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The Philosophical Foundations of Educational Research: a Beginner’s Guide

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DOI: 10.12691/education-3-3-10

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American Journal of Educational Research, 2015, Vol. 3, No. 3, 312-317
Available online at http://pubs.sciepub.com/education/3/3/10
© Science and Education Publishing
DOI:10.12691/education-3-3-10

The Philosophical Foundations of Educational Research:

a Beginner’s Guide
Hussein Assalahi*

School of Education, TESOL, University of Exeter, Exeter, UK

*Corresponding author: [email protected]
Received January 18, 2015; Revised February 20, 2015; Accepted March 02, 2015
Abstract This paper aims to provide a concise introduction about the philosophical underpinnings of educational
research. Whilst the philosophies of educational research have been extensively researched, a concise guide is hoped
to uncover research underpinnings for beginners’ postgraduate research students. It overviews the philosophies,
paradigms, basic terminologies and related methodologies of educational research. Moreover, the paper provides
insights into how researchers’ philosophical stance can inform their research undertaking and transform the
educational landscape.
Keywords: paradigm, ontology, epistemology, methodology, quantitative, qualitative, mixed-methods
Cite This Article: Hussein Assalahi, “The Philosophical Foundations of Educational Research: a Beginner’s
Guide.” American Journal of Educational Research, vol. 3, no. 3 (2015): 312-317. doi: 10.12691/education-3-3-10.
design of research. This evolution that research reference
1. Background books detail is not straightforwardly disseminated to be
understood by novice researchers.
Embracing a new vision is no easy undertaking. The Writing this article, therefore, has come as a response to
same holds true for a novice researcher gearing up to take my frustration to understand the basics of research
on anew identity which is challenging enough to be philosophy stimulated by the daunting tasks of reading
pursued within specific time constraints and stressful repeatedly and persistently from huge pile of academic
submission deadlines. As a doctorate freshman, I exactly research. The aim of this paper is to provide brief
remember how perplexed and disappointed I was when I introduction and description of the main constructs of
indulged into extensive reading about educational research. research to beginners in the journey of educational
The reason for my bewilderment was due to, I believe, the research. I will examine three major research paradigms
endless yet painstaking reading lists that I had to go which have dominated the bulk of educational research
through to make myself professionally aware of all that since the middle of the eighteenth century, namely, the
‘philosophies of educational research’ implies. Insofar as positivist, interpretive and critical theories. I will shed
the reading task was long enough to be discouraging, the some light on the history and evolution of eachparadigmin
jargons and terminologies of educational research were terms of ontology, epistemology and methodology.
twice as much annoying. This grievance was to a certain
extent due to the ‘conflict’ that has emerged from the 2. Educational Research and Paradigms
evolution of educational research or as widely recognized
in the literature as the ‘paradigms war’ (Gage, 1989). I Just as there are several assumptions or ‘views of
was desperate to see a ‘survival toolkit’ that would suffice thinking’ about research, there are various underlying
the purpose of at least grasping a true picture of the definitions of research as well. Research is "a systematic
educational research enterprise by a novice reader and method of gaining new information, or a way to answer
researcher. questions" (Gliner& Morgan. 2000, p. 4). Others such as
I think that the hassle for a novice reader stems from Cohen et al (2000), Mackenzie and Knipe (2006), and
the lack of expertise to trace the evolution of what has Midraj et al (2007) define research as a systematic and
come to be known as research paradigms. In particular, controlled enquiry through which data are collected,
beginner researchers’ focus might dwell more on the analysed and interpreted to eliminate difficulties and
fundamentally philosophical question ‘what is the improve conditions. This systematic orientation has
paradigmatic stance of the researcher when conducting generated a number of research methodologies under the
research?’ It could be said that this question might have umbrella of different paradigms. Hence, a research
been sparked after research in social sciences has paradigm is "a cluster of beliefs and dictates which for
undergone dramatic theoretical changes since it has come scientists in a particular discipline influence what should
to being. The domain of theoretical framework diversity be studied, how research should be done, how results
duly inspired "paradigm shifts" which "involve replacing should be interpreted, and so on" (Bryman, 1992, p. 4).
one way of thinking about knowledge and research with Therefore, a ‘paradigm’ implies the philosophical
another incommensurable view" (Donmoyer, 2006, p. 11). positions of researchers about the nature of matter, what
Such a change, in turn, influences the methodology or can be known and how this knowledge can be attained
 American Journal of Educational Research 313

(Clark, 1998). More precisely, Naghton et al in Mackenzie sciences should consider concepts as objective and 'real'
and Knipe (2006)identified three components of a so that they can be deemed verifiable (Cohen et al, 2000).
paradigm; a belief about the nature of knowledge, a Realism, the epistemological assumption of positivism,
methodology and criteria for validity. So, three holds that meanings reside within entities as objective
terminologies demonstrate the foundational constructs of truth and independent of the human mind (Crotty, 1998).
research paradigm and these will be discussed below. That being said, it is implied that researchers should strive
to detach themselves from the reality under investigation
2.1. Ontology, Epistemology and Methodology and distance themselves from those studied in order to
prevent or minimize researcher’s bias. They need to
A philosophical belief or ‘paradigmatic stance’ would
"bracket out their value systems and discover what is, and
prompt researchers’ thinking about the ‘entity’ of
their accounts as a result correspond with that reality in a
phenomena or the ontology. This term refers to the study
straight-forward way" (Scott& Usher, 2011, p. 147).
of being and the nature of the reality (Crotty, 1998; Cohen
Therefore, positivists claim that the researcher seeks to
et al, 2000). The second element that researchers should
explain the reality by means of objective observation,
be made aware of is epistemology which concerns "the
verification and measurement (Anderson, 1998; Midraj et
views about the ways in which social reality ought to be
al, 2007; Clark, 1998).
studied" (Bryman, 1992, p. 5). Specifically, epistemology
In summary, positivists emphasise objectivity when
focuses on the origins and nature of knowing, the
discovering reality. This stance informs methodologies as
construction of knowledge and the relationship between
part of the overall design in the process of inquiry.
the knower and the known (Maykut & Morehouse, 1994).
Empirically speaking, quantitative research aims at
The third construct of a paradigm, methodology, refers
theory testing. This can be accomplished by reviewing
to the study of the epistemological assumptions implicit in
previous research and established theories, and then
specific method which encompass our entire approach to
postulating a hypothesis which informs congruent data
research, our assumptions about nature of knowledge and
collection method(s) and analysis to check whether
the methods of data collection and analysis (DeMarrais&
findings confirm or contradict that theory. Howe (1988)
Lapan, 2004).
draws a clear description of the quantitative researcher’s
To sum up, a paradigm consists of at least three
position in designing his/her study as follows:
elements; ontology, epistemology and methodology.
“The quantitative researcher (rightly or wrongly) is
However, every construct of each paradigm has different
willing to assume much, i.e., that all confounding
connotations depending on the underpinning theoretical
variables have been identified and that the variables of
framework. These issues will be discussed in relation to
interest have validly measured; qualitative researchers
three major research theories; the positivist, interpretive
are also much less interested in actors points of view" P.
and critical paradigms.
12.
2.1.1. Positivistic Paradigm Positivists begin their research process by formulating
hypotheses which are tentative suppositions derived from
Positivism is a stretched terminology of the 'positive' previous theories (Carr & Kemmis, 1986). Central to the
science and 'positive' philosophy which appeared in hypothesis are the concepts or variables that should have
Francis Bacon's writings in the 16th century (Crotty, operational definitions to render them measurable
1998). However, Auguste Comte (1830s) is considered its (Bryman, 1992). Literally, hypotheses should precede data
founder and populariser. Ever since, positivism which collection (Midraj et al, 2007).
dominated the bulk of social research until the 1960s has
emerged as a reaction to metaphysics and theology (Carr 2.1.2. Methodology
& Kemmis, 1986; Cohen et al, 2000). It is based on
Empiricism is the terminology that represents the
universality of laws and emphasizes the existence of
quantitative methodological approaches and designs in
"common reality on which people can agree" (Newman &
social sciences. Positivists assume that they can produce
Benz, 1998, p. 2). Positivism contends that these realities
scientific explanations of the occurrence of events by
are meaningful as long as they are observable, replicable
implementing quantitative approaches or methods of data
and verifiable(Anderson, 1998). Moreover, the methods
collection and analysis through experiment and
and procedures applicable in natural sciences can be
observation or causality principles (Carr & Kemmis, 1986;
utilized in social sciences. Comparatively, positivism
Mackenzie & Knipe, 2006). Newman and Benz
accepts a posited direct experience and verifiable
(1998)reported that quantitative designs include:
knowledge, but rejects whatever abstract, subjective or
"Experimental studies, quasi-experimental studies,
metaphysical (Crotty, 1998). Logical positivists "give
pretest-postest designs, and others (Campbell & Stanley,
meaning to statements by methods of its verification", and
1963), where control of variables, randomization, valid
that researchers observe human behaviouras external,
and reliable measures are required and where
repetitive and predictable by forming hypothesis, and
generalizability from the sample to the population is the
applying scientific methods to form law-like
aim. Data in quantitative studies are coded according to a
generalizations (Cohen et al, 2000, p. 8).
priori operational and standardized definitions" (P. 10).
The ontological assumptions underpinning positivism
[Italics added].
pertain to the existence of independent realities outside the
The tenets of positivism then emphasize the fact that
mind (Crotty, 1998). Objectivism is the term generally
knowledge is observable and therefore measurable in
used to describe the ontological stance of positivism. To
ways identical or, to a lesser extent, similar to pure
call anything ‘real’ means it is out there detached from the
scientific experiments, i.e. truth can be verified via
individuals. Positivists claim that researchers in social
scientific or quasi-scientific methods. To this end,
314 American Journal of Educational Research

positivist researchers should be aware of distinctions Positivism has been considered as the foundation on
between methodological designs and methods to be used. which social sciences were distinguished against the
Quantitative methodologies define the approach which dominant metaphysical grip. Issues such as precession,
inform data collection methods and analyses. The next clarity and scientific thinking were substantially
section will discern two of the most widely used research introduced to explain the occurrence of a phenomenon.
methodologies in quantitative research; survey and However, a number of critiques can be levelled against
experimental designs (Bryman, 1992; Wallen & Fraenkle, positivism. First, as far as ontology is concerned, it goes
2001; Denscombe, 2007). without saying that entities exist outside the mind, but
conceptually they are inseparable parts of our
2.1.2.1. Surveys Designs consciousness because we attach meaning to them as well.
In line with the worldview of positivism, survey design In addition, it is impossible to reach agreement and cast
entail empiricist verification of theoretical positions by generalisations over a social behaviour as humans have
studying a “phenomenon comprehensively and in detail” different perceptions. Therefore, reality is an ambiguous
(Denscombe, 2007, p. 7). Under survey, quantitative and contradictory tenet of positivism, especially in the
methodologies represent terms such as correlational, realm of social sciences. Second, the paradoxical tenets of
cross-sectional, and explanatory research. In this regards, positivism get more intense when it comes to
data collection from samples of large populations can be epistemology. The detachment of the researcher from the
attained by using questionnaires which are basically truth or the 'value free' observation is conceivable in
batteries of questions that measure the main variables natural but not social sciences. This assumption turns a
(dependent and independent) to determine whether blind eye on humanistic dimensions of research
correlations exist or not. Other methods include participants. Positivistic researchers tend to visualise
observation and structured interviews which also try to research participants as simply ‘objects’ whose roles are
explain human behaviour and predict likely outcomes. restricted to elicitation of information or participating in
quasi-experimental designs. In this regard, positivism
2.1.2.2. Quasi-Experimental Designs appears to be oblivious to the creativeness of human
Another postulation of positivism, which is rooted in beings by objectifying their actions into observable and
the extreme view of pure sciences, is to provide rational generalizable behaviours. Moreover, positivism cannot
explanation of the occurrence of phenomena which can be stand for the differences between individuals with regards
achieved by means of experimentation. Under this to meaning making. For example, teachers and students
category, experimental or quasi-experimental designs have different perceptions about a learning or teaching
could be used as the underlying methodologies (Scott & concept. Consequently, their behaviours cannot be
Usher, 2011). To comply with objectivity, researchers governed because of different conceptualizations.
should pay close attention to issues such as assigning two Positivists’ obsession with generalization is untenable
research groups randomly; one is experimental that since different phenomenon have different meanings in
undergoes stimulus or independent variable whereas the different contexts. Thus, depression may denote suicide in
other is the control group that remain intact and do not one context, but may simply mean a matter of having a
undergo experimentation. This way, it is assumed that glass of wine in other situations, or a need for
human behaviour would be objectively investigated via empowerment through spiritual, ritual and religious
causation, causality and outcomes could successfully be practices. Finally, a serious assumption about positivism is
predicted, explained and generalized. that by means of precision it implies the establishment of
The emphasis of positivism on objectivity and generalizable certainties and ‘objective truths’ (Crotty,
measurability in research is due to its obsession with 1998).
generalizations. Positivist researchers generalize internally; To conclude, whilst positivism has served social
within the sample, and externally; across other contexts. sciences research, claiming and generalizing objective
This can be achieved through random sampling of large truths have been strongly challenged. Additionally,
populations and careful consideration of validity and reducing the essence of human beings to a set of
reliability issues (Midraj et al, 2007). A measure is said to controlled, predictable and governed behaviours is not
be valid if it "measures what it purports to measure" tenable and conceivable in social sciences. Such criticisms
(Cohen et al, 2000, p. 105). Issues such as "careful gave rise to the interpretivist theory which will be
sampling, appropriate instrumentation and appropriate introduced next.
statistical treatments of the data" reflect the validity of
quantitative research. Reliability, on the other hand, refers 2.2. Interpretive Paradigm
to the "consistency of a measure" (Bryman, 1992, p. 29). Interpretivism has come to light after the withering
There are two types of consistency; internal and time criticisms that have been levelled at positivism in the
consistency. The former relates to the coherence of a scale. 1960s (Carr&Kemmis, 1986); mainly its ignorance of the
The latter is concerned with measure's consistency over social factors that distinguish human beings. The founder
time; applied more than one time. A third significant party of interpretivism, Max Weber, a German sociologist,
to reliability and validity is triangulation which is the "use greatly influenced the social theory by refuting positivism
of two or more methods of data collection in the study of and substituting scientific with social philosophies
some aspect of human behaviour" (Cohen et al, 2000, p. (interpretive) in meaning construction (Crotty, 1998).
112). So, the more data collection methods there are, the Unlike positivists, interpretivists are concerned with
more valid and reliable the research will be "understanding the subjective world of the human
experience" (Cohen et al, 2000, p. 22). Human behaviours
2.1.3. Criticisms of Positivism
 American Journal of Educational Research 315

cannot be explained by merely implementing methods of on the common interpretive approaches in educational
natural sciences. Rather, as part of our consciousness and research.
due to our interaction with the world in which we live,
behaviours can be understood by researchers only via 2.2.4. Ethnography
those who perform them and the context in which they Ethnography literally means "descriptions of people or
occur. Thus, interpretivist researchers concentrate on cultures" (Descombe, 2003, p. 84). From an
qualitative rather than quantitative aspects or relationships epistemological point of view, it is crucial for
(Wallen & Fraenkel, 2001). ethnographers to understand the social behaviour from the
Subjectivism(or relativism) as the ontological stance of perspectives of research participants (Fattermanl, 2008). As
interpretivism views reality as multiple and relative. For a research methodology, ethnography gives the researcher
interpretivists, reality is "a social construct, multiple that the chance to gain deeper insights of the lives of the studied
embraces multiple interpretations"(Newman & Benz, groups or individuals in order to, as Malinowski (1922) in
1998, p. 2). Reality is part of the mind even if entities are Denscombe (2007) put it, " realize [their] vision of [their]
external because they are created and given meaning world" (P. 62). However, it should be recognized that this
through our perceptions. Crotty (1998) indicates that "the realization should be "holistic" by relating it to the socio-
term human being means being in the world" (P. 45). cultural context in which it exists. The findings represent
As far as epistemology is concerned, Constructionism the researcher’s interpretation of informants’ perceptions
(and social constructionism) is the term that generally and their experiences of the phenomenon under
represents interpretivists’ philosophical stance. investigation. Excerpts of the participant's discourse and
Interpretivsts believe that knowledge is constructed via the their analysis should be provided. In general, gaining deeper
participants. That is to say, participants are considered insights about the phenomenon is usually emphasized over
active knowers who understand and reflect on the social how representative the sample is.
phenomena. Researchers can mutually attain an
understanding of the phenomenon under investigation by 2.2.5. Phenomenology
interpreting the intentions of those involved (Cohen et al, The term phenomenology was developed by Hussler
2000). Additionally, researchers work as part of rather (1970) and refers to the raw knowledge we have about a
than detached from the research where "knowledge is situation, an idea or experience. It also means "describing
jointly constructed between researchers and their things as one experiences them" (O'Donoghue& Punch,
collaborators" (Dunne et al, 2005, p. 15). 2003, p. 45). it is concerned with daily situations or events
that are usually regarded trivial and mundane, but only
2.2.1. Design
according to the understandings of those involved can we
Qualitative research aims to understand and uncover portray their interpretations faithfully to turn what might
what is going on in a social context. Hence, it is concerned have been trivial into something meaningful. As such,
with "observing and interpreting reality with the aim of phenomenology considers in multiple realities that can be
developing a theory that will explain what was understood, interpreted and constructed through
experienced" (Newman & Benz, 1998, p. 3). The essence communicating directly with those participants and others
of research depends on the situation being studied. within the society to gain deeper insights into their lived
Therefore, the research has no specific structure (Howe, experiences about the phenomena under study. Another
1988). Rather, it may change over time according to the difference relies in phenomenology’s focus on how the
emergent phenomena. events get interpreted by others rather than on only
describing what is going on in a situation (Denscombe,
2.2.2. Methodology 2007).
There are different types of qualitative methodologies
and research designs. However, there are common 2.2.6. Case Study
features of the interpretive methodological designs which It is one of the common research designs used by
can be distinguished from other research designs (Wallen interpretivists in small scale studies which focus on
& Fraenkle, 2001): individual cases, in their natural course of action, to be
1. Qualitative researchers are interested in exploring studied in depth and detail (Denscombe, 2007). It aims at
and describing the contextualized social reality through uncovering the reasons behind the occurrence of a thing
the eyes of the participants. and discerning the interrelated factors. Quite significantly,
2. Deeper understanding, by means of collecting and case studies allow the use of more than one data collection
categorizing, of data and actions of participants is sought method such as documents, interviews, and questionnaires
rather than generalizing. (Anderson, 1998; Denscombe, 2007).
3. Through observation of purposive sample, we can The essential task for interpretivist researchers is to
choose the suitable questions and design. convince their readers about the extent to which their
4. Detailed descriptions of the results of underlying research make up a robust inquiry. In other words,
patterns of the collected data should entail the study. researchers in qualitative research should demonstrate the
5. Although generalization is not the aim, validity "goodness" or "soundness", "trustworthiness" and
(trustworthiness) and reliability (dependability) should be "credibility” of their research study (Miller, 2008, p. 909).
established so that the reader is convinced of the findings This can be sustained throughout the research by taking
of the study. into consideration issues such as representative excerpts of
So, there are a number of interpretive methodologies analysed data, sufficient sampling, self-reflection,
that are worth exploring. However, I will shed some light theoretical thinking, peer-review and member check (ibid).
316 American Journal of Educational Research

2.2.7. Criticisms of the Interpretive Paradigm With regards to epistemology, Habermasstated that
Interpretivism has gained momentum in social sciences knowledge has three components: “prediction and control,
since it foregrounds researchers’ subjectivity in the understanding and interpretation, emancipation and
phenomenon. However, several shortcomings can be freedom" (Cohen et al, 2000, 29).From this perspective,
pointed out. First, there are chances for high partiality knowledge in critical theory subsumes positivism, as
levels of the researcher since his role is more subjective. regards natural objects, meanwhile include sinterpretivism,
Second, once the researcher is involved in a research as regards communication, and aims further to unpack
undertaking, it is no more natural as posited by hidden interests. However, the researcher's role is
interpretivists. Therefore, researchers may inevitably participatory, socially and politically oriented (Cohen et al,
influence the whole intervention. On the other hand, by 2000; Kemmis, 1986).
relying on participants’ single accounts researchers might
find it difficult to sustain trustworthiness and 3.1. Methodology
dependability of the research inquiry. Third, it does not Critical research project begins with a study of culture
find currency in pragmatic situations where solutions to using hermeneutic reconstructive methodology (Phil,
social issues and generalisations are desired. Hence, it is 2008). Critical theorists, then, may merge the positivistic
perceived as only theoretical not practical. These "rigorous, causal explanation" features with the
criticisms gave rise to the practical and political or interpretivist hermeneutic methods into a more practical
emancipatory oriented paradigm, which will follow. and "self-reflective" action that helps individuals
determine, explain and eliminate historical causes of their
frustration (Carr & Kemmis, 1986, p. 136). Critical theory,
3. Critical Theory then, should come up with a method which "attempts to
distil the historical processes which have caused
Critical theory came contrary to, and goes beyond
subjective meanings to become systematically distorted"
positivistic and interpretive theories where their focus is
(ibid).In this regard, action research is widely recognized
on technical and hermeneutic knowledge respectively
as a methodological design which demonstrate tenets of
(Carr & Kemmis, 1986; crotty, 1998; Cohen et al, 2000).
critical theory.
For the critical theory, status change and ‘ideology
Action research is "a form of self-reflective enquiry
critique’ are among its paramount goals. In other words,
undertaken by participants in social situations in order to
“understanding and challenging the workings of ideology
improve the rationality and justice for their own practices,
has been a dominant concern, one often expressed as
their understanding of these practices, and the situations in
'ideology critique" (Brookfield, 2005, p. 42). One of its
which the practices are carried out" (Carr & Kemmis,
great contributions is bridging the gap between theory and
1986, p. 162).According to Cohen et al (2000) and
practice in educational research. That is to say, critical
Somekh (2008), Kurt Lewin is recognised as the founder
theorists posit that objectivity in positivism does not say
of action research. In order to have their voices heard and
much about the educational problems because it prescribes
their problems solved, teachers, individuals, groups and
generalized solutions. Interpretivism, on the other hand, is
the like should undertake action research. However, it is
not "in itself sufficient" because the knowledge that it
mainly collaborative, systematic and reflective.
justifies might sustain some form of false beliefs and thus
Additionally, it is commenced by those who feel
sets to transform consciousness not practice (Ingram &
suppressed so that they can uncover their repressed
Simon-Ingram, 1992). So, it is the responsibility of the
identities and the hidden powers that cause their
critical theory to emancipate people from such repressive
subjugation.
and taken for granted ideas (Carr & Kemmis, 1986, p.
Having introduced action research in critical theory,
129). Its principal intentions are two fold; political and
there is no such prototype for action research methodology.
transformative. The former is concerned with
However, action research uses "eclectic methodologies"
emancipating and empowering educationalists;
with case study being the most dominant (Cohen et al, 2000,
emancipation from the power agendas imposed on them.
p. 228). This diversity of methodologies stems from the fact
Hence, critical theory depicts those imposed interests and
that action research utilised qualitative methodologies by
questions their legitimacy with regards to equality and
dying it with scientific rationality of the quantitative
democratic orientations (Carr & Kemmis). On the other
methodology in order determine the causes and eliminate
hand, critical theory is transformative in the sense that it’
problems through systematic dialogue or discourse. By and
seeks to "transform the society and individuals to social
large, action research should start by identifying a problem,
democracy" (Cohen et al, 2000, p. 28).
planning solutions, then implementing and evaluating such
Ontologically speaking, the reality represented by
solutions to in an attempt to emancipate participants.
critical theory is not easily identified. Jones (2001)
Finally, issues of validity and reliability in action
contends that "critical theory is not characterized by a
research are of high importance. Validity in action research
commitment to a particular epistemology or to a specific
refers to the pragmatic nature of research; how applicable
ontology" (P. 9). However, a crucial characteristic of
and emancipatory the research is. So, a valid research is one
reality can be elucidated as part of our interests (Ingram&
that portrays the ideas of the oppressed to be empowered.
Simon-Ingram, 1992). A more important feature of critical
Phill (2008) best describes indicators of validity in
reality is that it simultaneously recognizes the existence of
educational research as the participants’ recognition of their
knowledge independent of humans but also acknowledges
own and the researcher's interpretation of the implicit
the socially embedded and fallible nature of scientific
cultural milieu. In this case, reliability issues in critical
inquiry(Clark, 2010).
theory, then, echo those of the interpretive paradigm.
 American Journal of Educational Research 317

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