sixteenth century. Das Gupta strongly argues against the idea that European trade dominated
the Indian Ocean before the eighteenth century. Referencing Van Leur and W. H. Moreland, he
concludes that the mass of Indian trade remained in Indian hands and was confined to the
Indian Ocean throughout the period under review. He attributes this resilience to Indian
merchants' thriftiness, lower costs, local market knowledge, and ability to navigate local
political structures, even when facing European naval power. He notes that Indian shipping
began a significant decline in the early eighteenth century, hastened by political insecurity in
India and Persia and civil war in Yemen.
K. N. Chaudhuri: Focusing on European trade, K. N. Chaudhuri describes the Portuguese
arrival as a rare event whose implications were perceived by contemporaries. He highlights the
Portuguese aim of armed domination and monopoly from the outset, seen in Vasco da Gama's
stated purpose and King Manuel's declaration. He notes that the Portuguese sought to control
trade through systems like the cartaz (passes), which even Indian rulers like the Sultans of
Bijapur and Mughal emperors sometimes acquiesced to for their ships. However, he also
presents the view, supported by Linschoten and others, that Portuguese Goa had
considerable inter-Asian trade, and their attempt to control trade was made partially ineffective
by corruption and administrative laxity. He references Fernand Braudel's point that the
Portuguese became like customs officials. Chaudhuri discusses the rise of the Dutch (VOC) and
English (EIC) Companies in the seventeenth century, noting their initial focus on the Spice
Islands and their subsequent entry into the Indian trade driven by the need for Indian textiles to
exchange for spices. He states that the Dutch largely replaced the Portuguese in inter-Asian
trade, while both companies vigorously developed direct trade with Europe. He highlights the
organizational strength of the Dutch and English Companies, based on joint-stock and
impersonal firm principles, which provided a new foundation for trade, contrasting with
traditional mercantile organizations. He notes that the full impact of European trade on the
Indian domestic economy was felt primarily in the first half of the eighteenth century, leading
to increased revenue for Indian rulers through taxation and stimulating industries like textiles.
Burton Stein: Stein's work, particularly on South India, highlights the long history of maritime
trade dating back to the early Christian era, documented by classical authors and
archaeological findings. He notes the existence of important trade centers on the Coromandel
Coast, linked to a vast commercial network reaching China. He describes associations of
wealthy and prestigious merchants integrated with agrarian institutions, acting as itinerant
traders until the fourteenth century, when changes led them to merge with localized merchant
groups or join the Muslim trade community on the coast. He points out that by the thirteenth
century, a substantial share of trade on both the west and Coromandel coasts was reported to
be in the hands of Muslims. Stein observes that for the first two centuries of European
presence, their sea power and trade remained marginal to south Indian developments, unlike in
Bengal.
Simon Digby: Simon Digby is referenced and cited in the sources. For instance, his work on
the coinage and genealogy of the Later Jams is mentioned in relation to evidence from Sind. He
is also cited regarding Ibn Battuta's description of the strong wooden defenses of the harbor of
Mali-Pattan and relating to evidence of trade between western India and the east African coast.
However, the sources do not provide a summary of Simon Digby's overall opinions or
arguments regarding the broader historiography of Indian Ocean trade or his specific
interpretation of its structure, participants, or changes, beyond these specific references.
Other Perspectives:
● Van Leur is mentioned as describing the ubiquitous presence of small Indian Ocean
travelers and for his view that by the late 16th century, Portuguese belligerent activity
was just "one thread more" in the existing Asian trade fabric, exceeded many times by
Asian trade. Das Gupta contrasts Van Leur's belief that rich merchants were non-political
with the reality that they were just as non-political as small ones.
● W. H. Moreland is cited for his views on shipping and European trade. His perspective
that European merchants did not dominate Indian markets is explicitly stated and agreed
with by Das Gupta.
● S. D. Goitein's studies of the Cairo Geniza documents reveal the cosmopolitan
character of the India trade in the 12th and 13th centuries, involving Jewish merchants
collaborating with Hindus and Muslims, and indicating a permanent movement of specie
from the west to the east to finance trade.
● P. J. Marshall is mentioned in relation to the unpredictability of the Indian Ocean market
accounting for differences between Europe and Asia in the 17th and 18th centuries.
● Aniruddha Ray is mentioned in relation to the question of the existence of Bengali
merchants before the Mughal period
In conclusion, Indian Ocean trade from 1200-1500 CE was a highly sophisticated system
sustained by deep continuities in routes, commodities, and merchant practices. However, it was
also marked by significant dynamism: the shift in dominance towards the Red Sea route, the
transformative but temporary presence and subsequent withdrawal of giant Chinese junks,
the emergence of Malacca as a pivotal entrepôt, a consistent influx of precious metals into
India, and the impact of the late medieval silver crisis on monetary systems. Indian
merchants remained central figures, navigating a competitive landscape and adapting to
changing political and economic conditions, all within a framework that would begin to see the
increasing, though initially limited, involvement of European powers towards the end of the
period.
