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Cell Structure and Functions

2 Module 2

bjectives:
At the end of this lesson, students should be able to:

 Identify the different organelles within a cell

 Describe the structure and function of major and subcellular organelles
 Give and explain analogies related to the parts and function of the cell

D d you know?
The largest cells in the human body are the nerve cells (neurons), which can be a meter
long. The smallest cells in the human body are the sperm cells, which are about 60 micrometers
long! A micrometer is about one thousandth of a millimeter. The human eye has a visual acuity
limited to objects 50 micrometers in diameters, about the size of a dust speck.

2.1 The Cell

The cell is the basic unit of life. All organisms are made up of cell. Some organisms are
unicellular, meaning they are made of just a single cell. Bacteria and yeast are examples of
unicellular organisms.2 Multicellular organisms are those with more than one cells, humans for
example. Tissues and organs of plants, animals, and other multicellular organisms are made up
of these very important basic units of structure and function. The basis for reproduction, growth,
and repair of multicellular organisms is the ability of cells to divide to form new cells.3

Figure 2.1. Types of Cells in the Body: (a)nerve cells, (b)skin cells, (c)blood cells, (d)
bone cells, (e) sex cells, (f)stem cells, (g)muscle cells, (h)pancreatic cells4

(a) (d)

(b) (c)

(f) (g)

(h)

(e)
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Our own body is a cooperative society of trillions of cells of many specialized types.
Imagine a brick wall; its basic building block is a single brick. And like a brick wall, cells are the
building blocks that make up your body. Examples are your muscle cells which keep your heart
beating, the nerve cells that control your muscles, and the red blood cells which carry oxygen
throughout your body. Every action and thought reflects the process occurring at the cellular
level.

2.2 Structure to Function

How we decide whether something is a living or nonliving thing depends on the life
processes only living organisms can perform. All of a living cell’s processes involve
transformation of energy and matter. The molecules undergoing chemical activities within the
cell are the source of this life energy. In order to remember these life processes, take note of the
acronym:

M R S G R E N
Movement: animals and plants both have the ability to move. Plants are rooted but move slowly
as they grow. Roots dig through the soil, and the stems toward the light. On the other hand,
animals can move their entire bodies quickly, searching for food and avoiding danger.

Respiration: The process of extracting energy from the food we eat. All living things respire
since they need the energy to grow, to move, and to replace worn out parts.

Sensitivity: All living things are aware of the changes in their environment. Animals respond
quickly to stimuli such as heat, light, sound, touch, and chemicals which have taste and smell.
On the other hand, plants generally appear less sensitive and slower in response, however, some
plants do respond quickly such as the Venus flytrap.

Growth: All living things grow. Plants continue growing throughout their lives, while animals
stop growing when they reach adulthood. Although growth stops, materials within an animal’s
body are still being replaced from its food.

Reproduction: All living things must reproduce for their species to survive. Plant seeds give rise
to new plants of the same species, while animals lay eggs or have babies.

Excretion: The process of getting rid of metabolic waste. All living things produce useless or
harmful waste products that are needed to get rid of. Wastes are removed from plants when their
leaves fall off. Carbon dioxide is released by animals; other wastes substances leave the body in
urine or sweat.

Nutrition: Plants and animals ingest food needed for energy and growth. Plants are able to make
their own food by photosynthesis, while animals rely on taking in plants and other animals for
their nutrition.

All of these metabolic processes are made possible by the organelles working together as
a team. Cellular organelles play an important role in order to support life. There is no least
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important organelle as they are all equally

essential. If an organelle fails to perform its
function, the whole body will suffer. Imagine a
family; each member has a different role to keep
life

possible, they need each other to survive, you

need your parents as much as your parents need
you. The parts and functions of the cell is a
TEAM! Figure 2.2 illustrates the complex yet
organized view of the cell and its organelles. Figure 2.2. The Cell and its Organelles

2.3 Cell Organelles

The cell is generally microscopic, but its size varies from one organism to another, as
well as from the parts of the organism itself. Cell structures are separated internally into
numerous membranous compartments called organelles (little organs). Variety of functions are
performed by these organelles, among others are the production of proteins, storage of important
materials, harvesting energy, repairing cell parts, digestion of substances, and maintaining the
shape and structure of the cell. These organelles are compartmentalized; hence, one system does
not interfere with functions of the other systems but their roles are interdependent.

The Plasma Membrane: A Fluid Mosaic of Lipids and Proteins

Before we explore the inside of a cell, let’s make a quick stop at the surface of this
microscopic world. The plasma membrane is the edge of life, the boundary separating the
living cell from its nonliving surroundings. It is a remarkable film, so thin you would have to
stack 8,000 of them to equal the thickness of the Simon, Reece, and Dickey’s Campbell Essential
Biology, 4th Edition book. Yet it can regulate the traffic of chemicals into and out of the cell.
They key to how it works is its structure.

Phospholipids. The
plasma membrane, as shown in
Figure 2.3, and other membranes
of the cell are composed mostly of
lipids and proteins, phospholipids
belong to a special category. One
phospholipid is composed of two
fatty acid tails and a phosphate
group.
Figure 2.3. The Plasma Membrane
1 Phosphate group: electrically charged,
making it hydrophilic or “water – loving”

2 Fatty acid tails: hydrophobic or “water – fearing”

wikimedia.com
The phosphate group “head” mixes with water, while the fatty acid tails
avoid it. This makes phospholipids good membrane material. By forming a two – layered
membrane, or phospholipid bilayer, the hydrophobic tails of the molecules stay away from
water, while the hydrophilic heads remain surrounded by water.

Embedded in the phospholipid bilayer of most membranes are proteins that help regulate
traffic across the membrane and perform other functions.
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The Nucleus and Ribosomes: Genetic Control of the Cell

If we think of the cell as a factory, then the nucleus is its executive boardroom. The top
managers are the genes, the inherited DNA molecules that direct almost all the business of the
cell. Each gene is a stretch of DNA that stores the information necessary to produce a particular
protein. Proteins then do most of the actual work of the cell.

Structure and Function of the Nucleus

The nucleus (Figure 2.4) is bordered by a
double membrane called the nuclear envelope. Each
membrane of the nuclear envelope is similar in
structure to the plasma membrane. Pores in the
envelope allow certain materials to pass between the
nucleus and the cytoplasm.

Within the nucleus, long DNA molecules and

associated proteins form fibers called chromatin.

Each long chromatin fiber constitutes one ecosia.org

chromosome. The number of chromosomes in a cell depends Figure 2.4. The Nucleus
on the species; for example, each human body has 46
chromosomes, whereas rice cells have 24 and dog cells have 78.

The nucleolus is a prominent structure within the nucleus. It is the site where the
components of ribosomes are made.

Ribosomes
The small dots in the cells in Figure 2.5
and outside the nucleus are the ribosomes. They
are responsible for protein synthesis. Protein is
required for many cell activities such as repair of
damage and other chemical processes. In
eukaryotic cells (will be discussed in Module 3),
the components of ribosomes are made in the
Figure 2.5. The Ribosomes
nucleus, then transported through the pores of the
nucleus into the cytoplasm.

It is in the cytoplasm that the ribosomes begin their work. Some are
suspended in the fluid of the cytoplasm, making proteins that remain in the fluid.
Other ribosomes are attached to the outside of an organelle called the
endoplasmic reticulum, making proteins that are incorporated into membranes or
secreted by the cell. www.quora.com

The Endomembrane System: Manufacturing and Distributing Cellular Products

The cytoplasm of a eukaryotic cell is partitioned by organelle membranes. Some of the
organelles are connected to each other, either directly by their membranes or by transfer of
membrane segments between them. Together, these organelles form the endomembrane
system. This system includes the nuclear envelope, the endoplasmic reticulum, the Golgi
apparatus, lysosomes, and vacuoles.
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The Endoplasmic Reticulum

The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) (Figure 2.6) is
one of the main manufacturing facilities within a cell. It
produces an enormous variety of molecules. Connected to
the nuclear envelope, the ER forms a labyrinth of tubes
and sacs running throughout the cytoplasm.

The ER membrane separates its internal

compartment from the surrounding fluid in the cytoplasm.
There are two components that make up the ER: rough ER
and smooth ER. These two types of ER are physically
connected but differ in structure and function.

Rough ER Figure 2.6. The Endoplasmic Reticulum

The “rough” in rough ER refers to the appearance of this organelle in electron

micrographs. The roughness is due to ribosomes that stud the outside of the ER membrane.
These ribosomes produce membrane proteins and secretory proteins. Some newly manufactured
membrane proteins are embedded right in the rough ER membrane. Thus, one function of rough
ER is to produce new membrane.

Smooth ER

The “smooth” in smooth ER refers to the fact that this organelle lacks the ribosomes that
populate the surface of rough ER. A diversity of enzymes built into the smooth ER membrane
enables this organelle to perform many functions. One is the synthesis of lipids, including
steroids. For example, the cells in ovaries or testes that produce the steroid sex hormones are
enriched with smooth ER. In liver cells, enzymes of the smooth ER detoxify circulating sedatives
such as barbiturates, stimulants such as amphetamines, and some antibiotics (which is why they
do not persist in the bloodstream after combating an infection).

The Golgi Apparatus

The Golgi apparatus (Figure 2.7), an organelle
named for its discoverer (Italian scientist Camillo
Golgi), is a refinery, warehouse, and shipping center.
Working in close partnership with the ER, the Golgi
apparatus receives, refines, stores, and distributes
chemical products of the cell. Products made in the ER
reach the Golgi in transport vesicles (membrane spheres
that bud from the rough ER).

One side of a Golgi stack serves as a receiving

dock for these vesicles.
Figure 2.7. The Golgi Apparatus
The shipping side of a Golgi stack is a depot
from which finished products can be carried in transport vesicles to other organelles or to the
plasma membrane.
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Lysosomes
A lysosome is a sac of digestive enzymes
found in animal cells. (Lysosomes are absent from
most plant cells, to be discussed in the following
modules). Lysosomes develop from vesicles that bud
off from the Golgi. Enzymes within a lysosome can
break down large molecules such as proteins,
polysaccharides, fats, and nucleic acids – or the ecosia.org

biological molecules important to life. The Figure 2.8. Lysosomes

lysosomes provide a compartment where the cell can
digest these molecules safely, without unleashing these digestive enzymes on the cell itself.

Lysosomes have several types of digestive functions. Many cells engulf nutrients into
tiny cytoplasmic sacs called food vacuoles.

Lysosomes fuse with the food vacuoles, exposing the food to enzymes that digest it, as
shown in Figure 2.8.

Small molecules that result from this digestion, such as amino acids, leave the lysosome
and nourish the cell.

Lysosomes also help destroy harmful bacteria. Our white blood cells ingest bacteria into
vacuoles, and lysosomal enzymes that are emptied into these vacuoles rupture the bacterial cell
walls.

Additionally, lysosomes break down the large molecules of damaged organelles. Without
harming the cell, a lysosome can engulf and digest parts of another organelle, making its
molecules available for the construction of new organelles.

Lysosomes also have sculpturing functions in embryonic development. In an early human

embryo, lysosomes release enzymes that digest webbing between fingers of the developing hand.

A person with such a disease is missing one or more of the digestive enzymes normally
found within lysosomes. The abnormal lysosomes become engorged with indigestible substances
and this eventually interferes with other cellular functions. Most of these diseases are fatal in
early childhood. In Tay – Sachs disease, lysosomes lack a lipid – digesting enzyme. As a result,
nerve cells die as they accumulate excess lipids, ravaging the nervous system. Fortunately,
storage diseases are rare.

Vacuoles
Vacuoles are sacs that bud from the ER, Golgi, or
plasma membrane. They come in different sizes and have a
variety of functions.

There are two types of vacuoles: (1) contractile vacuoles and

(2) central vacuoles.

For example, certain freshwater protists have

ecosia.org
contractile vacuoles (as shown in Figure 2.9) that pump out
excess water that flows into the cell from the outside Figure 2.9. Contractile Vacuole
environment.
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Another type of vacuole is a central vacuole, which

can account for more than half the volume of a mature plant
cell. The central vacuole of a plant cell is a versatile
compartment. It stores organic nutrients, such as proteins
stockpiled in the vacuoles of seed cells.

It also contributes to plant growth by absorbing water and

causing cells to expand.
ecosia.org

In the cells of flower petals, central vacuoles may Figure 2.10. Central Vacuole
contain pigments that attract pollinating insects.

Central vacuoles may also contain poisons that protect against plant – eating animals.

Smooth ER
Rough ER

Transport Transport
vesicles vesicles

Lysosome
Golgi
apparatus

Secretory Incoming
vesicles vesicle

byjus.com

Figure 2.11. Review of the Endomembrane system

Let us review!
The Endomembrane System
The arrows in Figure 2.11 review some pathways of cell product distribution and
membrane migration via transport vesicles.

 Rough ER synthesizes proteins and packages them in vesicles; vesicles commonly go to

the Golgi apparatus
 Transport vesicles shuttle proteins and lipids to various locations such as the Golgi
apparatus.
 Golgi apparatus modifies lipids and proteins from the ER; sorts them and packages
them in vesicles.
 Secretory vesicles fuse with the plasma membrane as secretion occurs.
 Smooth ER synthesizes lipids and also performs various other functions.
 Lysosomes contain digestive enzymes that break down worn – out cell parts or
substances entering the cell at the plasma membrane.
 Incoming vesicle brings substances into the cell that are digested when vesicle fuses with
a lysosome.
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Chloroplasts and Mitochondria: Energy Conversion

A cell requires a continuous energy supply to perform the work of life. Two organelles
act as cellular power stations: chloroplasts and mitochondria.

Chloroplasts
Most of the living world runs on the energy
provided by photosynthesis, the conversion of light
energy from the Sun to the chemical energy of sugar
and other organic molecules.

Chloroplasts, which are unique to

photosynthetic cells of plants and algae, are the
organelles that perform photosynthesis. It is
partitioned into three major compartments by internal
membranes: (1) the space between the two membranes
that envelop the chloroplast, (2) stroma, a thick fluid
within the chloroplast, and (3) the interior of a
network of membrane – enclosed disks and tubes
Figure 2.12. The Chloroplast
suspended in the fluid. Figure 2.12 illustrates the
partition of a chloroplast. These will be discussed later as we tackle photosynthesis in plants.

Mitochondria: Power Producers

Mitochondria (singular, mitochondrion) are the
sites of cellular respiration, a process that harvests energy
from sugars and other food molecules and
converts it to another form of chemical energy
called ATP.

Cells use molecules of ATP as the direct

energy source for most of their work. In contrast to
chloroplasts, mitochondria are found in almost all of ecosia.org

eukaryotic cells (as we will discuss in Module 3), Figure 2.13. A Mitochondrion
including your own.

They are considered the “powerhouses” of eukaryotic cells. Mitochondria generate power
by converting energy into forms that are usable by the cell. They are found in all body cell types,
except for mature red blood cells. The number of mitochondria within a cell varies depending on
the type and function of the cell. On the other hand, muscle cells may contain thousands of
mitochondria needed to provide the energy required for muscle activity.

Mitochondria, as shown in Figure 2.13, have a distinctive oblong or oval shape and are
bounded by a double membrane. Each of these membranes is a phospholipid bilayer with
embedded proteins. The outermost membrane is smooth while the inner membrane has many
folds known as cristae. These folds enhance the “productivity” of cellular respiration by
increasing the available surface area.

They are semi – autonomous in that they are only partially dependent on the cell to
replicate and grow. They have their own DNA, ribosomes, make their own proteins, and have
some control over their reproduction.
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The Cytoskeleton: Cell Shape and Movement

If someone asked you to describe a house, you would most likely mention the various
rooms and their locations. You probably would not think to
mention the foundation and beams that support the house.
Yet these structures perform an extremely important
function. Similarly, cells have an infrastructure called the
cytoskeleton. Cytoskeleton is a network of fibers
extending throughout the cytoplasm. The cytoskeleton
serves as both skeleton and “muscles” for the cell,
functioning in support and movement. DR GOPAL MURTI/Getty Images

Figure 2.14. Cytoskeleton’s

Microtubules
Cytoskeleton’s one function is to give mechanical
support to the cell and maintain its shape. This is especially important for animal cells, which
lack rigid cell walls. A variety of cellular organelles are held in place by the cytoskeleton. It also
assists in the formation of vacuoles.

The cytoskeleton is not a static structure but is able to disassemble and reassemble its
parts in order to enable internal and overall cell mobility. Intracellular movements are supported
by the cytoskeleton like transportation of vesicles into and out of the cell, chromosome
manipulation during mitosis and meiosis (which will be tackle on the following discussions), and
organelle migration.

The cytoskeleton contains several types of fibers made from different types of protein.
One important type of fiber is mictrotubules (Figure 2.14). Microtubules are straight, hollow
tubes composed of proteins, measuring about 25 nanometers (nm) in diameter. The other kinds
of cytoskeletal fibers, called intermediate filaments and microfilaments, are thinner and solid.

 Microtubules help support and shape the cell and as

“routes” along which organelle can move.
 Microfilaments active in muscle contraction.
Microfilaments are particularly prevalent in muscle cells.
They also participate in organelle movement.
 Intermediate filaments can be abundant in many cells
and provide support for microfilaments and microtubules
by holding them in place. These filaments form keratins
found in epithelial cells and neurofilaments in neurons.

Figure 2.15. Cytoskeleton’s

Centrioles
Microfilaments and Intermediate
Centrioles (Figure 2.16) are cylindrical cell filaments
structures that are composed of groupings of
microtubules, which are tube – shaped molecules or
strands of protein. Without centrioles, chromosomes
would not be able to move during the formation of new
cells. Chromosomes use them as a highway during the
cell division process.
Figure 2.16. Centriole
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Cell Wall
Cell walls (Figure 2.17) are rigid, semi –
permeable protective layer in some cell types.
This outer covering is positioned next to the cell
membrane (plasma membrane) in most plant cells,
fungi, bacteria, algae, and some archaea.

The cell wall has many important

functions in a cell including protection, structure,
and support.

Figure 2.17. Cell Walls

 Support. The cell wall provides mechanical strength and support. It also controls the
direction of cell growth.

 Withstand turgor pressure. Turgor pressure is the force exerted against the cell wall as
the contents of the cell push the plasma membrane against the cell wall. This pressure
helps a plant to remain rigid and erect, but can also cause a cell to rupture.

 Regulate growth. The cell wall sends signals for the cell to enter the cell cycle in order
to divide and grow.

 Regulate diffusion. The cell wall is porous allowing some substances, including
proteins, to pass into the cell while keeping other substances out.

 Communication. Cells communicate with one another via plasmodesmata (pores or

channels between plant cell walls that allow molecules and communication signals to
pass between individual plant cells).

 Protection. The cell wall provides a barrier to protect against plant viruses and other
pathogens. It also helps to prevent water loss.

 Storage. The cell wall stores carbohydrates for use in plant growth, especially in seeds.
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“ An analogy of the cell structure and

function ”
The parts of the school are like the parts of the cell.

 The gate can be compared to the cell membrane, it selects what goes in
and out of the cell.

 The lockers are like the vacuoles, these store things.

 The administrator is equivalent to the nucleus, it directs whatever

rules and regulations should be implemented.

And so on …

Now, it’s your turn. I want you to creatively think of an analogy that you
can compare to the cell organelle’s functions.

This is your activity.

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References

(1) Cambridge University Press IGCSE Biology Course Book 2nd Edition, 2010,
Mary Jones and Geoff Jones
(2) How Large is a Micrometer?, 2020, wisegeek.com, MICHAEL ANISSIMOV
(3) Campbell Essential Biology, 4th Edition, 2010, Simon, Eric J.; Reece, Jane B.;
Dickey, Jean L.
(4) Types of Cells in the Human Body, 2019, ThoughtCo., Bailey, Regina
(5) Department of Education’s General Biology 1 – Grade 12 Alternative
Delivery Mode Quarter 1 – Module 2: Cell Structure and Function, First
Edition, 2020, Ma. Angelica D. Guban
(6) Pass My Exams, 2020, GCSE Biology Life Processes
(7) General Biology 1, 1st Edition, 2017, Rea, M.A., Dequillo, M.Z., Chua, J.L.
(8) Mitochondria: Power Producers, 2019, ThoughtCo., Bailey, Regina
(9) Cytoskeleton Anatomy, 2019, ThoughtCo., Bailey, Regina