Pacu (Piaractus mesopotamicus)

Piaractus mesopotamicus, commonly known as pacu, is occasionally referred to as a "monster

fish" or "toothed fish" due to its large size and distinctive dentition. Unlike many other fish, pacu
possesses square, flat teeth that closely resemble human molars, adapted for crushing nuts and
plant material in its natural diet (Froese & Pauly, 2017).

Morphologically, P. mesopotamicus is robust, with an ovoid body laterally compressed. It

exhibits a dark grey to silver coloration, accompanied by a white belly and a yellow breast
(Froese & Pauly, 2017). It can be distinguished from its congener, Piaractus brachypomus, by its
smaller scale size and a higher number of lateral scales—usually more than 110 (OPEFE, 2011;
Nico, Fuller, & Neilson, 2013).

Pacu is a fish species with an omnivorous eating habit, which could be reared on a BFT system
at least in its juvenile phase as a strategy to increase its growth performance, reducing production
costs. In addition, its fillet is highly appreciated by the consumer market (Nitz et al. 2019).

Scientific Classification
Domain Eukaryota
Kingdom Animalia
Phylum Chordata
Class Actinopterygii
Order Characiformes
Family Serrasalmidae
Genus Piaractus
Species P. mesopotamicus

Binomial Name: Piaractus mesopotamicus (ITIS, 2006)

Conservation Status: Near Threatened (Brejão, 2023)

Size:
This species can grow up to 62 cm (2.03 ft) in length and reach a weight of 20 kg (44 lb) (Froese
& Pauly, 2017; Nico & Loftus, 2012).

Average life span:

Studies indicate that pacu can live up to 15 years in their natural habitats, such as the Paraguay-
Paraná River basin, where environmental fluctuations influence mortality and growth rates
(Brejão, 2023). Factors such as predation and seasonal flooding also impact survival and
longevity.
In controlled aquaculture systems, with optimal water quality and nutrition, pacu can reach an
average life span of 10 to 12 years (Gomes et al., 2021).

Geography:

Piaractus mesopotamicus—commonly known as the small-scaled pacu, Paraná River pacu, or

simply pacu—is a ray-finned fish native to the Paraguay-Paraná River basin in South America,
encompassing countries like Brazil, Argentina, Bolivia, Paraguay, and Uruguay. (Froese &
Pauly, 2017; Brejão, 2023). Due to aquaculture activities, it has been introduced to other regions,
including parts of Asia (Pires et al., 2023).In its native habitat, it is also referred to as pacú chato,
pez chato (“flat fish”), or mbiraí-piraí (Mulca, 2013).

Toxicological profile:

Pacu has been studied for bioaccumulation of heavy metals such as mercury (Hg), cadmium
(Cd), and lead (Pb) in different tissues. Studies have found that the liver and gills accumulate the
highest levels of heavy metals, which can impair enzymatic activities and reduce immune
responses (Sant’Anna et al., 2020). Chronic exposure to heavy metals leads to oxidative stress
and histopathological changes.

The impact of agricultural runoff containing pesticides like organophosphates and carbamates
has been documented in pacu. Sublethal exposure causes neurotoxic effects, including decreased
swimming activity, altered feeding behavior, and hematological disruptions (Silva et al., 2019).
These effects reduce growth and increase mortality under stressful aquaculture conditions.

Ammonia and nitrite, common in intensive aquaculture systems, are toxic to pacu at elevated
concentrations. Elevated total ammonia nitrogen (TAN) impairs gill function and oxygen uptake,
leading to reduced growth and survival rates (Angeles‐Escobar et al., 2022). Biofloc technology
has been investigated as a strategy to mitigate these toxins by promoting microbial assimilation.

Pacu shows moderate tolerance to some pollutants but serves as a bioindicator species for
freshwater ecosystem health. Biomarkers such as increased antioxidant enzyme activities
(superoxide dismutase, catalase) and lipid peroxidation levels have been used to assess exposure
and stress (Santos et al., 2021).
Growth rate:

The growth rate of Piaractus mesopotamicus is influenced by environmental conditions, diet,

sex, and culture system.

A study on pacu populations in the Cuiabá River, Brazil, estimated asymptotic length (L∞) and
growth coefficient (K) using the von Bertalanffy growth function. Females showed an L∞ of
approximately 59.23 cm standard length (SL) with a growth coefficient (K) of 0.14 year ⁻¹,
whereas males exhibited an L∞ of about 50.00 cm SL and K = 0.18 year ⁻¹, indicating faster
growth but smaller maximum size in males (Gomes et al., 2021).

Sexual dimorphism influences growth rates, with females generally attaining larger sizes but
growing more slowly than males, as demonstrated in several population studies (Gomes et al.,
2021).

In biofloc aquaculture systems, pacu juveniles demonstrated enhanced growth rates due to
improved water quality and supplemental microbial protein from bioflocs.

Pires et al. (2022) conducted a study to determine the optimal dietary protein level for juvenile
pacu in a biofloc environment. The results suggested that a diet with approximately 310 g/kg CP
(268 g/kg digestible protein) optimized growth performance and feed conversion efficiency
without adverse effects on fish health. (Pires et al., 2022). Supplementation of lysine in low-
protein diets enhanced growth performance in pacu juveniles (Muñoz-Ramírez & Carneiro,
2002). The use of microencapsulated diets demonstrated improved intestinal degradation and
nutrient absorption in pacu larvae (Muñoz-Ramírez & Carneiro, 2002). Angeles‐Escobar et al.
(2022) investigated the effects of different Total Suspended Solids (TSS) concentrations in
biofloc systems on the growth and hematological parameters of pacu juveniles. The study
concluded that moderate levels of TSS supported better growth and physiological health,
suggesting an optimal TSS range for maintaining water quality and enhancing microbial
availability.(Angeles‐Escobar et al., 2022)

Environmental conditions for survival and optimal growth:

The species thrives in water temperatures between 15 and 35 °C (59–95 °F) but ceases feeding
when temperatures drop below 18 °C (64 °F). (Nico & Loftus, 2012).

Juvenile pacu reared at 28°C demonstrated superior growth performance, achieving greater
weight gain and improved feed conversion ratios over 240 days. Elevated temperatures beyond
this did not yield additional growth benefits. (Costa et al., 2017)

Temperature variations significantly affect growth; juveniles reared at 32°C showed higher body
weight and standard length compared to those at 24°C (Copatti et al., 2013).

The species tolerates low oxygen levels, down to 0.5 mg/L, and can perform surface respiration
under hypoxic conditions.
Feeding habit:
P. mesopotamicus is omnivorous (Nico & Loftus, 2012). Juvenile individuals typically feed on
micro-crustaceans, while adults consume plant materials and insects (Nico & Loftus, 2012). A
significant portion of the adult diet consists of seeds and nuts that fall into flooded forest waters
from overhanging trees (Froese & Pauly, 2017).

Fecundity rate:

Fecundity in Piaractus mesopotamicus is characterized by high egg production and is closely

associated with body size, environmental factors, and hormonal treatments. Pacu is considered a
highly fecund species, making it ideal for aquaculture and stock enhancement programs.

In natural conditions, female pacu exhibit high fecundity rates. A single mature female weighing
approximately 5 kg can produce between 500,000 to over 1,000,000 eggs per spawning season
(Costa & Mateus, 2009). Larger individuals tend to produce more eggs, indicating a strong
positive correlation between size and reproductive output.

Hormonal induction using prostaglandin F2α (PGF2α) has shown promising results in
stimulating ovulation in pacu. In a study by Silva et al. (2012), females treated with PGF2α
demonstrated a 100% spawning rate, although fecundity and hatching rates did not significantly
differ from the control group.

Sato et al. (2024) investigated the timing of hormonal induction aligned with circadian rhythms.
They found that administering hormones during periods of elevated melatonin levels improved
spawning success and potentially impacted fecundity, suggesting a link between internal
biological clocks and reproductive efficiency.

Seasonal variations:

Pacu exhibits a well-defined seasonal reproductive cycle that aligns with the rainy season. In the
Cuiabá River Basin, Brazil, reproduction occurs from October to March in upstream regions and
is limited to October and November in downstream floodplain areas (Costa & Mateus, 2009).
This reproductive timing coincides with the seasonal flooding, which provides optimal
conditions for spawning and larval development.

During warm seasons, especially summer, water bodies experience fluctuations in dissolved
oxygen and pH levels, which directly affect pacu survival. A study reported up to 80% mortality
of pacu juveniles in biofloc systems during early morning hours due to oxygen depletion, a
phenomenon linked to high temperatures and microbial respiration. Moreover, water pH can
fluctuate seasonally between 6.6 and 8.0, further influencing fish physiology and stress levels.

Pacu is known for its migratory behavior during the breeding season. Seasonal flooding triggers
upstream spawning migrations followed by downstream movements post-spawning. These
migrations are influenced by hydrological cues and are crucial for the completion of their life
cycle (The Fish Site, n.d.).
Physiological parameters such as semen quality and reproductive hormones in pacu fluctuate
with the seasons. Research has shown that the sperm volume, motility, and hormonal profiles
vary significantly during the spawning period, indicating a strong link between seasonal changes
and reproductive physiology (Sanches et al., 2015).

Behavioral changes:

Pacu demonstrates seasonal migratory behavior related to reproduction. During the rainy season,
large groups of pacu migrate upstream to spawning sites, triggered by rising water levels and
increased flow rates. Post-spawning, adults return downstream to feeding grounds (Agostinho et
al., 2015). This migratory behavior optimizes reproductive success and resource utilization.

Juvenile pacu primarily exhibit surface and mid-water feeding on micro-crustaceans and
plankton, while adults shift to a more omnivorous diet including fruits, seeds, and insects. In
captivity, pacu adapts well to formulated diets but still shows natural tendencies to consume
biofloc particles and detritus (Sgnaulin et al., 2021).

In both wild and cultured environments, pacu display social behavior, which provides protection
against predators and improves foraging efficiency. However, during high-density culture
conditions, territorial aggression may increase, especially among males during breeding periods
(Pires et al., 2022).

Pacu is sensitive to environmental stressors such as low dissolved oxygen and temperature
fluctuations. Behavioral responses include reduced feeding activity and increased surfacing,
which are indicators of distress. Fish tend to become lethargic under prolonged stress, which can
affect growth and health (Angeles‐Escobar et al., 2022).

In biofloc aquaculture systems, pacu shows behavioral flexibility by consuming biofloc

aggregates as a supplementary food source. This adaptation reduces reliance on formulated feeds
and supports better growth rates, demonstrating pacu’s capacity to utilize novel food resources in
intensive culture (Sgnaulin et al., 2021).

References:

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