CS3203
Object Oriented Analysis and Design
Dr. B Ramachandra Reddy
Object-oriented Design
Objectives
• To explain how a software design may be represented as a set of
interacting objects that manage their own state and operations
• To describe the activities in the object-oriented design process
• To introduce various models that can be used to describe an object-
oriented design
• To show how the UML may be used to represent these models
Topics covered
• Objects and object classes
• An object-oriented design process
• Design evolution
Object-oriented development
• Object-oriented analysis, design and programming are related but distinct.
• OOA is concerned with developing an object model of the application domain.
• OOD is concerned with developing an object-oriented system model to
implement requirements.
• OOP is concerned with realising an OOD using an OO programming language such
as Java or C++.
Characteristics of OOD
• Objects are abstractions of real-world or system entities and manage themselves.
• Objects are independent and encapsulate state and representation information.
• System functionality is expressed in terms of object services.
• Shared data areas are eliminated. Objects
communicate by message passing.
• Objects may be distributed and may execute
sequentially or in parallel.
Interacting objects
Advantages of OOD
• Easier maintenance. Objects may be
understood as stand-alone entities.
• Objects are potentially reusable components.
• For some systems, there may be an obvious
mapping from real world entities to system
objects.
Objects and object classes
• Objects are entities in a software system which represent instances of
real-world and system entities.
• Object classes are templates for objects. They may be used to create
objects.
• Object classes may inherit attributes and services from other object
classes.
Objects and object classes
An object is an entity that has a state and a defined set of
operations which operate on that state. The state is represented as a
set of object attributes. The operations associated with the object
provide services to other objects (clients) which request these
services when some computation is required.
Objects are created according to some object class definition. An
object class definition serves as a template for objects. It includes
declarations of all the attributes and services which should be
associated with an object of that class.
The Unified Modeling Language
• Several different notations for describing object-oriented designs were proposed
in the 1980s and 1990s.
• The Unified Modeling Language is an integration of these notations.
• It describes notations for a number of different models that may be produced
during OO analysis and design.
• It is now a de facto standard for OO modelling.
Employee object class (UML)
Emplo yee
name: string
address: string
dateOfBir th: Date
employeeN o: integer
socialSecurityNo: string
depar tment: Dept
manager: Employee
salar y: integer
status: {current, left, retired}
taxCode: integer
. ..
join ()
leave ()
retire ()
changeDetails ()
Object communication
• Conceptually, objects communicate by
message passing.
• Messages
• The name of the service requested by the calling object;
• Copies of the information required to execute the service
and the name of a holder for the result of the service.
• In practice, messages are often implemented
by procedure calls
• Name = procedure name;
• Information = parameter list.
Message examples
// Call a method associated with a buffer
// object that returns the next value
// in the buffer
v = circularBuffer.Get () ;
// Call the method associated with a
// thermostat object that sets the
// temperature to be maintained
thermostat.setTemp (20) ;
Generalisation and inheritance
• Objects are members of classes that define
attribute types and operations.
• Classes may be arranged in a class hierarchy
where one class (a super-class) is a generalisation of one or more other classes
(sub-classes).
• A sub-class inherits the attributes and
operations from its super class and may add
new methods or attributes of its own.
• Generalisation in the UML is implemented as inheritance in OO programming
languages.
A generalisation hierarchy
Emplo yee
Mana ger Prog rammer
budgetsCo ntrolled project
progLanguages
dateAppointed
Project Dept. Strateg ic
Mana ger Mana ger Mana ger
projects dept responsibilities
Advantages of inheritance
• It is an abstraction mechanism which may be used to classify entities.
• It is a reuse mechanism at both the design and the programming
level.
• The inheritance graph is a source of organisational knowledge about
domains and systems.
Problems with inheritance
• Object classes are not self-contained. they cannot be understood
without reference to their super-classes.
• Designers have a tendency to reuse the inheritance graph created
during analysis. Can lead to significant inefficiency.
• The inheritance graphs of analysis, design and implementation have
different functions and should be separately maintained.
UML associations
• Objects and object classes participate in relationships with other objects and
object classes.
• In the UML, a generalised relationship is indicated by an association.
• Associations may be annotated with information that describes the association.
• Associations are general but may indicate that an attribute of an object is an
associated object or that a method relies on an associated object.
An association model
Employee Depar tment
is-member- of
is-managed-by
manages
Manager
Concurrent objects
• The nature of objects as self-contained entities make them suitable
for concurrent implementation.
• The message-passing model of object communication can be
implemented directly if objects are running on separate processors in
a distributed system.
Servers and active objects
• Servers.
• The object is implemented as a parallel process (server)
with entry points corresponding to object operations. If no
calls are made to it, the object suspends itself and waits for further requests for service.
• Active objects
• Objects are implemented as parallel processes and the
internal object state may be changed by the object itself and not simply by external calls.
Active transponder object
• Active objects may have their attributes modified by operations but
may also update them autonomously using internal operations.
• A Transponder object broadcasts an aircraft’s position. The position
may be updated using a satellite positioning system. The object
periodically update the position by triangulation from satellites.
An active transponder object
class Transponder extends Thread {
Position currentPosition ;
Coords c1, c2 ;
Satellite sat1, sat2 ;
Navigator theNavigator ;
public Position givePosition ()
{
return currentPosition ;
}
public void run ()
{
while (true)
{
c1 = sat1.position () ;
c2 = sat2.position () ;
currentPosition = theNavigator.compute (c1, c2) ;
}
} //Transponder
Java threads
• Threads in Java are a simple construct for implementing concurrent
objects.
• Threads must include a method called run() and this is started up by
the Java run-time system.
• Active objects typically include an infinite loop so that they are always
carrying out the computation.
An object-oriented design process
• Structured design processes involve developing a number of different
system models.
• They require a lot of effort for development and maintenance of
these models and, for small systems, this may not be cost-effective.
• However, for large systems developed by different groups design
models are an essential communication mechanism.
Process stages
• Highlights key activities without being tied to any proprietary process
such as the RUP.
• Define the context and modes of use of the system;
• Design the system architecture;
• Identify the principal system objects;
• Develop design models;
• Specify object interfaces.
Weather system description
A weather mapping system is required to generate weather maps on a
regular basis using data collected from remote, unattended weather stations
and other data sources such as weather observers, balloons and satellites.
Weather stations transmit their data to the area computer in response to a
request from that machine.
The area computer system validates the collected data and integrates it with
the data from different sources. The integrated data is archived and, using
data from this archive and a digitised map database a set of local weather
maps is created. Maps may be printed for distribution on a special-purpose
map printer or may be displayed in a number of different formats.
System context and models of use
• Develop an understanding of the relationships between the software being
designed and its external environment
• System context
• A static model that describes other systems in the environment. Use a subsystem model to
show other systems. Following slide shows the systems around the weather station system.
• Model of system use
• A dynamic model that describes how the system interacts with its environment. Use use-
cases to show interactions
Layered architecture
Data displaylayerwhere objectsare
concerned with preparing and
«subsystem» presenting the data in a human-
Data display readable fo rm
Data archiving layer where objects
«subsystem» are concernedwithstoringthe data
Data archiving for future processing
Data processinglayerwhereobjects
«subsystem» are concerned with checking and
Data processing integ rating the collected d ata
Data collection layer where objects
«subsystem» are concerned with acquiring data
Data collection from remote sources
Subsystems in the weather mapping system
«subsystem»
Data collection «subsystem»
Data display
Observer Satellite
User
User Map
inter
interface
face display
Comms
Weather Map
Map printer
station Balloon
«subsystem» «subsystem»
Data processing Data archiving
Data
Data
Data Data storage
storage
checking integ ration
Map store Data store
Use-case models
• Use-case models are used to represent each interaction with the
system.
• A use-case model shows the system features as ellipses and the
interacting entity as a stick figure.
Use-cases for the weather station
Star tup
Shutdown
Repor t
Calibrate
Test
Use-case description
System Weather station
Use-case Report
Actors Weather data collection system, Weather station
Data The weather station sends a summary of the weather data that has been
collected from the instruments in the collection period to the weather data
collection system. The data sent are the maximum minimum and average
ground and air temperatures, the maximum, minimum and average air
pressures, the maximum, minimum and average wind speeds, the total
rainfall and the wind direction as sampled at 5 minute intervals.
Stimulus The weather data collection system establishes a modem link with the
weather station and requests transmission of the data.
Response The summarised data is sent to the weather data collection system
Comments Weather stations are usually asked to report once per hour but this
frequency may differ from one station to the other and may be modified in
future.
Architectural design
• Once interactions between the system and its environment have been
understood, you use this information for designing the system architecture.
• A layered architecture as discussed is appropriate for the weather station
• Interface layer for handling communications;
• Data collection layer for managing instruments;
• Instruments layer for collecting data.
• There should normally be no more than 7 entities in an architectural model.
Weather station architecture
Weather station
Manages all
«subsystem»
external
Inter face
communications
Collects and
«subsystem»
summarises
Data collection
weather data
«subsystem» Package of
Instruments instruments for raw
data collections
Object identification
• Identifying objects (or object classes) is the most difficult part of
object oriented design.
• There is no 'magic formula' for object identification. It relies on the
skill, experience
and domain knowledge of system designers.
• Object identification is an iterative process. You are unlikely to get it
right first time.
Approaches to identification
• Use a grammatical approach based on a natural language description of the
system (used in Hood OOD method).
• Base the identification on tangible things in the application domain.
• Use a behavioural approach and identify objects based on what participates in
what behaviour.
• Use a scenario-based analysis. The objects, attributes and methods in each
scenario are identified.
Weather station description
A weather station is a package of software controlled instruments
which collects data, performs some data processing and transmits
this data for further processing. The instruments include air and
ground thermometers, an anemometer, a wind vane, a barometer
and a rain gauge. Data is collected periodically.
When a command is issued to transmit the weather data, the
weather station processes and summarises the collected data. The
summarised data is transmitted to the mapping computer when a
request is received.
Weather station object classes
• Ground thermometer, Anemometer, Barometer
• Application domain objects that are ‘hardware’ objects related to the instruments in the
system.
• Weather station
• The basic interface of the weather station to its environment. It therefore reflects the
interactions identified in the use-case model.
• Weather data
• Encapsulates the summarised data from the instruments.
Weather station object classes
WeatherStatio n WeatherData
identifier airTemper atures
groundT emper atures
repor tWeather ()
windSpeed s
calibrate (instruments)
windDirections
test ()
pressures
star tup (instruments)
rainf all
shutdown (instruments)
collect ()
summarise ()
Ground Anemomet er Baromet er
thermomet er pressure
windSpeed
temper ature windDirection height
test () test ()
test ()
calibr ate () calibr ate ()
Further objects and object refinement
• Use domain knowledge to identify more objects and operations
• Weather stations should have a unique identifier;
• Weather stations are remotely situated so instrument failures have to be reported
automatically. Therefore attributes and operations for self-checking are required.
• Active or passive objects
• In this case, objects are passive and collect data on request rather than autonomously. This
introduces flexibility at the expense of controller processing time.
Design models
• Design models show the objects and object classes and relationships
between these entities.
• Static models describe the static structure of the system in terms of
object classes and relationships.
• Dynamic models describe the dynamic interactions between objects.
Examples of design models
• Sub-system models that show logical groupings of objects into coherent
subsystems.
• Sequence models that show the sequence of object interactions.
• State machine models that show how individual objects change their state in
response to events.
• Other models include use-case models, aggregation models, generalisation
models, etc.
Subsystem models
• Shows how the design is organised into logically related groups of
objects.
• In the UML, these are shown using packages - an encapsulation
construct. This is a logical model. The actual organisation of objects in
the system may be different.
Weather station subsystems
«subsystem» «subsystem»
Inter face Data collection
CommsController WeatherData
Instrument
WeatherStatio n Status
«subsystem»
Instruments
Air
thermometer RainGauge Anemometer
Ground Barometer WindV ane
thermometer
Sequence models
• Sequence models show the sequence of object interactions that take
place
• Objects are arranged horizontally across the top;
• Time is represented vertically so models are read top to bottom;
• Interactions are represented by labelled arrows, Different styles of arrow
represent different types of interaction;
• A thin rectangle in an object lifeline represents the time when the object is
the controlling object in the system.
Data collection sequence
Statecharts
• Show how objects respond to different service requests and the state transitions
triggered by these requests
• If object state is Shutdown then it responds to a Startup() message;
• In the waiting state the object is waiting for further messages;
• If reportWeather () then system moves to summarising state;
• If calibrate () the system moves to a calibrating state;
• A collecting state is entered when a clock signal is received.
Weather station state diagram
Object interface specification
• Object interfaces have to be specified so that the objects and other components
can be designed in parallel.
• Designers should avoid designing the interface representation but should hide
this in the object itself.
• Objects may have several interfaces which are viewpoints on the methods
provided.
• The UML uses class diagrams for interface specification but Java may also be
used.
Weather station interface
interface WeatherStation {
public void WeatherStation () ;
public void startup () ;
public void startup (Instrume nt i) ;
public void shutdown () ;
public void shutdown (Instrument i) ;
public void reportWeather ( ) ;
public void test () ;
public void test ( Instrume nt i ) ;
public void calibrate ( Instrume nt i) ;
public int getID () ;
} //WeatherStation
Design evolution
• Hiding information inside objects means that changes made to an object do not
affect other objects in an unpredictable way.
• Assume pollution monitoring facilities are to be added to weather stations. These
sample the air and compute the amount of different pollutants in the
atmosphere.
• Pollution readings are transmitted with weather data.
Changes required
• Add an object class called Air quality as part of WeatherStation.
• Add an operation reportAirQuality to WeatherStation. Modify the
control software to collect pollution readings.
• Add objects representing pollution monitoring instruments.
Pollution monitoring
WeatherStation
Air quality
identifier
NOData
repor tWeather () smok eData
repor tAirQuality () benz eneData
calibrate (instruments )
test () collect ()
star tup (instruments) summarise ()
shutdown (instruments)
Pollution mo nitoring instruments
NOmeter SmokeMeter
BenzeneMeter
Key points
• OOD is an approach to design so that design components have their own private
state and operations.
• Objects should have constructor and inspection operations. They provide services
to other objects.
• Objects may be implemented sequentially or concurrently.
• The Unified Modeling Language provides different notations for defining different
object models.
Key points
• A range of different models may be produced during an object-
oriented design process. These include static and dynamic system
models.
• Object interfaces should be defined precisely using e.g. a
programming language like Java.
• Object-oriented design potentially simplifies system evolution.
