Basic Theory on the Production of Speech
and Pronunciation Rules
Lic. María Cecilia Mocnik
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Index
The Basics of Phonetics 2
Speech 2
The Speech Chain 2
The Production of Speech 4
The Nature of Sounds 4
The English Phonemes 5
Pronunciation Rules 7
Irregular plurals 7
Inflections 8
Stress 9
Emphasis 15
General rules - spelling and sounds 16
Silent consonants 17
Endings 18
Prefixes and suffixes 19
1
The Basics of Phonetics
Speech
Every human being who possesses normal faculties can exchange information by the types
of sensory stimulation: auditory and visual.
Children respond to the sounds and tunes their elders use in talking to them; and, they begin
to produce themselves the patterns with which they become familiar. They begin to make
use of speech. Their exposure to language and their need to convey messages will lead to a
rapid acquisition of spoken language.
The learning of a second language later in life will be difficult. As we grow older, the
acquisition of a new language will entail a great deal of conscious and analytical effort.
The speech chain
For the speaker, the speech mechanism will first take place at a linguistic level, in the brain.
This first stage is psychological. Then, the nervous system transmits the message to the so
called organs of speech and these will produce a particular pattern of sound. The second
stage is articulatory or physiological. Finally, the movement of our organs of speech will
create disturbances in the air. These varying air pressures constitute the third stage, the
physical or acoustic stage.
For the listener, the stages are reversed. The reception of the sound by the hearing
apparatus, which constitutes the physical aspect, will come first. And the transmission of the
information along the nervous system, which constitutes the psychological aspect, will come
later on.
The Production of speech
All sounds we make when we speak are the result of muscles contracting. The muscles in
the chest that we use for breathing produce the flow of air that is needed for almost all
speech sounds. Muscles in the larynx produce many different modifications in the air from
the chest to the mouth. After passing through the larynx, the air goes through what is called
the vocal tract.
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The main source of energy for our vocal activity is provided by the lungs. Lung air
undergoes important modifications in the upper part of the respiratory tract. First of all, it
passes through the larynx, which is a kind of box made of cartilage and muscle, situated in
the upper part of the trachea or windpipe. The front of the larynx comes to a point which can
be felt in the neck, called the Adam’s apple. The larynx contains the vocal folds / cords,
which are situated from back to front. They are two folds of ligament and elastic tissue which
may be brought together and parted through muscular action. The opening between the
folds is called the glottis. If the vocal folds are apart, the glottis is open; if they are pressed
together, the glottis is closed. The vocal cords adopt the following positions:
1. Wide apart: for normal breathing and in the production of voiceless consonants
2. Position for vocal folds vibrating: the folds are very near, almost touching. The air
passing through the glottis will normally produce vibration – rapid opening and closing
of the glottis which is repeated regularly. Vibration occurs during the production of
voiced consonants and vowels.
3. Vocal folds tightly closed: they are firmly pressed together so that air cannot pass
between them as for the glottal stop / plosive.
There is also a fourth position for the vocal cords. When they are loosely together, they
produce a friction and the sound /h/ is perceived.
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After passing through the larynx, the air stream may also undergo different modifications
according to the shape assumed by the upper pharyngeal cavity and oral cavity and
according to whether the nasal cavity is used or not. These cavities function as the principal
resonators of the sounds produced in the larynx.
The pharynx is a tube which begins just above the larynx. It is about 7 cm. long in women
and 8 cm long in men. Its top is divided into two, one part is the back of the mouth and the
other is the beginning of the nasal cavity.
Right at the point of this division, we have the soft palate or velum. If this organ is lowered,
the air cannot escape through the mouth. It escapes through the nasal cavity and nasal
sounds (m,n,ŋ) are produced. But if the soft palate is raised, oral sounds are produced. The
extremity of the soft palate is the uvula.
In the mouth, there are to kinds of organs: moveable and fixed. The moveable organs are
the lips, the various parts of the tongue and the soft palate. The fixed organs are the teeth,
the hard palate or roof of the mouth, and the pharyngeal wall.
The lips can move to different positions: spread, open, neutral, close rounded and open
rounded.
The tongue is a muscular structure which moves. It can move to many positions. In the
articulation of vowels, the tongue tip remains behind the lower teeth, but the body can move.
For example, the front of the tongue may be the highest part when we say “he”, or the back
may be the highest as in “who”.
For consonants, the tongue comes in total or partial contact with the different parts of the
mouth. For example, the tip of the tongue in touch with the alveolar ridge produces alveolar
sounds such as /t,d,l)
The nature of sounds
When we speak we produce a continuous stream of sounds. In order to study speech we
divide this stream into small units or segments. These units are called phonemes, and they
are organized in a special system.
Just as there is an alphabet as the basis of our writing, there is also an abstract set of units
as the basis of our speech: the Phonemic System of Language.
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Phonemes are abstract symbols that represent the different sounds of a language. The
same phoneme may have two or more realizations, depending on its position in the word
(initial, medial or final), or on the surrounding phonemes. The realizations of a phoneme are
called allophones.
Phonemes are classified in two main groups: vowels and consonants. The group of vowels
is classified into three groups: monophthongs, diphthongs and triphthongs. And the group of
consonants is classified according to place and manner of articulation.
The English phonemes
Vowels
N° Symbol Example Transcription
1 i: see si:
2 ɪ sit sɪt
3 e set set
4 æ sat sæt
5 ɑ: far fɑ:
6 ɒ got gɒt
7 ɔ: saw sɔ:
8 ʊ foot fʊt
9 u: too tu:
10 ʌ up ʌp
11 ɜ: fur fɜ:
12 ə ago ə’gəʊ
13 eɪ may meɪ
14 əʊ no nəʊ
15 ɑɪ my mɑɪ
16 ɑʊ now nɑʊ
17 ɔɪ boy bɔɪ
18 ɪə dear dɪə
19 ɛə pair pɛə
21 ʊə tour tʊə
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Consonants
Class Symbol Example Transcription
Plosives p pea pi:
b bee bi:
t too tu:
d do du:
k key ki:
g go gəʊ
Fricatives f fair fɛə
v vow vɑʊ
θ thin θɪn
ð then ðen
s sown səʊn
z zone zəʊn
ʃ show ʃəʊ
ʒ pleasure pleʒə
h high hɑɪ
Affricates tʃ church tʃɜ:tʃ
dʒ judge dʒʌd ʒ
Nasals m my mɑɪ
n now nɑʊ
ŋ sing sɪŋ
Lateral l low ləʊ
Semivowels w way weɪ
r raw rɔ:
j you ju:
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Pronunciation rules
Irregular plurals
a) Some nouns, which end in /f/ and /fe/ replace these voiceless consonants by the
corresponding voiced in the plural.
leaf – leaves /li:f/ /li:vz/ thief – thieves /θi:f/ / θi:vz/
half – halves /hɑ:f/ / hɑ:vz/ knife – knives /naɪf// naɪvz/
life – lives /laɪf/ /laɪvz/ wolf – wolves /wʊlf/ / wʊlvz/
calf – calves /kɑ:f/ /kɑ:vz/ loaf – loaves /ləʊf/ /ləʊvz/
wife – wives /waɪf/ waɪvz/ self – selves /self/ /selvz/
scarf – scarves /skɑ:f//skɑ:vz/
shelf – shelves /ʃelf/ /ʃelvz/
roof – roves /ru:f/ /ru:vz/
Exceptions
hoof – hoofs /hu:f/ /hu:fs/
proof – proofs /pru:f/ /pru:fs/
roof – roofs /ru:f/ /ru:fs/
/θ/ by /ð/
path – paths /pɑ:θ/ / pɑ:ðz/ bath – baths /bɑ:θ/ /bɑ:ðz/
youth – youths /ju:θ/ / ju:ðz/ truth – truths /tru:θ/ / tru:ðz /
oath – oaths /əʊθ/ / əʊðz/ mouth – mouths /maʊθ/ /maʊðz/
/s/ by /z/
house – houses /haʊs/ /haʊzɪz/
b) Some nouns have irregular plurals
man – men /mæn/ /men/ ox – oxen /ɒks/ / ɒksən/
child – children /tʃaɪld/ /tʃɪldrən/
woman – women /wʊmən/ /wɪmɪn/
tooth – teeth /tu:θ/ /ti:θ/
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mouse – mice /maʊs/ /maɪs/ pennies (coins) /penɪz/
goose – geese /gu:s/ /gi:s/
penny - pence (amount of money) /penɪ/ /pens/
c) Some foreign words have special plural forms
memorandum – memoranda or memorandums /memə’rændəm/ / memə’rændə/
parenthesis – parentheses /pə’renθɪsɪs/ /pə’renθɪsi:z/
phenomenon – phenomena /fɪ’nɒmɪnən/ /fɪ’nɒmɪnə/
genus – genera /‘dʒi:nəs/ / ‘dʒenərə/
formula – formulae or formulas /fɔ:mjʊlə/ /fɔ:mjʊli:/ / fɔ:mjʊləz/
Third person singular, plural and possessive forms
a) The inflectional endings of the 3rd person singular, plural and possessive forms are
pronounced /s/when the root of the words end in a voiceless consonant, except the voiceless
sibilants /s/, /ʃ/ and /tʃ/.
3rd person Plural Possessive form
kicks /kɪks/ puffs /pʌfs/ Pat’s /pæts/
paints /peɪnts/ coats /kəʊts/ Jack’s /dʒæks/
b) The inflectional endings are pronounced /z/ when the root ends in a voiced consonant,
vowel or diphthong, except the sibilant voiced consonants /z/, /ʒ/ and /dʒ/
3rd person Plural Possessive form
sees /si:z/ cars /kɑ:z/ sister’s /’sɪstəz/
lies /laɪz/ days /deɪz/ boy’s /bɔɪz /
moans /məʊnz/ rooms /ru:mz/ Ann’s /ænz/
c) The inflectional endings are pronounced /ɪz/as separate syllables when the root ends in a
sibilant consonant.
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3rd person Plural Possessive form
Passes /pɑ:sɪz/ buses /bʌsɪz/ Alice’s /ælɪsɪz/
rises /raɪzɪz/ roses /rəʊzɪz/ Rose’s /rəʊzɪz/
pushes /pʊʃɪz/ brushes /brʌʃɪz/ Welsh’s /welʃɪz/
preaches /pri:tʃɪz/ peaches /pi:tʃɪz/ Lunch’s /lʌntʃɪz/
judges /dʒʌdʒɪz/ rouges /ru:ʒɪz/ George’s /dʒɔ:d ʒɪz/
Exception: house - houses /haʊs/ /haʊzɪz/
Simple past
a) In regular verbs it is formed by adding /d/ to the root of verbs which end in vowel or lenis
consonant except /d/
ignored /ɪgnɔ:d/ combed /kəʊmd/
breathed /bri:ðd/ camouflaged /kæməʊ’flɑ:dʒd/
rolled /rɔ:ld/
urged /ɜ:dʒd/
robbed /rɒbd/ tanned /tænd/
sneezed /sni:zd/ lived /lɪvd/
managed /’mænɪdʒd/
longed lɒngd/
begged /begd/
b) /t/ to the root of the verbs which end in fortis (voiceless) consonant except /t/
stopped /stɒpt/
parked /pɑ:kt/
reached /ri:tʃt/
laughed /lɑ:ft/
passed /pɑ:st/
wished /wɪʃt/
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c) /ɪd/ to the root of verbs which end in /t/ or /d/
wanted /wɒntɪd/
started /st ɑ:t ɪd/
ended /end ɪd/
needed /ni:d ɪd/
Stress
Verbs
a) The verb to be and all its forms are generally unstressed when the word is the
principal verb except when it is final in the utterance:
The train was late. / ðə ‘treɪn wəz ‘leɪt/
You are never ready. /jʊ ə ‘nevə ‘redɪ/
The chances are…/ðə ‘tʃɑ:nsɪz ‘ɑ:/
I don’t know where it is. /aɪ ‘dəʊnt nəʊ wɛər ɪt ‘ɪz/
However, be is also unstressed in final position if immediately preceded by its subject if
that subject is stressed.
He asked what the time was. /hɪ ‘ɑ:skt wɒt ðə ‘taɪm wɒz/
b) When the subject follows the verb, the verb is generally unstressed:
‘Yes’, said his father. / ‘jes sed ɪz ‘fɑ:ðə/
After the storm comes a calm. /ɑ:ftə ðə ‘stɔ:m kʌmz ə ‘kɑ:m/
c) Auxiliary verbs are normally unstressed, but they are stressed in the following cases:
In affirmative statements for the sake of the emphasis/contrast
It can be done. / ɪt ‘kæm bɪ ‘dʌn/
In imperative sentences
Do come! / ‘du: kʌm/
Introducing a question
Have you seen them? / ‘hæv jʊ si:n ðəm/
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Expressing curiosity, anxiety or surprise on the part of the speaker,
and the auxiliary follows the interrogative word.
What are you doing? /wɒt ‘ɑ: jʊ du:ɪŋ/
What is to be done? / wɒt ‘ɪz tə bɪ dʌn/
d) In the expression ‘to be going to’ going is an auxiliary and therefore it is normally
unstressed, except for the sake of emphasis:
What are you going to do? / wɒt ə jʊ ‘gəʊɪŋ tə du:/
e) In phrasal verbs, the adverbial particle is unstressed when it follows the object:
Put your things on. / pʊt jɔ: ‘θɪŋz ɒn/
Take your shoes off. /teɪk jɔ: ‘ʃu:z ɒf/
Prepositions
a) Monosyllabic prepositions and the preposition upon are often unstressed.
b) These may be stressed when beginning a sentence:
On his way he had an adventure. / ‘ɒn ɪz weɪ i: hæd an ədventʃə /
In the room they found a dog. / ‘ɪn ðə ru:m ðeɪ fɑʊnd ə dɒg /
c) Monosyllabic prepositions may be stressed when followed by a pronoun, at the
end of a sentence to bring about some contrast:
The bills were not large, but there were a great many of them.
/ ðə ‘bɪlz wə nɒt ‘lɑ:dʒ / bət ðə wər ə ‘greɪt menɪ ‘ɒv ðəm /
d) Prepositions of two or more syllables, such as after, into, between, besides, etc.
are often stressed in non-final position:
He went after it. /hɪ went ‘ɑ:ftər ɪt /
I’ll do it after tea. / ɑɪl dʊ ɪt ‘ɑ:ftə ti:/
He put the money under the box. /hɪ ‘pʊt ðə mʌnɪ ‘ʌndə ðə bɒks/
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e) Prepositions in final position are unstressed, though they may keep their strong
form:
What are you looking at? / wɒt ə jʊ ‘lʊkɪŋ fɔ: /
Who were you talking to? /hu: wə jʊ ‘tɔ:kɪŋ tu:/
f) In sentences ending with a preposition and a pronoun, both are unstressed but
the preposition may keep its strong form:
It’s very good for you / ɪts verɪ ‘gʊd fɔ: jʊ/
What shall we do with it? / wɒt ʃl wɪ ‘du: wɪð ɪt /
g) Prepositions keep their strong form when they aren’t followed by the object
What are you looking for now? /wɒt ə jʊ lʊkɪŋ fɔ: nɑʊ /
h) TO /tu: / in final position: Where are you going to? /wər ə jʊ gəɪŋ tu:/
a. /tʊ / + a vowel: to a restaurant /tʊ ə restrɑ:nt/
b. /tə / + a consonant: to the restaurant /tə ðə restrɑ:nt /
i) INTO / ONTO : The same rule as above
Demonstratives
a) Demonstrative adjectives: ‘this, that, these, those’ : the amount of
demonstrativeness will determine if they are stressed or not. Sometimes they mean
little more than the article ‘the’. In this case, they are unstressed. This is specially the
case when the noun they qualify refers to something previously mentioned.
this / ðɪs / that / ðæt / these / ði:z/ those / ðəʊz /
b) ‘That’ when used as a conjunction is always used in its weak form / ðət /
c) ‘That’ used as a pronoun is always strong and stressed. The same rule is applied
for ‘this’, ‘these’ and ‘those’.
That’s the one I want / ðæts ðə wʌn ɑɪ wɒnt /
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d) Exclamatory ‘what’ is not usually stressed, probably to give greater emphasis to the
adjectives.
What a dreadful weather /wɒt ə dredfʊl weðə /
e) SUCH: when it is followed by an emphatic word it is unstressed.
such a curious shape /sʌtʃ ə ‘kjʊərɪəs ʃeɪp /
But such is stressed when followed by a word incapable of receiving stress.
Such a thing ought to be impossible. / ‘sʌtʃ ə θɪŋ ɔ:t tə bɪ ɪm’pɒsɪbl/
And such is unstressed when the noun it qualifies is also unstressed.
I don’t know anything about such matters. / ɑɪ dəʊnt nəʊ ‘enɪθɪŋ əbɑʊt sʌtʃ
mætəz/
SOME
Pronoun: I just want some / ɑɪ dʒʌst wɒnt ‘sʌm/
A certain, one of a class: We must try and get hold of some teacher. /wɪ məst ‘trɑɪ
əŋ get həʊld ɒv sʌm ‘ti:tʃə /
Not all: Some people think so. /’sʌm pi:pl ‘θɪŋk səʊ /
A certain number or amount: There are some books on the table. / ðər a səm ‘bʊks
ɒn ðə ‘teɪbl /
WHO in questions (direct or indirect) Who is it? /’hu: ɪz ɪt /
WHO as a relative pronoun: Fred’s who told me the truth. /’fredz hʊ ‘təʊld mɪ ðə
‘tru:θ/
ONE /wʌn/ in ‘a good one’, ‘someone’, ‘everyone’ is always unstressed.
The reflexive pronouns like ‘myself’ when used as object are unstressed.
He hurt himself /hɪ ‘hɜ:t hɪmself /
In ‘each other’, ‘each’ is unstressed; ‘other’ generally unstressed.
They like each other / ðeɪ ‘lɑɪk i:tʃ ʌðə /
The adverb ‘so’ in ‘do so’, ‘think so’ is unstressed
I don’t think so./ ɑɪ dəʊnt ‘θɪŋk səʊ /
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Conjunctions
a) Conjunctions introducing dependent clauses are often stressed when initial.
As I was saying… / ‘æz ɑɪ wəs_seɪɪŋ /
When he comes… /’wen ɪ kʌmz /
If the order of the clause is reversed, then the conjunction is unstressed as the whole
sentence may be said in one breath group.
b) The copulative conjunctions and/but are generally unstressed
‘and’ may be stressed when immediately followed by two/three unstressed syllables.
…and at the same time…/ ‘ænd ət ðə seɪm ‘tɑɪm / or / ənd ət ðə ‘seɪm tɑɪm /
BUT is always unstressed, unless it means ‘except’
c) Linking conjunctions such as ‘now’ ‘then’ introducing the continuation of a narration
are not stressed.
Now when he was gone /nɑʊ ‘wen ɪ wəz ‘gɒn /
So she went into the garden /səʊ ʃɪ ‘went intə ðə gɑ:dn /
And /ænd / before a pause (Strong form)
/ənd / before a vowel (weak form)
/ən / before a consonant (weak form)
Pronouns used in their contracted form with an auxiliary verb keep their strong form.
He´d left /hi:d ‘left /
She’ll come / ʃi:l ‘kʌm /
THERE /ðɛə / when it functions as a demonstrative adverb, it is always stressed.
There’s a book / ‘ðɛəz ə ‘bʊk /
When it functions as an interjection:
There now. What did I tell you? / ‘ðɛə nɑʊ /…
/ðə / when it functions as an adverb to introduce a sentence of which the verb to
be precedes the subject. It is unstressed. (existential there )
There’s someone at the door. /ðəs_’sʌmwʌn ət ðə ‘dɔ:/
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Emphasis
When we want to emphasize a word for contrast, its stress is increased, while the
stress of the surrounding words is diminished, therefore the sentence:
I never gave you that book has different alternatives depending on the word to
emphasize:
/ ‘ɑɪ nevə geɪv jʊ ðæt ‘bʊk /
/ ɑɪ nevə geɪv ‘ju: ðæt ‘bʊk /
/ ɑɪ ‘nevə geɪv jʊ ‘ðæt bʊk /
Linking /r/
When a word ending in the letter ‘r’ is immediately followed by another word beginning
with a vowel, then a /r/ sound is inserted in the pronunciation.
A pair of shoes /ə ‘pɛər əv ‘ʃu:z /
Far away /’fɑ:r ə’weɪ /
Th
Initial Medial Final__________
/θ/
Content words Latin origin All words
thumb / θʌm / mathematics / ,mæθə‘mætɪks / bath / bɑ:θ /
thing / θɪŋ / mouth /
mɑʊθ /
/ð/
Form words Anglo-saxon origin
this / ðɪs / mother /mʌðə / with / wɪð /
though / ðəʊ / father / fɑ:ðə /
Exception: through / θru: /
To remember: all words ending in the are pronounced with / ð /: bathe /beɪð /
G + e, i, y: /d ʒ /
genesis /dʒenɪsɪs / gin /dʒɪn / gym /dʒɪm /
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Exceptions: gear /gɪə / geese /gi:s / geisha /geɪʃə / gibbon / gɪbn / giddy
/gɪdɪ / gift /gɪft / giggle /gɪgl/ gild /gɪld / gilt /gɪlt / Gimson /gɪmsn / gird
/gɜ:d / girdle /gɜ:dl / girl /gɜ:l / Gyle /gɑɪl /
G + a, o, u: / g /
Gas / gæs / God / gɒd / gun /gʌn /
Exceptions: Gaol /dʒeɪl /
Double s
Double ‘s’ is always pronounced /s/
Exceptions: possess /pə‘zes/ possession /pə‘zeʃn / dissolve /dɪ‘zɒlv /
/ ʒ /occurs initially only before / ɪ / and / i: / in foreign words such as gigolo / ‘ʒɪgələʊ /
/h/, /j/, and /w/ never occur in final position.
/ ŋ / never occurs initially.
Spelling ‘u’ is never /æ / but it may be /ʌ /: but /bʌt /, dust /dʌst /
Sound /ʊ /: it never occurs initially
Sounds /e /, /æ /, /ʌ /and /ɒ / don’t occur in final open syllables.
Long vowels and diphthongs: they are fully long when final: more /mɔ: /, door /dɔ: /;
or when closed by a lenis consonant: card / kɑ:d /
However, a long vowel may be shortened when it is closed by a fortis consonant: cart
/kɑ:t /
Fortis plosive consonants: they are aspirated:
Initially /pʰɒp /
In an accented syllable /ɑ‘pʰɪə /
Before a vowel / ‘pʰɒpʰɪz /
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Silent consonants
/p / -pt – ps – pn: Ptarmigan / ‘tɑ:mɪgən / Psychology /sɑɪ‘kɒlədʒɪ /
pneumonia /nju:‘məʊnɪə /
Cupboard / ‘kʌbəd / raspberry / ‘rɑ:sbrɪ / receipt /rə’si:t / empty /emtɪ /
/b / -mb – bt: comb / kəʊm / lamb /læm / subtle /sʌtl / debt
/det /
/t/ -stle – sten – st: castle /kɑ:sl / listen /lɪsn / Christmas /krɪsməs
/
/d/ Wednesday /wenzdɪ / handsome /hænsm / landlady
/lænleɪdɪ /
grandmother /grænmɑ:ðə /
/ k / -kn: know /nəʊ / -scle: muscle /mʌsl /
/ g / gn – gm: gnat /næt / sign /sɑɪn / diaphragm /dɑɪəfræm /
/ s / Aisle / ɑɪl / isle / ɑɪl / island / ɑɪlənd / corps / kɔ:z /(plural)
chamois / ʃɑ:mwə /
debris /deɪbrɪ/ rendezvous /rɑ:ndɪvu:/ viscount /vɪskɑʊnt/ Illinois /
ɪlɪnɒɪ/
/h / hour / ɑ:ə / heir / ɛə / honest / ɒnɪst / honour / ɒnə / night /nɑɪt /
brought /brɔ:t / Graham / grɛɪəm /
kh- Khaki /kɑ:kɪ /
wh- what /wɒt /
rh- rhyme /rɑɪm/
-ham Graham /grɛɪəm /
vehicle / ‘vi:ɪkl / exhibit / ɪg‘zɪbɪt / shepherd / ‘ʃepəd / silhouette /
sɪlʊ‘et
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posthumous / ‘pəʊstjʊməs / vehement / ‘vi:əmənt /
prohibition /prəʊ‘bɪʃən / philharmonic /fɪlɑ:mɒnɪk / exhibition
/eksɪ‘bɪʃn /
/r / iron / ɑɪən / tirad / tɑɪəd /
/ l / -alk: talk / tɔ:k /
-olk: folk /fɔ:k /
-alf: half / hɑ:f /
-alm: calm /cɑ:m /
could /kʊd / would /wʊd / should / ʃʊd / Holmes /həʊmz/
Lincoln /lɪnkən / colonel /kɜ:nel /
/ m / mneumonic /nɪ‘mɒnɪk /
/ n / autumn / ɔ:təm /
hymn /hɪm /
Endings
-ing: verbs finishing in /i:/, /ɪ/: playing /pleɪɪŋ / lying /lɑɪɪŋ / being /bi:ɪŋ /
-graph: photograph /fəʊtəgrɑ:f /
-ous: generous /dʒenerəs / pious /pɑɪəs /
-uous: fatuous /fætjʊəs / continuous /kəntɪnuəs /
-sity: university /ju:nɪvɜ:sɪtɪ //ju:nɪvɜ:sətɪ /
-is: crisis /krɑɪsɪs / but plural / krɑɪsi:z /
-est: superlative form of adjectives is / əst / or / ɪst / shortest / ʃɔ:tɪst / ʃɔ:təst /
-ity: sincerity / sɪnserɪtɪ / sɪnserətɪ /
-itive: primitive /prɪmɪtɪv /prɪmətɪv /
-sive: impulsive / ɪmpʌlsɪv /
-as –os –us –is: canvas /kænvəs /
-ise –ize: emphasize /emfəsɑɪz / (this ending is never stressed)
Consonants + sion: mansion /mænʃn /
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-cial -scious -tion: crucial /krʊʃl / conscious /kɒnʃəs / nation /neɪʃn /
-sure: measure /meʒə /
Vowel + sion: decision /dɪsɪʒn /
-ness: loneliness /ləʊnlɪnɪs / ləʊnlɪnəs /
-less: careless /kɛəlɪs / / kɛələs /
-ally: universally /ju:nɪvɜ:səlɪ /
-ful: careful /kɛəfʊl /kɛəfl / but never /fəl /
-fully: carefully /kɛəflɪ /kɛəfʊlɪ /kɛəfəlɪ /
-ce -cy: lacy /leɪsɪ / notice /nəʊtɪs /
Ending ‘-ng’ is pronounced / ŋ /. If it is the comparative or superlative of an adjective,
the sound /g/ is added: longer / ‘lɒŋgə / longest / ‘lɒŋgəst /
Verbs ending ‘-ng’ + ing: singing / ‘sɪŋɪŋ / (without /g / sound).
Suffixes and prefixes
Suffix –ate: verbs: moderate / mɒdereɪt / estimate /estɪmeɪt /
Nouns/adjectives: moderate /mɒderɪt / estimate /estɪmɪt /
But: affricate / æfrɪkɪt / æfrɪkeɪt / distillate /dɪstɪlɪt / dɪstɪleɪt /
Prefix un- is always / ʌn /: uncomfortable / ʌnkʌmftəbl /
Prefix dis- is always /dɪs /
Prefix ex- /eks / if it is stressed initially / ‘ekstrə /
/ ɪgz / if it is followed by a vowel /ɪg‘zæm/
/ ɪks / unstressed followed by a consonant /ɪkspleɪn /
Prefix ‘con-’ + k, g:
/ ŋ / when followed by an unstressed syllable: Congress / ‘kɒŋgres/
/ n / or / ŋ / when followed by a stressed syllable: Congratulation /kən,grætjʊ‘leɪʃn /
/kəŋ,grætjʊ‘leɪʃn /
Prefix ‘-en’, ‘-in’ + k,g: /n/ or /ŋ /: encourage /ɪn‘kʌrɪdʒ /
increase /ɪn‘kri:s /
engage /ɪn‘geɪdʒ /
ingredients /ɪn‘gri:dənts
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References:
Cruttenden, Alan. Gimson’s Pronunciation of English. Chapter 2: The Production of
Speech. Sixth Edition.. Hodder Arnold. London. 2001
Roach, Peter. English Phonetics and Phonology. Third Edition. 2006. C.U.P
Ponsonby, Mimi. How Now Brown Cow. Dialogues 30, 31, 32, 55, 56, 57. Prentice
Hall Europe E.L.T. 1992
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