Questions to Think About

• Stress and strain: What are they and why are they used
instead of load and deformation?
• Elastic behavior: When loads are small, how much
deformation occurs? What materials deform least?
• Plastic behavior: At what point do dislocations cause
permanent deformation? What materials are most
resistant to permanent deformation?
• Toughness and ductility: What are they and how do we
measure them?

1
 ASTM E8M
Tensile Test Tensile testing
standard

Standart Dog
Bone specimen

Schematic Tensile Test a) Cylindirical tensile

Machine and its components test specimen
such as;
Extensometer, load cell.

b) Plate tensile test 2

specimen
Important Mechanical Properties
from a Tensile Test – Basic Datas

• Young's Modulus: This is the slope of the linear portion

of the stress-strain curve, it is usually specific to each
material; a constant, known value.
• Yield Strength: This is the value of stress at the yield
point, calculated by plotting young's modulus at a
specified percent of offset (usually offset = 0.2%).
• Ultimate Tensile Strength: This is the highest value of
stress on the stress-strain curve.
• Percent Elongation: This is the change in gauge length
divided by the original gauge length.

4
 Terminology
 Load - The force applied to a material during testing.
 Strain gage or Extensometer - A device used for
measuring change in length (strain).
 Engineering stress - The applied load, or force,
divided by the original cross-sectional area of the
material.
 Engineering strain - The amount that a material
deforms per unit length in a tensile test.
Tensile Testing
Used in order to determine the strenght and mechanical behaviours
of materials under the axial loads.

Typical Load – Displacement plot after tensile

test

Test Results

6
Testing machine
Stress – Strain Curve Where;

F: Applied axial load [N]

A0 :Initial cross sectional
area

F
 N/mm2 = MPa
 : Stress
Ao  : Strain


l l  lo
 
lo lo
Where;
F-L (Force - Elongation) Stress – Strain (-) Curve
curve ε: strain using F- L datas
l: Final lenght after load
l0: Initial lenght 7
 F, Load
A, Cross Section
Area
F

Ao

L0 Initial
Lenght Lf Final
Lenght

Before Test

l l  lo
  F, Load
lo lo
After Test
 Elastic Necking
Region
Plastic Region
σ<σy σ>σy

 Homogenous
Plastic Region
Heterogenous
Plastic region
uts
x
Yield Point
(Yield Strenght)

y = 0.2 x
Tensile Strenght
(starting point of
x necking) Fracture
Elastic
Limit
Applied stress < yield stress = elastic deformation
Applied stress > yield stress = elastic deformation + plastic
deformation

 9
0.002
Different curves due to yielding point

Typical stress – strain curve Typical stress – strain curve showing the
yielding point

0.2
y Yielding
For the curves that do Point
NOT have certain yielding
point. 0.2 : y Low-carbon steels
C, N interstitial atoms hinder the
dislocation motions.
Luders bands.

p =0.002 = % 0.2
.
e 10
Elastic Deformation (Reversible
Deformation)

σapplied < σyield

11
Elastic 
deformation
t
(σ<σy) f
0.2=y

Plastic Region


0.002
Elastic
deformation
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload
(σ<σy) bonds
stretch

return to
initial

F
• Elastic means reversible.

• Elastic deformation causes bonds streching only.

• After unloading atoms returns the initial positions.

13
Elastic Deformation σ<σy

E, Young’s
Modulus
Mpa or GPa
E=tanα = Δσ/Δε
Elongation of atomic bondings in elastic
deformations. 14
Elastic Deformation
• In elastic deformation region, Hooke’s Law is valid.
• Stress is changed linearly with strain. (See the relationship between bonding
force and distance (a))
• Test sample returns its original shape and size upon removal of the load.
• E, Young’s Modulus is equal to the slope of elastic region.
• A characteristic property
• As the young’s modulus increase, material is more RIGID which means less
deformation occurs under the load.

15
Hooke’s Law

Says that the displacement or

size of the deformation is
directly proportional to the
Normal stress
deforming force or load.

  E 
 = Normal stress
 = Strain
E = Young’s Modulues
16
Problem.
Consider a Cu rod with the length of 305 mm under the stress applied by 276 Mpa.
For the elastic region calculate the elongation taking the young’s modulus of Cu
11 × 104 𝑀𝑃𝑎.

Solution.

Hooke’s Law in elastic region…

Parameters affecting Young’s Modulus, E:

• Chemical Composition,
• Temperature,

Est > EAl

T E
18
Comparison of Young’s Modulus due to Material
Types
Poisson’s Ratio

x  y 
      (izotropik materialsde) 
malzemeler
For isotropic
z  z 

• Poisson’s Ratio is the another characteristic parameter that influences elastic

properties.
• Volume of the materials changes during the elastic deformation while it remains
constant for plastic deformation.
• Extension occurs in the load direction as shortening appears in the
20
perpendicular direction.
Poisson’s Ratio cont.
For uniaxial loading For 3 axial(multiaxial) loading
𝜎𝑥 1
εx = εx = [𝜎𝑥 − 𝜐. (𝜎𝑦 + 𝜎𝑧 )
𝐸 𝐸

𝜎𝑥 1
εy = −𝜐. 𝜀𝑥 = −𝜐 εy = [𝜎𝑦 − 𝜐. (𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑧 )
𝐸 𝐸

𝜎𝑥 1
εz = −𝜐. 𝜀𝑥 = −𝜐 εz = [𝜎𝑧 − 𝜐. (𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 )
𝐸 𝐸
Poisson’s Ratio cont.
• Poisson’s Ratio varies 0.28 - 0.32 for metals. In general it is assumed
to be 0.3. (Elastic Region).
• For plastic deformation, volume change is constant therefore
poisson’s ratio is accepted as 0.5.

22
 Linear Elastic Properties
• Hooke's Law: =E

• Poisson's ratio:   x/y

metals:  ~ 0.33
ceramics:  ~0.25
polymers:  ~0.40

Modulus of Elasticity, E:
(Young's modulus)

Units:
E: [GPa] or [psi]
: dimensionless 23
Problem 2.
From the data in table below, calculate the modulus of
elasticity of the aluminum alloy.

= ~69 GPa
Problem: Young’s Modulus - Aluminum Alloy - continued

• Use the modulus to determine the length after deformation of

a bar of initial length of 50 in.
• Assume that a level of stress of 30,000 psi is applied.
Problem.

Consider applying a tensile test to a cylindirical brass rod with diameter of 10 mm. For the
elastic deformation of the specimen calculate the force or load in order to have a change in
diameter by 2.5 × 10−3 𝑚𝑚.
Attention!!! Negative
because decrease in
Given. diameter during test
occurs
𝐸𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑠𝑠 = 10.1 × 104 𝑀𝑃𝑎

ν : 0.35
Resillience
• The quantity of energy the material can
absorb without suffering damage or yield in
elastic region.

• Resillience values are important especially

for springs that have to return to its original
shape after loading.

1 1 𝜎𝑦2
Resillience = 𝜎 𝜀 =
2 𝑦 𝑦 2 𝐸
Plastic Deformation (Permanent
Deformation)

σapplied > σyield

 Heterogenous
Homogenous Plastic Plastic
Deformation (strain Deformation after
hardening / section Necking Starting Point UTS (non uniform
shrinkage balance) section shrinkage)

t

0.2= y σ>σy Failure

(Fracture)

 29
0.002
Plastic Deformation (Metals)
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload

linear linear
Plastic means permanent. elastic elastic

plastic 30
Plastic Deformation (Permanent Deformation)
• Plastic deformation for metals is accomplished by means of a process
called slip, which involves the motion of dislocations.
• Most structures are designed to ensure that only elastic deformation
results when stress is applied.
• A structure that has plastically deformed, or experienced a permanent
change in shape, may not be capable of functioning as intended.
.• From an atomic perspective, plastic deformation corresponds to the
breaking of bonds with original atom neighbors and then reforming
bonds with new neighbors.
• After removal of the stress, the large number of atoms that have
relocated, do not return to original position.
• Yield strength is a measure of resistance to plastic deformation
31
Yield Strength

Yields strength is a point where permanent deformation

occurs. (If it is passed, the material will no longer return to
its original length.)

Typical stress-strain behavior for a metal showing elastic and

plastic deformations, the proportional limit P and the yield
strength σy, as determined using the 0.002 (0.2%) strain offset
method (where there is noticeable plastic deformation). P is the
gradual elastic to plastic transition.

32
 Stress – Strain Curve – A special case

• Stress-strain behavior found for

some steels with yield point
phenomenon or discontinuous
yielding.
• The elastic-plastic transition is Luders
very well defined and occurs Bands
abruptly in what is termed as
a yield point phenomenon.
• Occurs especially in low and mid
c-steels as a result of COTTREL
atmosphere includes C and N
atoms that hinder the dislocation
motion.

33
Yield Strength: Comparison

Room T values
a = annealed
hr = hot rolled
ag = aged
cd = cold drawn
cw = cold worked
qt = quenched & tempered

34
35
Uniform Plastic Deformation

• The area between the yield point and the necking starting point in  - 
curve.
• In plastic deformation, material lenght increase consistently.
• Material volume remains constant. Because increment in lenght is equal to
decrease in cross section.
• Strain hardening occurs after yielding point as a result of dislocation
increment in microstucture of metals.
• Therefore higher stress values are required for deformation with strain
hardening.

36
Strain Hardening
Within the region of the stress – strain
curve between Y.S and T.S., plastic
deformation produces dislocations, and
further plastic deformation is made more
diffucult by the increasing DISLOCATION
DENSITY. This phenomenon is referred to
as STRAIN HARDENING.

Important in shaping metals by cold

working.
Stress-Strain Diagram - Tensile Strength and Necking
ultimate
tensile Necking starting point
strength 3
 UTS Heterogenous plastic deformation
Strain
yield Hardening Fracture
strength
y 5
2
Elastic region
Plastic slope =Young’s (elastic) modulus
Region yield strength
Plastic region
ultimate tensile strength
Elastic
strain hardening
Region fracture
σ Eε 1 4
Strain (  ) (L/Lo)
σ σy
E E
ε ε 2  ε1
Tensile Strength, TS
• After yielding, the stress necessary to continue
plastic deformation in metals increases to a
maximum point (M) and then decreases to the
eventual fracture point (F).
• All deformation up to the maximum stress is
uniform throughout the tensile sample.
• However, at max stress, a small constriction or
neck begins to form.
• Subsequent deformation will be confined to
this neck area.
• Fracture strength corresponds to the stress at
fracture.
Region between M and F:
• Metals: occurs when noticeable necking starts.
• Ceramics: occurs when crack propagation starts.
• Polymers: occurs when polymer backbones are aligned and about to break. 39
Necking – Ultimate tensile strength –
Heterogenous plastic deformation

Necking
Tensile Strength: Comparison

Room T values
Based on data in Table B4, Callister 6e.
a = annealed
hr = hot rolled
ag = aged
cd = cold drawn
cw = cold worked
qt = quenched & tempered
AFRE, GFRE, & CFRE =
aramid, glass, & carbon
fiber-reinforced epoxy
composites, with 60 vol%
fibers.

41
T
E
N
S
I
L
E

P
R
O
P
E
R
T
I
E
S 42
43
HETEROGENOUS PLASTIC
DEFORMATION
• Region between necking starting point and fracture point in the  - 
curve.
• After Ultimate Tensile Strength,
– materials have unstable plastic deformation,
– cross section of the material starts to decrease in a specific region,
– necking occurs,
– The load for deformation decerases so that the curve continues decreasing
– Finally material failure happens.

44
Fracture Behaviours
Fracture Behaviours
Ductility, %EL
Ductility is a measure of the plastic l f  lo
deformation that has been sustained % EL  x100
at fracture: lo

A material that suffers

very little plastic
deformation is brittle. Ao  A f
• Another ductility measure: % AR  x100
Ao
• Ductility may be expressed as either percent elongation (% plastic strain at fracture) or percent
reduction in area.

• %AR > %EL is possible if internal voids form in neck. 47

Fracture Behaviours
Failure Types

• Localized deformation of a ductile material during a tensile test produces a necked

region.
• The image shows necked region in a fractured sample (cup and cone fracture)
Fracture Behaviours
Fracture Behaviours
Toughness
Lower toughness: ceramics
Higher toughness: metals
• Toughness is the ability to
absorb energy up to fracture
(energy per unit volume of material).

• A “tough” material has

strength and ductility.

• Approximated by the area

under the stress-strain
curve.

52
Example: The stress–strain diagram for an aluminum alloy that is used for making aircraft parts is
shown below. If a specimen of this material is stressed to 600 MPa, determine the permanent
strain that remains in the specimen when the load is released.
Solution
Solution
Stress – Strain curves for different materials
Stress – Strain Curves for Plastics
For polymers different from metals, stress value increase in heterogenous
plastic region.

57
 In an undeformed
thermoplastic polymer
tensile sample,
(a) the polymer chains are
randomly oriented.
(b) When a stress is
applied, a neck
develops as chains
become aligned locally.
The neck continues to
grow until the chains
in the entire gage
length have aligned.
(c) The strength of the
polymer is increased

58
True Stress-True Strain Values

• For practical calculations Engineering stress and strain values are used
in order to have stress – strain curve taking the cross section area
constant.
• In real life during the tensile test the cross section of the materials are
reduced consistently. (Volume Constant). Test datas obtained by this
way are the TRUE values
• TRUE Stress – TRUE strain values are calculated using these true
datas.
• TRUE values are used especially in metal forming applications. (Flow
Curves)
59
True Stress and True Strain
 True stress The load divided by the actual cross-sectional
area of the specimen at that load.
 True strain The strain calculated using actual and not
original dimensions

•The relation between the true stress-true

strain diagram and engineering stress-
engineering strain diagram.

•The curves are identical to the yield point.

Equilibrium between Engineering Stress – True
Stress and Engineering Strain – True Strain

True Strain
Engineering Strain
dl
d g 
l l  lo l l
These equations can be used    1 l
lo lo lo
up to necking  dl
 g    ln
l
l l lo
  1 lo
lo
 g  ln(  1)

True stress can be related to Volume Constant A  l  A  l  A  A  lo

o o o
the engineering stress if we l
assume that there is no
volume change in the True Stress
Engineering Stress
  g  F  F  l    (1   )
specimen. F

Ao A Ao  lo 61
Difference between Eng.Stress-
Strain and True Stress-Strain Curves

4’
x
3’ x x x 4
2’ x x 3
1’ x 2
1
• No difference in Elastic Region.
• Diffenrece occurs after yielding point.

62
Strain Hardening Exponent (n)

• Hollomon Equation…

𝜎𝑡 = 𝐾𝜀𝑡𝑛

l n( 𝜎𝑡 ) = 𝑙𝑛𝐾 + 𝑛𝑙𝑛𝜀𝑡

n=0 n=0.15 n=0.4 *malleable means ductilce

t t t material.

t t r 63
Finding Strain hardening exponent (n) and strength
coefficient (K)
• Hollomon Equation…

𝜎𝑡 = 𝐾𝜀𝑡𝑛

l n( 𝜎𝑡 ) = 𝑙𝑛𝐾 + 𝑛𝑙𝑛𝜀𝑡

• Draw logσt – logεt

• Slope is equal to «n» exponent
• K is equal to the value of strenght to have εt = 1
Strain Hardening (n, K or C values)

65
Problem.

Stress – strain curve is given below for a brass

specimen. Find;

• Young’s modulus
• 0.2% yielding strength
• Max. Load (force) for the cylindirical
specimen with the initial diameter 12.8 mm.
• Elongation under the stress of 345 Mpa.
Solution.
Young’s Modulus can be determined
a) approximately from the slope of detailed
curve if you do NOT have any value.

b) Yield strength is 250 Mpa.

c)

d) For the stress of 345 Mpa from the curve

the strain value is approximately equal to 0.06.
the displacement can be calculated by the
equation.
Homework : Tensile Testing of Aluminum Alloy

Using the data below draw the engineering stress

and strain curve and find;

• Young’s modulus
• Yield Strength
• Tensile strength
• Fracture strength
• Maximum elongation
• Show the necking point
• Convert the change in length data in the table
to engineering stress and strain and plot a
stress-strain curve.